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(1)

Overview of Research Designs

Overview of Research Designs

Overview of Research Designs

(2)

The Marketing Research Process

The Marketing Research Process

The Marketing Research Process

The Marketing Research Process

Step

Step 1: 1: Defining Defining the the ProblemProblem

Step

Step 2: 2: Developing Developing an an Approach Approach to to the the ProblemProblem

Step

Step 3: 3: Formulating Formulating a a Research Research DesignDesign

Step

Step 4: 4: Doing Doing Field Field Work Work or or Collecting Collecting DataData

Step

Step 5: 5: Preparing Preparing and and Analyzing Analyzing DataData

Step

(3)

Research Design

Research Design

•• A master plan that specifies the

A master plan that specifies the

methods and procedures for collecting

methods and procedures for collecting

and analyzing needed information.

(4)

Define the Information Needed Define the Information Needed Design the Exploratory, Descriptive, Design the Exploratory, Descriptive, and/or Causal Phases of the Research and/or Causal Phases of the Research Specify the Measurement and Scaling Specify the Measurement and Scaling

Procedures Procedures

Construct a Questionnaire Construct a Questionnaire

Specify the Sampling Process and the Specify the Sampling Process and the

Sample Size Sample Size

Develop a Plan of Data Analysis Develop a Plan of Data Analysis

Tasks Involved In a Research Design Tasks Involved In a Research Design

Today’s Today’s

Topic Topic

(5)

 A Classification of Market Research Designs  A Classification of Market Research Designs

Research Research Design Design Exploratory Exploratory Research Research Conclusive Conclusive Research Research Secondary Secondary Data Data Experience Experience Surveys Surveys Pilot Pilot Studies Studies Case Case Studies Studies

See next slide See next slide

(6)

 A Classification of Market Research Designs  A Classification of Market Research Designs

Research Research Design Design Exploratory Exploratory Research Research Conclusive Conclusive Research Research Descriptive Descriptive Design Design Causal Causal Design Design Cross-sectional Cross-sectional Study Study Longitudinal Longitudinal Study Study Secondary Secondary Data Study

Data Study ObservationObservation

Experiment Experiment Survey

(7)

Types of Research Designs Types of Research Designs

Exploratory research

Exploratory research toto gain ideas and insightsgain ideas and insights

  Newspaper facing decreasing sales to generate possible Newspaper facing decreasing sales to generate possible explanation.

explanation.

Descriptive research

Descriptive research to obtain summary measures to to obtain summary measures to addressaddress research questions (research objectives are clearly defined). research questions (research objectives are clearly defined).

 Trends in lifestyle with respect to age, sex, etc.Trends in lifestyle with respect to age, sex, etc.

Causal research

Causal research for for cause-and-effectcause-and-effect connection betweenconnection between managerial decisions and market

managerial decisions and market outcome.outcome.  – 

 –  How people react to a How people react to a newspaper’s topic selection andnewspaper’s topic selection and space allocation.

(8)

Exploratory Research

Exploratory Research

•• Usually conducted during the initial stage of the

Usually conducted during the initial stage of the

research process

research process

•• Purposes

Purposes

 – 

 – To narrow the scope of To narrow the scope of the research topic, andthe research topic, and  – 

 – To transform ambiguous problems into well-definedTo transform ambiguous problems into well-defined ones

(9)

Exploratory Research Techniques

Exploratory Research Techniques

•• Secondary Data AnalysisSecondary Data Analysis

 – 

 –  Secondary data are data previously collected & assembled for Secondary data are data previously collected & assembled for  some project other than the one at hand

some project other than the one at hand

•• Pilot StudiesPilot Studies

 – 

 –  A collective term for any small-scale exploratory researchA collective term for any small-scale exploratory research technique that uses sampling but does not apply rigorous technique that uses sampling but does not apply rigorous standards

standards  – 

 –  IncludesIncludes

•• Focus Group InterviewsFocus Group Interviews

 – 

 –  Unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small Unstructured, free-flowing interview with a small group of peoplegroup of people

•• Projective TechniquesProjective Techniques

 – 

 –  Indirect means of questioning that enables a respondent to project beliefsIndirect means of questioning that enables a respondent to project beliefs and feelings onto a third party or an inanimate object

and feelings onto a third party or an inanimate object  – 

(10)

Exploratory Research Techniques

Exploratory Research Techniques

•• Case Studies

Case Studies

 – 

 – Intensively investigate one or a Intensively investigate one or a few situations similar few situations similar  to the problem situation

to the problem situation

•• Experience Surveys

Experience Surveys

 – 

 – Individuals who are knowledge about a particular Individuals who are knowledge about a particular  research problem are questioned

(11)

Conclusive Research

Conclusive Research

•• Provide specific information that aids the decision maker inProvide specific information that aids the decision maker in evaluating alternative courses of action

evaluating alternative courses of action

•• Sound statistical methods & formal research methodologies areSound statistical methods & formal research methodologies are used to increase the reliability of the information

used to increase the reliability of the information •• Data sought tends to be specific & decisiveData sought tends to be specific & decisive

(12)

Types of Conclusive Research

Types of Conclusive Research

•• Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

 – 

 –  Describes attitudes, perceptions, characteristics, activities andDescribes attitudes, perceptions, characteristics, activities and situations.

situations.  – 

 –  Examines who, what, when, where, why, & how questionsExamines who, what, when, where, why, & how questions

•• Causal ResearchCausal Research

 – 

 –  Provides evidence that a cause-and-effect relationship existsProvides evidence that a cause-and-effect relationship exists or does not exist.

or does not exist.  – 

 –  Premise is that something (and independent variable) directlyPremise is that something (and independent variable) directly influences the behavior of something else (the dependent

influences the behavior of something else (the dependent variable).

(13)

Common Characteristic

Common Characteristics

s of 

of 

Descriptive Studies

Descriptive Studies

•• Build on previous information

Build on previous information

•• Show relationships between variables

Show relationships between variables

•• Representative samples required

Representative samples required

•• Structured research plans

Structured research plans

•• Require substantial resources

Require substantial resources

•• Conclusive findings

Conclusive findings

(14)

 Major Types of Descriptive Studies

 Major Types of Descriptive Studies

Descriptive Descriptive Studies Studies Consumer Perception Consumer Perception And Behavior Studies And Behavior Studies

•• ImageImage

•• Product UsageProduct Usage •• AdvertisingAdvertising •• PricingPricing Market Characteristic Market Characteristic Studies Studies ••DistributionDistribution ••CompetitiveCompetitive Analysis Analysis •• MarketMarket Potential Potential •• MarketMarket Share Share •• SalesSales Analysis Analysis Sales Studies Sales Studies

(15)

Sample Sample Surveye Surveye d at T d at T11 Sample Sample Surveyed Surveyed at T at T11 Same Same Same Same Sample Sample also also Surveyed Surveyed at T at T22  T  T11  T T 2 2 Cross Cross Sectiona Sectiona l Design l Design Longitudina Longitudina l Design l Design  Time  Time

Cross Sectional vs.

(16)

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal Designs

C

Crroossss--SSeeccttiioonnaall LLoonnggiittuuddiinnaall

D

Deetteeccttiinng g cchhaannggee WWoorrssee BBeetttteer  r  

A

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A

Accccuurraaccyy WWoorrssee BBeetttteerr   

R

Reepprreesseennttaattiivveenneessss BBeetttteerr WWoorrssee

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(17)

Exploratory Exploratory Research Research ••Secondary DataSecondary Data

 Analysis  Analysis

•• Focus Groups Focus Groups

Conclusive Research Conclusive Research • • Descriptive/Causal  Descriptive/Causal  Conclusive Research Conclusive Research •• Descriptive/Causal  Descriptive/Causal  Exploratory Exploratory Research Research •

•Secondary DataSecondary Data

 Analysis

 Analysis

• Focus Groups Focus Groups

Conclusive Research Conclusive Research •• Descriptive/Causal  Descriptive/Causal 

 Some Alternative Research Designs  Some Alternative Research Designs

(a) (a) (b) (b) (c) (c)

(18)

Common Characteristics of Causal

Common Characteristics of Causal

Studies

Studies

•• Logical Time Sequence

Logical Time Sequence

 – 

 – For causality to exist, the cause must For causality to exist, the cause must either precedeeither precede or occur simultaneously with the effect

or occur simultaneously with the effect

•• Concomitant Variation

Concomitant Variation

 – 

 – Extent to which the cause and effect vary together Extent to which the cause and effect vary together asas hypothesized

hypothesized

(19)

How Descriptive & Causal Designs

How Descriptive & Causal Designs

Differ 

Differ 

•• Relationship between the variablesRelationship between the variables

 – 

 –  Descriptive designs determine degree of associationDescriptive designs determine degree of association  – 

 –  Causal designs infer whether one or more variables influenceCausal designs infer whether one or more variables influence another variable

another variable

•• Degree of environmental controlDegree of environmental control

 – 

 –  Descriptive designs enjoy lesser degrees of controlDescriptive designs enjoy lesser degrees of control

•• Order of the variablesOrder of the variables

 – 

(20)

Comparison of Research Designs

Comparison of Research Designs

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d--effect relationships effect relationships Assumed Assumed background background knowledge knowledge M

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Degree of structure

Degree of structure VVeerry y lliittttllee HHiigghh HHiigghh Flexibility

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Research environment environment

R

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Cost

Cost LLooww MMeeddiiuumm HHiigghh Findings

(21)

Which is the “Best” Research Design &

Which is the “Best” Research Design &

Method?

Method?

•• “You cannot put the same shoe on every foot.”“You cannot put the same shoe on every foot.”  – 

 –  Publilius Syrus Publilius Syrus •• It depends on theIt depends on the

 – 

 –  problem of interest, problem of interest,  – 

 –  level of information needed,level of information needed,  – 

 –  resources,resources,  – 

(22)

What is Descriptive Research?

What is Descriptive Research?

•• Can involve collecting quantitative

Can involve collecting quantitative

information

information

•• Can describe categories of qualitative

Can describe categories of qualitative

information such as patterns of interaction

information such as patterns of interaction

when using technology in the classroom.

when using technology in the classroom.

•• Does not fit neatly into either category

Does not fit neatly into either category

(23)

What is

What is

Descriptive Research?

Descriptive Research?

•• Involves gathering data that describe events

Involves gathering data that describe events

and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and

and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and

describes the data.

describes the data.

•• Uses description as a tool to organize data

Uses description as a tool to organize data

into patterns that emerge during analysis.

into patterns that emerge during analysis.

•• Often uses visual aids such as graphs and

Often uses visual aids such as graphs and

charts to aid the reader 

charts to aid the reader 

(24)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

takes a “what is” approach

takes a “what is” approach

•• What is the best way to provide access to computer What is the best way to provide access to computer  equipment in schools?

equipment in schools?

•• Do teachers hold favorable attitudes toward usingDo teachers hold favorable attitudes toward using computers in schools?

computers in schools?

•• What have been the reactions of school administrators toWhat have been the reactions of school administrators to technological innovations in teaching?

(25)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

•• Refers to the nature of the research question

Refers to the nature of the research question

•• The design of the research

The design of the research

•• The way that data will be analyzed for the

The way that data will be analyzed for the

topic that will be researched

topic that will be researched

The type of research question will determine

The type of research question will determine

whether descriptive research approach is

whether descriptive research approach is

appropriate to use.

(26)

Descriptive Research Advantages

Descriptive Research Advantages

•• Educational researchEducational research and experiences may and experiences may contain many

contain many

variables that cannot variables that cannot  be realistically

 be realistically controlled.

controlled.

•• Educational researchEducational research may require may require observations of life observations of life experiences experiences

•• Data collection may beData collection may be spread over a large

spread over a large

number of people over  number of people over  a large geographic

a large geographic area

(27)

Data Collection Methods

Data Collection Methods

S

Su

urrv

veey

yss

IIn

ntteerrv

viieew

wss

O

(28)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

1. Surveys

1. Surveys

•• May be used to revealMay be used to reveal summary statistics by summary statistics by showing responses to showing responses to all possible all possible questionnaire items. questionnaire items. •• Often provide leads inOften provide leads in

identifying needed identifying needed changes

changes

•• May be used toMay be used to

explore relationships explore relationships  between 2 or more  between 2 or more variables. variables.

(29)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Critical Components

Critical Components

Sound

Sound

methodology

methodology

Well-designed

Well-designed

data collection

data collection

instruments

instruments

(30)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Survey Forms

Survey Forms

•• Written questionnairesWritten questionnaires •• Personal interviewsPersonal interviews

•• Telephone interviewsTelephone interviews

Factors to be considered Factors to be considered •• SamplingSampling

•• Type of populationType of population •• Question FormQuestion Form

•• Question ContentQuestion Content •• Response ratesResponse rates •• CostsCosts

•• Available facilitiesAvailable facilities

•• Length of data collectionLength of data collection

•• Computer assisted techniquesComputer assisted techniques for data collection

(31)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

2.

2. Survey

Survey Form

Form -

- Interviews

Interviews

•• More time efficient

More time efficient

•• Allow the researcher to establish a rapport

Allow the researcher to establish a rapport

with the respondent

with the respondent

•• Allow the acquisition of more in-depth

Allow the acquisition of more in-depth

information

information

•• Allow for interviewer observation

Allow for interviewer observation

•• Allow the interviewer to obtain visual cues

Allow the interviewer to obtain visual cues

•• May be personal or telephone interviews

May be personal or telephone interviews

(32)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Survey Form – Personal

Survey Form – Personal

Interviews

Interviews

Disadvantages

Disadvantages

•• Require more staff time

Require more staff time

•• Require more travel time

Require more travel time

(33)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Survey Form – Telephone

Survey Form – Telephone

Interview

Interview

Advantages Advantages

Less expensiveLess expensive

Less time-consumingLess time-consuming

Disadvantages Disadvantages

Limited telephoneLimited telephone access

access

Lack of interviewer’sLack of interviewer’s ability to observe the ability to observe the respondent and obtain respondent and obtain visual cues

(34)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Survey Form – Mailed

Survey Form – Mailed

Questionnaires

Questionnaires

Advantages

Advantages

 Ability to reach largeAbility to reach large

number of people across a number of people across a wide geographic area

wide geographic area

 Ease and low cost of Ease and low cost of  distribution

distribution

 Minimal amount of staff Minimal amount of staff  required

required

 Allows respondents toAllows respondents to respond in their time respond in their time frame

frame

Disadvantages Disadvantages

Lower response rateLower response rate

 Need to design a Need to design a

survey instrument with survey instrument with a simple format

(35)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Survey Form – Mailed

Survey Form – Mailed

Questionnaires

Questionnaires

•• A letter of transmittal should accompany mailedA letter of transmittal should accompany mailed questionnaires.

questionnaires.

•• Should state purpose and importance of rShould state purpose and importance of researchesearch •• Should state importance of respondingShould state importance of responding

•• Should give a time frame to respondShould give a time frame to respond

•• Should include a confidentiality statementShould include a confidentiality statement •• Should include an offer to share resultsShould include an offer to share results

(36)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Characteristics of a Good Survey

Characteristics of a Good Survey

•• Good questioning techniquesGood questioning techniques •• Use complete sentencesUse complete sentences

•• Offer a limited set of answersOffer a limited set of answers •• InterestingInteresting

•• Worded so that questions Worded so that questions mean the same to allmean the same to all •• Provide definitions for confusing termsProvide definitions for confusing terms

(37)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

3. Observational Research

3. Observational Research

Methods

Methods

1.

1. Nat

Natura

urall

lly o

y occu

ccurr

rrin

ing b

g beha

ehavi

viors

ors obs

obser

erved

ved in

in

natural contexts

natural contexts

2.

(38)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Observational Research Methods

Observational Research Methods

•• Require direct observation of behavior 

Require direct observation of behavior 

•• Data gathered without intermediary

Data gathered without intermediary

instruments

instruments

•• Can yield a wealth of invaluable

Can yield a wealth of invaluable

information

information

(39)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Observational Research Methods

Observational Research Methods

•• Can be employed productively to support

Can be employed productively to support

many purposes in educational technology

many purposes in educational technology

•• Can be used to determine how people

Can be used to determine how people

interact with technology in various stages of 

interact with technology in various stages of 

design and implementation

(40)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Observation Research Methods

Observation Research Methods

•• How do learners interact with a sHow do learners interact with a specific program?pecific program? •• How do learners interact with a new hardwareHow do learners interact with a new hardware

system? system?

Observation makes it possible to explore the Observation makes it possible to explore the

implementation of a particular technological implementation of a particular technological innovation and assess the instr

(41)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Observational Research Methods

Observational Research Methods

•• 2 Forms of Observational Research

2 Forms of Observational Research

 – 

 – StructuredStructured  – 

(42)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Observational Research Methods

Observational Research Methods

Structured Observations Structured Observations

Rigid and controlledRigid and controlled

 PredeterminedPredetermined methods methods Unstructured Observations Unstructured Observations 

Used to determineUsed to determine unselective, detailed, unselective, detailed,

continuous description of  continuous description of   behavior.

 behavior.

Detects unintended effectsDetects unintended effects

More time consumingMore time consuming

 because of time and labor   because of time and labor 

required to collect and required to collect and analyze sets of extensive analyze sets of extensive observations

(43)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Observational Research Methods

Observational Research Methods

Develop observation form

Develop observation form

May be paper and pencil or electronic

May be paper and pencil or electronic

May use a rating scale to evaluate behavior 

May use a rating scale to evaluate behavior 

(44)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

Observational Research Methods

Observational Research Methods

 Newer Mediated Observation Techniques  Newer Mediated Observation Techniques

•• AudioAudio

•• VideotapeVideotape

•• Computers provide on-line monitoring (process of Computers provide on-line monitoring (process of  capturing characteristics of the human-computer  capturing characteristics of the human-computer  interaction automatically)

interaction automatically)

 – 

 –  Keystroke recordsKeystroke records  – 

 –  Audit trailsAudit trails  – 

(45)

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

4. Portfolios

4. Portfolios

•• Provide a descriptive measure of student

Provide a descriptive measure of student

work based on actual performance

work based on actual performance

•• Consist of learner-created products that

Consist of learner-created products that

reflect the processes of learning and

reflect the processes of learning and

development over time

(46)

Impact and Future of 

Impact and Future of 

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

•• Although descriptive studies are important,

Although descriptive studies are important,

most educational studies involve questions

most educational studies involve questions

about cause.

about cause.

 – 

 – What causes underachievement?What causes underachievement?  – 

 – Will multimedia cause students to be moreWill multimedia cause students to be more

motivated or lead to high achievement levels? motivated or lead to high achievement levels?

(47)

Impact and Future of 

Impact and Future of 

Descriptive Research

Descriptive Research

••  Not always easy to isolate variable that will Not always easy to isolate variable that will

explain those causes, so descriptive research can explain those causes, so descriptive research can  play an important role in providing

 play an important role in providing informationinformation from another perspective.

from another perspective.

•• By gathering descriptions of “what is” andBy gathering descriptions of “what is” and comparing them to “what we would like” comparing them to “what we would like” educators can see the area that needs to be educators can see the area that needs to be addressed.

(48)

Impact and Future

Impact and Future

of Descriptive Research

of Descriptive Research

•• Descriptive Research methods have gained

Descriptive Research methods have gained

acceptance

acceptance

••  Number of descriptive studies published in

 Number of descriptive studies published in

research journals has increased

research journals has increased

•• Descriptive research leads to prescriptions

Descriptive research leads to prescriptions

that instructional designers and educators

that instructional designers and educators

can heed as they consider future direction

can heed as they consider future direction

(49)

Questions Addressed by Causal 

Questions Addressed by Causal 

 Research

 Research

*

* Marketing dMarketing director oirector of local f local beer cobeer company,mpany,

“Will replacing TV commercial A with commercial B

“Will replacing TV commercial A with commercial B lead tolead to increase in consumer preference on our brand?”

increase in consumer preference on our brand?” *

* Chairman of Chairman of a charity oa charity organization. “Will rganization. “Will it be woit be worthwhile torthwhile to mail to previous donors an attractive and expensive brochure mail to previous donors an attractive and expensive brochure to solicit higher contributions this

to solicit higher contributions this year?”year?” *

* The sales manThe sales manager of ager of a local a local life insurance life insurance company.company. “Will training in the use

“Will training in the use of computers for client managementof computers for client management increase agents’ sales?”

increase agents’ sales?” *

* Marketing VP Marketing VP of fashion of fashion chain, “Can chain, “Can we improve we improve profitabilityprofitability of our fashion clothing line by increasing its

(50)

Causality: Cause-and-Effect 

Causality: Cause-and-Effect 

Change-in-X causes change-in-Y 

Change-in-X causes change-in-Y 

Evidence of Causality

Evidence of Causality

•• Concomitant variation:Concomitant variation:  – 

 – If X changes, then Y also If X changes, then Y also changes.changes.  – 

 – If X does not change, then Y does notIf X does not change, then Y does not

change.

change.

•• Time order: cause (X) occurs before effect (Y).Time order: cause (X) occurs before effect (Y). •• Elimination of alternative explanation:Elimination of alternative explanation:

 – 

 – Could changes in Y be caused byCould changes in Y be caused by

changes in Z?

changes in Z?

(51)

Concepts and Terminology

Concepts and Terminology

Causality Causality

Manipulation (experimentation) Manipulation (experimentation)

Independent variable (X, manipulated, Independent variable (X, manipulated, computer skill)

computer skill)

Dependent variable (Y, reflect the impact of  Dependent variable (Y, reflect the impact of  independent variable, sales)

independent variable, sales)

Treatment Group: subject exposed to Treatment Group: subject exposed to

manipulation (salespeople with training) manipulation (salespeople with training) Control Group: part of sample that sees no Control Group: part of sample that sees no

change in independent variable (no computer  change in independent variable (no computer  training)

(52)

Validity of Experiment 

Validity of Experiment 

Internal validity:

Internal validity: elimination of other possible causeselimination of other possible causes..

 – 

 – Sources: external factors (Asian crisis),Sources: external factors (Asian crisis),

maturation of subjects (agents more experienced). maturation of subjects (agents more experienced).

 – 

 – Lab experiment > Field experiment.Lab experiment > Field experiment.

External validity:

External validity: generalizability of results.generalizability of results.  – 

 – Artificial situation; inappropriate sample;Artificial situation; inappropriate sample;

inappropriate time. inappropriate time.

 – 

(53)

Types of Experiments

Types of Experiments

Laboratory experiment Laboratory experiment Field experiment Field experiment

Scientific investigation in which Scientific investigation in which an

an

investigator manipulates and investigator manipulates and controls

controls

one or more independent one or more independent variables and

variables and

observes the dependent observes the dependent variable for

variable for

variation concomitant to the variation concomitant to the manipulation

manipulation

of the independent variables of the independent variables

Research investigation in which Research investigation in which investigator creates a situation investigator creates a situation with exact conditions so as to with exact conditions so as to control some, and manipulate control some, and manipulate other, variables

other, variables

Research study in a realistic Research study in a realistic situation in

situation in

which one or more

which one or more independentindependent variables are manipulated by the variables are manipulated by the experimenter under as carefully experimenter under as carefully controlled conditions as the

controlled conditions as the situation will permit

(54)

Experiments are the

Experiments are the

STRONGEST Design Logic

STRONGEST Design Logic

•• The “best” ResearchThe “best” Research •• Design to determineDesign to determine

CAUSAL CAUSAL

RELATIONS RELATIONS

(55)

Use Experimental designs

Use Experimental designs

whenever possible

whenever possible

•• Types of Types of 

EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS:

DESIGNS: •• LabLab

•• Field ExperimentField Experiment •• Quasi-ExperimentalQuasi-Experimental

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