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J A M ES B . W H I T E . A Co nt r a s t a n d Co m

p a r

i

s o n o f Ma x

i

m u m Ach

i

e v ab l e Co nt r o l Te c h n o l og y

(

M A C T

)

a n d L

i

f e C y c l e As s e s s me nt

(

L C A

)

a s St r at eg

i

e s t o R e du c e Ha z a r do u s A

i

r

Po l l u t a n t s

(

HA P S

)

.

(

Un d e r T he D

i

r e ct

i

o n of Dr . A L V I S T U R N E R

)

Ma x

i

m u m Ach

i

e v ab l e C o nt r o l T e c hn o l og y

(

MA C T

)

a nd L

i

f e Cy c l e

As s e s s m e nt

(

L C A

)

p r o v

i

de a l t e r n a t

i

v e me t hod s f o r c o nt r o l l

i

n g

Ha z a r d o u s A

i

r Po l l u t a n t s

(

HA Ps

)

. T h

i

s

p

a pe r e v a l ua t es t h e

a

p p

l

i

c at

i

o n o f M A C T a n d L C A a s

g

e n e r a l st r at e

g i

es t o r edu c e

HA P e m

i

s s i o n s w

i

t h

i

n t h e s p e c i f

i

c c o nt e x t o f t h e pr

i

ma r y

a l u m

i

n u m

i

n du s t r y . MA CT

i

s a " e n d - o f

-p

i

pe " c o nt r o l ba s e d

a p p r oa ch . I t

i

s de r

i

v ed f r o m t h e e m

i

s s

i

o n s ba s e l

i

n e a nd t h e

c o n t r o l t e c h n o l o g

i

e s u s e d b y t he t o p 1 2% o f t h e be st

c o n t r o l l e d s o u r c e s w

i

t h

i

n a g

i

v e n s o u r c e c a t e g o r y . L CA

i

s a

po l l ut

i

o n pr e v en t

i

o n a p

p

r o a c h t h a t f o c us e s o n t he "

c r a d l e t o

c r a d l e " m u l t

i

me d

i

a e n v

i

r o n me nt a l

i

n pu t s , o ut put s , a n d

i

m p a ct s o f a

p

r od uc t o r

p

r o c e s s . T h

i

s t e ch n

i

c a l

p

a p e r

c o n c l u d es t h at M A C T

i

s t he mo s t e f f e c t

i

ve

i

mme d

i

a t e s t r at eg y

t o c o n t r o l H A Ps . L CA

i

s e f f e ct

i

v e a s a me a n s o f r e du c

i

n g

H A Ps , h o wev e r ,

i

s l

i

m

i

t e d b y

i

t s t r ad e o f f of d a t a

q

u a l

i

t y

f o r da t a qu a nt

i

t y , a n d

i

t s l a c k o f e n v

i

r o n me n t a l m ode l s t o

e v a l u at e e n v

i

r o n me nt a l

i

m p a c t s . A mo de l f o r st r e am l

i

n

i

n g

L CA us

i

ng M ACT d a t a

i

s d em o ns t r a t e d , a nd a n o v e r v

i

e w

i

s

p

r o v

i

d e d f o r M A C T a n d L C A me t h o ds .

Ke

y

Wo r d I nde x : C l e a n A

i

r Act A me n dme nt s , L

i

f e Cy c l e

(2)

TAB L E OF C O N T E N T S

C O N T E N T S

P A fi E

L

i

s t Of F

i

gu r e s v

i

Li s t of T a b l e s v

i

i i

1 . 0 I nt r od uc t

i

o n 1

1 . 1 Ge n e r a l Bac k g r o u nd 1

1 . 2 T e chn

i

c a l O b

j

e c t

i

v e 2

1 . 3 Se l e c t i o n o f a MA C T So u r c e Ca t e go r y 3

2 . 0 Haz a r d o us A

i

r Po l l u t a n t s : A Re gu l a t o r y Ov e r v

i

e w . . . 4

2 . 1 T he 1 96 7 C l e a n A

i

r Ac t 4

2 . 2 T he 1 9 7 0 C l e a n A

i

r Ac t 5

2 . 3 T he Ene r g

y

Su p p l y a nd En v

i

r o n me nt a l

Co - o r d

i

na t

i

o n Ac t o f 1 9 7 4 6

2 . 4 T he 1 9 7 7 C l e a n A

i

r A c t Ame ndme n t s 6

2 . 5 H A Ps a nd t h e T o x i c Re l e a s e I n v e nt o r y

(

T RI

)

. . 8

2 . 6 T he 1 9 9 0 C l e a n A

i

r Ac t A me ndme n t s 11

2 . 6 . 1 MA C T So ur c e De f

i

n

i

t

i

o n s

/

M AC T

S t a n da r ds 1 2

2 . 6 . 1 . 1 New a n d Ex

i

s t

i

n g So u r ce s 1 3

2 . 6 . 1 . 2 Ma

j

o r Sou r c e s 1 4

2 . 6 . 1 . 3 A r ea Sou r c e s 1 4

2 . 6 . 2 Po l l u t

i

o n Pr e v en t

i

o n a nd M AC T 16

2 . 6 . 3 Re s

i

dua l R

i

s ks 17

2 . 6 . 4 M ACT Ha m me r 1 7

2 . 6 . 5 R A C T , BA C T, L A E R , M A C T 18

3 . 0 M A C T a nd L C A f o r t h e Pr

i

ma r

y

A l u m

i

n u m I ndu st r y . . . 2 0

3 . 1 A l um

i

n u m : T he L C A Pe r sp e c t

i

v e 2 0

3 . 1 . 1 L

i

f e C y c l e A s s e s s me nt

- I n v

e n t o r

y

Ana l y s

i

s 2 0

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 A l u m

i

n u m : Ma t e r

i

a l s

A c qu

i

s

i

t

i

o n a nd Pr e pa r at

i

o n

St a g e 2 3

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 1 Ba u x

i

t e 2 3

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 2 L

i

me 27

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 3 Ca u st i c Sod a 2 7

(3)

T AB LE O F C O N T E N T S

(

C o n t

i

n ue d

)

C ONT E N T S

E A S E

3 . 1 . 1 . 1 . 5 P e t r o l eu m B a s e d

C ok e 2 9

3 . 1 . 1 . 2 A l u m

i

n u m : Ma n u f a ct u r

i

ng S t a g e . . 29

3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 1 Pr ep r o c e s s

i

ng a n d t h e Pr o du ct

i

o n o f A l u m

i

n a : Ba y e r

P r oc e s s 3 1

3 . 1 . 1 . 2 . 2 A l u m

i

n u m Sme l t

i

n g : Ha l l - H e r o u l t

Pr o c e s s 3 2

3 . 1 . 1 . 3 A l u m

i

n u m : Fa br

i

c at

i

o n a n d

Us e S t ag e 3 4

3 . 1 . 1 . 4 A l u m

i

n u m : D

i

s p o s a l

/

Re c

y

c l e

a nd Re u s e S t a g e 3 4

3 . 1 . 2 L

i

f e Cy c l e A s s e s s me n t

- I m p a ct

Ana l y s

i

s 3 6

3 . 1 . 3 L

i

f e Cy c l e As s e s s me n t

- I m

pr o v e me nt

Ana l y s

i

s 3 8

3 . 2 A l u m i n u m : Th e M A C T Pe r sp e c t

i

v e 4 0

3 . 2 . 1 A l u m

i

n u m : M ACT Mo d e l P l a n t s 4 0

3 . 2 . 2 A l u m

i

n u m : M A C T Ba s e l

i

n e 4 3

3 . 2 . 3 A l u m

i

n u m : M A C T En v

i

r o n me n t a l I mp a c t

Ana l y s

i

s 4 6

3 . 2 . 4 A l u m

i

n u m : M A C T Co s t a n d Ec o n o m

i

c

An a l y s es 4 7

4 . 0 MA C T v L C A : A C o mp a r

i

s o n a nd Co n t r a s t o f

S t r a t eg

i

es 5 0

4 . 1 Co m

p

a r

i

s o n a n d Co nt r a s t : An Ev a l ua t

i

o n o f

t h e M ACT a nd L CA P r o c e s s e s 50

4 . 1 . 1 S t e

p

I : L C A Sc r e e n

i

n g v M A C T

Co n

g

r e s s

i

o n a l Ma nd a t e . 5 2

4 . 1 . 2 S t e p I I : L C A I n v en t o r

y

v M A C T

I nf o r ma t

i

o n Ga t h er

i

n

g

5 5

4 . 1 . 3 S t e p I I I : L C A I mp a ct An a l y s

i

s v M A C T

(4)

T AB LE O P C O N T E N T S

(

C o n t

i

n u e d

)

C ONT E N T S

£ A S £

4 . 1 . 4 St e p I V : L C A R e c o mme n da t i o n s v

M AC T St a n da r d s 6 0

4 . 2 C om pa r i s o n a n d Co n t r a s t : Th e E f f e ct i v e n e s s

of LCA a nd M AC T

i

n R e du c

i

n g H APs 6 2

5 . 0 Co n c l u s

i

o n s a nd D

i

s c u s s

i

o n 7 0

Re f e r e n c e s 7 3

A p p e nd

i

x A : Ma x

i

m u m Ach

i

e v ab l e Co n t r o l

T e ch n o l o g y

(

MA C T

)

7 7

A p p e nd

i

x B : L

i

f e Cy c l e A s s e s sme nt Me t h o do l o g y

(

L C A

)

. . . 9 5

A p p e nd

i

x C : L

i

st o f H a z a r d ou s A

i

r Po l l u t a nt s

(

HAPs

)

. . . I l l

A p p e nd

i

x D : L

i

st o f Ha z a r d ou s A

i

r Po l l u t a nt s S o u r c e s . . 11 9

A p p e nd

i

x E : Se l e c t e d M A C T S t a nda r d s a n d T he

i

r

(5)

I w o u l d l

i

k e t o t h a nk my A dv

i

s o r , D r . A l v

i

s Tu r n e r w ho m

p

a t

i

e nt l y wa

i

t ed f o r t h

i

s e v e nt t o t ak e p l a c e a nd t he Pa n e l Me m b e r s , Dr M

i

ch a e l Be r r y a n d D r . De n n

i

s N au g l e

, wh o m

p r o v

i

d e d t h e

i

r t

i

me a nd ac c o m m o da t e d t he s ch e du l

i

n g . I a l s o wo u l d l

i

k e t o r e c ogn

i

z e s e ve r al o t he r s w ho as s

i

st e d

i

n t h e d e v e l op me nt of t h i s pr o

j

e c t . Th e s e i n cl ud e M r . B i l l B a

i

l ey ,

(6)

Z l fi Q E fi

F

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F

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F

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F

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F

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F

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F

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F

i g

u r e A . l :

F

i

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F

i

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F

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i g

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F

i g

u r e B . 2 :

L I ST O F F I G U R E S

T h e De t e r m

i

n at

i

o n of M AC T Ba s e l

i

n e a s a Re s u l t of t h e I nt e r p r et at

i

o n o f t h e M A C T D e f i n i t i o n

L

i

f e As s e s s me n t T e mp l a t e f o r a n

A l u m

i

n u m Ca n ,

P r o ce s s F l o w D

i

a gr am f o r a Pr

i

ma r

y

A l u m

i

n u m Sode r b e r g P l a nt

P r oc e s s Fl o w D

i

a gr a m f o r a Pr

i

ma r y A l um

i

n u m Pr eba k e Pl a nt

A G u

i

de l

i

n e f o r t he C ompa r

i

s o n a n d C o nt r a st o f M A CT a nd L CA a s St r a t e g

i

e s t o Re du c e HA Ps

A Su mma r

y

o f Se l e c t e d En v

i

r o n me n t a l a nd En e r g y I npu t s a nd O ut pu t s f o r t h e A l u m

i

n u m I ndu st r

y

Th e Us e of LCA t o a A t t a

i

n M A C T

B a s e l

i

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i

s s

i

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(

t o n s

/

y r

)

f o r a T y p

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ca l M AC T Mode l P l a n t

Pot e n t

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a l M A C T S t a n d a r ds Co nt a

i

n e d

i

n T he L

i

f e C yc l e o f A l u m

i

n u m

An O v e r v

i

e w o f t he M A CT Pr oc e s s .

E x a mp l e o f P o t e nt

i

a l Re gu l a t o r y A l t e r n a t

i

v e s f o r a M A C T So u r c e . ,

An Ou t l

i

ne o f t he Pa r a me t e r s f o r t he De ve l o pme nt o f a n I n dus t r

i

a l

P r o f

i

l e f o r a M A CT Ec o n o m

i

c An a l

y

s

i

s ,

T he MA CT B a c k gr o u n d I n f o r ma t

i

o n

Doc u m e nt

(

B I D

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l

S t at u s o f LCA Pr oc ed u r e s

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t

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24

4 1

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6 5

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L I S T o f F I G U R E S

(

Co n t

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F

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F

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F

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F

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A Ge n e r

i

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P o t e nt i a l So u r c e s o f L C A Da t a a nd T h e

i

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p t o t he L C A Pr oc e s s

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10 3

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e s 1 0 4

Ex a mp l e C l a s s

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f

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Ca t e go r y 1 05

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i

s Co n v er s

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H i e r a r ch y 10 7

(8)

X

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T a b l e V :

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Tab l e V I I I :

Tab l e I X :

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t

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g h

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u a l

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i

t es O r e s

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i

r o n men t a l I np u t s a nd O u t pu t s f o r t h e LCA R aw Mat e r

i

a l s Acqu

i

s

i

t

i

o n S t a g e : Ba u x

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t e P r odu c t

i

o n

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r o n me nt a l I np u t s a n d o u t pu t s f o r t h e L C A Raw Mat e

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a l s Ac qu

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p

u t s f o r t h e LCA Raw Mat e

i

a l s Ac qu

i

s

i

t

i

o n

S t a g e : Ca u s t

i

c S o da Pr odu c t

i

o n

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i

r o n m e n t a l I np u t s a n d Ou t

p

u t s f o r t h e LCA Raw Mat e

i

a l s A c qu

i

s

i

t

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o n

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g

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1 0

1 1

1 2

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2 5

2 6

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a

b l

A

L I S T O F TA B L E S

(

c o n t

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a

g

e

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Se l e c t ed En v

i

r o n me nt a l I n pu t s a nd Ou t put s f o r t he L CA Ma n uf a c t u r

i

n g S t a ge : A l u m

i

n a Pr odu c t

i

o n

S e l e ct ed E n v i r o n me nt a l I npu t s a n d O ut pu t s f o r t he L C A Man u f a c t u r

i

ng St age :

A l u m

i

n u m Pr o du c t

i

o n

3 4

3 3

S e l e c t ed E n v

i

r o n me nt a l I n pu t s a n

d

Out pu t s f o r t he L C A Re c y c l e

/

Reu s e S t a ge : S e c o n da r y

A l u m

i

n u m Pr odu ct

i

o n 3 5

T h e I mp a c t C l a s s

i

f

i

c a t

i

o n of t h e A g gr e ga t ed L CA I npu t s a n d O ut pu t s I d e nt

i

f

i

ed

i

n t he

I n v e nt o r y A na l y s

i

s

L CA I mp r ov e ment An a l y s

i

s : A g gr e g a t e d Po l l ut

i

o n Av o

i

d e d Per To n of A l u m

i

n u m Re c y c l ed

A MA CT D e s c r

i

p t

i

o n o f t he Compo s

i

t

i

o n o f t he Un

i

t e d St a t e s ' Pr

i

ma r y A l u m

i

n u m

I n du s t r

y

M A C T Mo de l P l a nt s f o r t h e Pr

i

ma r y A l u m

i

n u m I n du st r y

T a b l e

T a b l e

T a b l e

X X I :

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X X I I I ;

MA C T Mo de l s f o r A n od e Pa st e Pr o du c t

i

o n .

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i

n

g

.

E m

i

s s

i

o ns o f T o t a

l

F l uo r

i

de

(

T F

)

,

H y dr o

g

e n F l u o r

i

de

(

H F

)

, a n d Po l yc yc l

i

c Or

g

a n

i

c Ma t t e r

(

POM

)

f r om Pr

i

ma r

y

A l u m

i

n u m Sme l t

i

n g

T a b l e X XI V :

Ta b l e X X V : H A P Ba s e l

i

n e E m i s s i o n s f o r A l u m i n u m Sme l t

i

n g Us

i

ng M ACT a nd L C A Em

i

s s

i

o n Ra t e s

3 6

3 9

4 3

4 4

4 5

46

48

A C o nt r a s t a nd Co mp a r i s on of Ba s e l i n e a nd Co nt r o l l e d H A P Em

i

s s

i

o n Ra t e s f o r A

l

u m

i

n u m

S m e l t

i

n g Op e r a t

i

o ns 6 2

6 3

Ta b l e X X V I : M

i

n

i

m u m Re c y c l e Re

q

u

i

r e me nt s t o Me et

(10)

(

)

2

A

]

2

l

£

P

agg

T a b l e A . l :

T a b l e A . 2 :

T a b l e A . 3 :

T a b l e A . 4 :

T a b l e A . 5 :

T a b l e B . l :

T a b l e C . l :

T a b l e D . l :

Ta b l e E . l :

T y p

i

ca l Pa r a met e r s C on s

i

d er e d

i

n t he De v e l o pme nt o f a M A C T Mo d e l P l an t . . . ,

S ou r c e s o f I n f o r ma t i o n f o r t he

'De t e r m

i

n a t

i

o n of t h e M A C T Ba s e l

i

n e C o nt r o l

T y p

i

ca l Co n t r o l Op t

i

o ns f o r a MA C T C a t e go r y So u r c e

C r

i

t e r

i

a f o r t he D e ve l o pme nt of C o s t I n f o r ma t

i

o n

T y p

i

c a l Co st Eva l u a t e d

i

n t h e M A C T Co st An a l y s

i

s

An Ov e r v

i

ew o f L C A De v e l opme n t

i

n t h e U n i t e d St a t e s

Po l l ut a nt s Su b

j

e c t t o R e gu l a t

i

o n

Un d er t he C A A A T

i

t l e I I I , Se c t

i

o n 1 12 . .

H a z ar d o us A

i

r Po l l u t a nt s

(

HA Ps

)

So u r c e C a t e g or

i

e s

A L

i

st o f M A CT S t a n da r d s C u r r e n t l y Pr op o s e d o r P r om u l g at e d

8 1

8 2

8 3

88

8 8

9 6

1 12

1 2 0

(11)

1 . 1 G e n e r a l B a ck g r o u nd

T h e mi s s i o n of t h e U S E n v i r o n me nt a l P r ot e c t

i

o n A g en cy

(

EPA

)

i

s t h e pr o t ec t

i

o n of hu m a n he a l t h an d t h e e n v

i

r o n me n t . S

i

n c e

i

t s f o r m at

i

o n

i

n De c e m b e r , 1 9 7 0 , t h e dr

i

v

i

ng f o r c e u n de r l y

i

n g t h e a c c omp l

i

sh me n t o f t h e E PA ' s m

i

s s

i

o n

h a s b e e n a " c o mma nd

-a nd

-c o nt r o l "

p h

i

l o s op h

y

t h a t pr e s c r

i

be s " e nd - o f -p

i p

e " c o nt r o l s t o r e du c e po l l u t a n t r el ea s e s . T h

i

s ap pr o a c h c u l m

i

n a t e d

i

n t he 1 99 0 Cl e a n A

i

r Ac t Ame ndme n t s

(

C AAA

)

i

n w h

i

c h C o ngr e s s l eg

i

s l a t e d a t e ch n o l og y b a s e d , t o p d own a p p r o a c h t o t h e

i

s s u e o f Ha za r do u s A

i

r Po l l u t a n t s

(

HA P s

)

.

T hr o ug h t he CA AA Co ngr e s s c r e a t e d a l

i

s t o f t h e s e a i r t o x

i

c s a n d p l a c ed t h e EP A o n a s t r

i

ng e nt t

i

m e s ch e du l e f o r de v e l o p

i

n g s t a nda r d s t o co nt r o l t he s o u r ce s o f t h e s e

em

i

s s

i

o n s . T h

i

s a

p p r oa c h , t e r me d

i

n t h e l e g

i

s l a t

i

o n as Ma x

i

m u m Ac h

i

e v a b l e C o nt r ol T e ch n o l o g y

(

MA C T

)

, d

i

r e ct e d t h e e v a l ua t

i

o n o f t he c o nt r o l t e c h n o l o g

i

e s

i

n u s e b y t h e t o p 12 % o f t he b e s t c o nt r o l

l

e d s o u r c e s w

i

t h

i

n a

g i

v e n H A P s o u r c e c at e go r y . Hav

i

n g

i

de nt

i

f

i

e d t h e t e ch n o l o

g y a nd

i

t s c o n t r o l e f f

i

c

i

e n c y , E P A wa s t o t a k e t h

i

s

i

n f o r ma t

i

o n a n d pr o m u l ga t e s t a n da r d s , wh

i

c h a s a m

i

n

i

m u m , r e

q

u

i

r e d t h e a p p l

i

c a t

i

o n o f t he s e c o n t r o l s t o t h e s o u r c e c at e go r y as a w ho l e

(

Se e

A p p e nd

i

x A

)

.

I n t h e m

i

d- 1 9 8 0s a n

ew e n v

i

r o n me n t a l p r o t e c t

i

o n p h

i

l o s op h y be g a n t o e me r g e a s a n a l t e r na t

i

v e t o t he " c o m ma nd - a n d - c o n t r o l " do ct r

i

ne t h a t h a d do m

i

n a t e d t h e

EP A ' s f o r ma t

i

v e y e a r s . T h

i

s

p

h i

l o s o p h y

i

n v o l v e d n o n- c o

e r c

i

v e ,

i

nc e n t

i

v e ba s e d a p pr o a c he s s uc h a s t y p i f i e d i n t h e P o l l u t i o n Pr e v e n t

i

o n Ac t o f 1 9 9 0 . Co n c u r r e nt w

i

t h t h e e mer

ge n c e o f t h

i

s p o l l u t

i

o n p r e v e nt

i

o n f o c u s , a ho l

i

s t

i

c a p pr o a c h t o e n v

i

r o n m en t a l a c c o u n t

i

n g b e ga n t o r e- e me r ge . T h

i

s a p p r oa ch

, c a l l e d L

i

f e C

y

c l e As s e s s men t

(

LCA

)

, o f f e r e d E P A , a s w el l a s ot h e r a

g

e n c

i

e s ,

i

n s t

i

t u t

i

o n s , a n d c o m m e r c

i

a l e n t

i

t

i

e s , a b r o a d ba s e d , m u l t

i

med

i

a met h o d w

i

t h wh

i

c h t o

i

mp l eme nt a n d m ea su r e t h e s u cc e s s e s o f Pol l u t

i

o n Pr ev e nt

i

o n

(

Se e A p p e nd

i

x B

)

.

I n 1 99 1 , e ng

i

n e er s

i

n E P A '

s O f f

i

c e of A

i

r

Q

u a l

i

t y P

l

a n n

i

ng a n d S t a nd ar ds

(

O A

Q

P S

)

, wh

i

ch

i

s t a s k ed w

i

t h d e v e l o p

i

n g M ACT St an da r d s

, be g an t o c o ns

i

d e r P o l l u t

i

o n Pr e v e n t

i

o n

i

n g e ne r a l , a n d LC A

i

n pa r t

i

c u l a r , a s pot e nt

i

a l

t

o o

l

s f o r mee t

i

n

g

M A C T S t a nda r d s a nd m

i

n

i

m

i

z

i

n

g

c o st l y " e n d -o f

(12)

e n v

i

r o n m e nt l bu r d n of u r c t g r y , m

i

n

i

m

i

z e c r o me d

i

a po l l u t a n t t r a ns f e r s , a nd me e t MAC T s t a n da r d s b y

p r o v

i

d

i

n g o p p o r t u n

i

t

i

es f or i n c r eme nt a l cha n ge s d i s t r

i

bu t e d o v e r t h e l

i

f e of a HAP s o u r c e .

T he s e c o n s

i

de r a t

i

o n s e v e n t u a l l

y

c r e at ed t w o c a mp s w

i

t h

i

n OA

Q

PS . On e c amp ma

i

n t a

i

n e d t ha t L C A , b

y

t a k

i

n

g

a " c r a d l e t o

c r a d l e " p e r s p e ct

i

v e , o f f e r ed t he r egu l a t o r y c o mmu n

i

t y a met h od of a c h

i

e v

i

n g a nd ba l a n c

i

n g s o u r c e sp e c

i

f

i

c r edu c t

i

o n s a nd b r o a de r m u l t

i

m ed

i

a e n v

i

r o n m e n t a l b e n e f

i

t s . T h e o t h e r ca mp s u p p o r t e d t h e m o r e t r ad

i

t i o na l MA C T ap pr oa c h , a r gu

i

n g t h at LCA l a c ke d t he sp e c

i

f

i

c

i

t y n e c e s s a r y f o r a r e gu l a t o r

y

m et ho d . Fu r t he r m o r e , t he

y

c o n t e n de d t ha t k e y c omp o n en t s o f L C A , s u c h a s

i

t s m u l t

i

me d i a f o c u s , w e r e c o ns

i

d e r e d w i t h

i

n t h e c o r e o f t h e MA CT a p p r o a ch .

I n 19 9 2 , EP A '

s A i r a n d E n er g y E ng

i

n e e r

i

n g R e s e a r ch L abo r a t o r y

(

A EE RL

)

j

o

i

n ed w

i

t h O A

Q

PS

i

n p l a n n

i

n g a s t u d y t o f a c

i

l

i

t a t e a d

i

r e c t c o mpa r

i

s o n o f t he t w o s t r a t e g

i

es . The s t u d

y

p r op o s e d t o t a r ge t a M A C T s o u r c e c a t e g o r

y

s c he du l e d f o r r e v

i

ew a n d t o d ev e l o p a L C A f o r

i

t . Ea c h me t hod w o u l d t h e n b e e v a l u a t e d t o d e t e r m

i

ne t h e

i

r r es pe ct i v e a dva nt a ge s

i

n m e et

i

ng t he MA CT em

i

s s i o n s t a n da r d s f o r t he t a r ge t

s o u r c e . U n f o r t u na t e l y , bud ge t c o ns t r a

i

n t s a n d

pr o gr a m ma t

i

c p r

i

o r

i

t

i

e s pr e v e nt e d t he st u d

y

f r om t ak

i

ng p l a c e , a n d t he qu e s t

i

o n w a s u n r e s o l v e d .

1 . 2 T e c hn

i

c a l Ob

j

e c t

i

v e

T h e ob

j

e c t

i

v e o f t h

i

s t ec hn

i

c a l

p

ap e r

i

s t o r e v

i

s

i

t t h e

p

r o

p

os ed E P A st u d

y

, a nd t o c o m

p

a r e a nd c o n t r a s t M A C T a nd L C A w

i

t h r es

p

e c t t o t he

i

r a p p l

i

c a t

i

o n a s s t r a t e g

i

es t o r edu c e H A P e m

i

s s

i

o ns f r om a M A C T s ou r c e . T he f ol l o w

i

n g ap

p

r o a c he d wa s t ak e n t o d ev e l o p t h

i

s pa p e r ' s t ec hn i c a l o b

j

e ct

i

v e :

. Se l e c t

i

o n o f a MA CT s o u r c e f o r e v a l u a t

i

o n ; . Re v

i

e w o f t he r e l e va n t r e

g ul at o r y ba c k gr o u n d ; . Re v

i

ew o f bo t h MA CT a nd L CA me t h o do l o

g

i

e s ;

. De v e l o pme nt o f ge n er

i

c s o u r c e mo de l s f r o m t h e MA C T a nd L C A p e r sp e ct

i

v e s ;

. Co l l e c t

i

o n a n d e v a l u a t

i

on o f r e l e va nt da t a ; a nd , . Co mpa r

i

s o n a n d c o n t r a s t o f e a c h me t h od w

i

t h r e sp e c t

t o

i

t s a b

i

l

i

t

y

t o r e d u c e t h e t a r

g

e t H A Ps .

T h e b a c k

g

r o u nd ma t e r

i

a l s f o r bot h t he MAC T a nd L C A Me t h ods wh

i

ch w e r e r ev

i

e w ed f o r

t

h

i

s p a pe r h a v e be e n su mmar

i

z e d a n d a r e p r es e n t e d

i

n A p pe n d

i

c e s A a n d B ,

(13)

c o n t r o l s t o o t h e r c o n t r o l s de r

i

v e d f r o m C A AA co nt r o l t e c h n o l o g i e s s t a nda r d s ,

1 . 3 Se l e c t

i

o n of a MA CT Sou r c e C at e go r y

Fo r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t ud

y

, bo t h p r o po s e d an d p r o m u l ga t e d M A C T s t a n da r d s we r e r e v i e w e d , a n d t he MA C T So u r c e C a t e go r y o f P r i ma r y A l u m

i

n u m w a s s e l e c t e d . T h i s S o u r c e Ca t e go r y c o nt a

i

n s t w o l

i

s t e d H AP s : H y dr og e n F l u o r

i

d e

(

H F

)

a nd P o l y c y c l

i

c O r ga n

i

c Ma t t e r

(

P O M

)

. Pr

i

mar y A l u m

i

n u m

i

s a dr a f t M A C T be

i

n g de v el o pe d b y Re s e a r c h T r

i

an g l e

I ns t

i

t ut e , Re s e a r c h T r

i

a n

g

l e Pa r k , N C , a s a p a r t o f

i

t s c o n t r a c t s u p p o r t f or OA

Q

P S . I n a d d

i

t

i

o n , c o mp o n e n t s of t h e A l u m

i

n u m

i

n du s t r y h av e b e e n pr ev

i

o u s l y r e v

i

e w ed b y t h e

T e l l u s I n s t

i

t u t e , Bo s t o n , M A, a s a pa r t o f a l a r g e r L C A p a c k a g

i

n g s t u d y . Th e s e t w o e f f o r t s

(14)

H I R P O L L U T A I TT S A R E G U LAT O R Y OVE RV I EW

I t h a s t ak e n 2 3

y

e a r s f o r H A Ps t o a c qu

i

r e t h e

i

r pr es e n t s t a t u s a s a r e gu l a t e d po l l u t a n t . I n t h e m ea n wh

i

l e , t h e r e h a v e be e n f

i

v e C o n gr e s s

i

o n a l e f f o r t s t o r egu l at e am b

i

e n t a

i

r

p o l l ut

i

o n . T h es e e f f o r t s embo d

y

t h e e v o l u t

i

o n o f t he " c omm a nd a nd c o n t r o l " a

p p r o a ch t o r edu c

i

n

g

t h e l e v e l o f c o n t am

i

n a nt s

i

n t h e am b

i

e n t a

i

r . T he f o l l o w

i

n

g s e c t

i

o n p r e s e n t s a ge n e r a l o v e r v

i

e w of t h e s e e f f o r t s , h

i

g h l

i

g h t

i

n g t h e e m e r ge n c e o f t h e HAP s

i

s s u e , a n d f o c u s

i

n g o n t h e M ACT s o l u t

i

o n c o nt a

i

n ed

i

n T

i

t l e I I I , Se c t

i

o n 1 1 2 , o f t h e 1 9 9 0 CA A A .

2 . 1 T he 19 6 7 C l e a n A

i

r A c t

T he f

i

r s t C l e a n A

i

r A ct , p a s s e d i n 1 9 6 7 , pr o v

i

ded t h e US De

p

a r t me nt of H e a l t h , Edu c a t

i

o n , a nd W e l f a r e w

i

t h t h e

a ut h o r

i

t

y

t o e s t a b l

i

s h a

i

r qua l

i

t y s t an da r d s . U nd e r t h e A ct , t he S ec r e t a r y of He a l t h , E du c a t

i

o n , a nd W e l f a r e w a s a ut h o r

i

ze d t o d e s

i

gn a t e " a t mo s p h e r

i

c a r e a s " a nd a

i

r qu a l

i

t y c o n t r o l r eg

i

o n s . I n a d d

i

t

i

o n

, t h e Se c r et a r y w a s d

i

r e c t ed t o

p

ub l

i

s h a

i

r

q

u a l

i

t

y

c r

i

t e r

i

a a nd co nt r ol t e c h n o l o g

y

da t a t o s up p o r t t h e r egu l a t o r y a c t

i

v

i

t

i

e s o f t h e St a t es

(

Q

u a r l e s a nd L e w

i

s , 1 9 9 0

)

.

Unde r t h e 1 9 6 7 Ac t , t h e

i

nd

i

v

i

du a l S t a t e s w e r e d

i

r e c t e d t o f o r m u l at e amb

i

e nt a

i

r qu a l

i

t y s t a n d a r ds , a s op p os ed t o e m

i

s s

i

o n s s t a n da r d , a nd t o de v e l op e n f o r c e me n t p l a ns . Bo t h S t a t e ' s p l a n s a n d st a nda r ds w e r e t o b e ba s ed o n a

i

r qu a l

i

t y c r

i

t e r

i

a a n d c o n t r o l t e ch n o l og y d a t a f o r s pe c

i

f

i

c a

i

r

qu a l

i

t y c o n t r o l r e g

i

o ns w

i

t h

i

n ea c h St a t e s b o u n d a r

i

e s . T he Act a l s o

p

r o v

i

de d t h a t ,

i

n t ho s e ca s e s w he r e a

i

r p o l l u t

i

o n

p

r e s e n t e d " a n

i

m m

i

n e n t a n d s ub s t a nt

i

a l e nd an

ge r m e n t t o t h e he a l t h o f p er s o n s ,

"

a nd n e

i

t he r s t a t e n o r l o c a l a u t h o r

i

t

i

e s ha v e a ct e d t o r edu c e t he p ot e n t

i

a l d a ng e r , t h e Se c r e t a r y c o u l d r equ e st t h e US A t t o r n e

y

Ge n e r a l t o

i

n s t

i

t ut e

j

ud

i

c

i

a l a c t

i

o n t o e n

j

o

i

n t h e po l l u t e r s

(

Mo o r ma n , 1 9 7 0

)

.

T h e 1 96 7 Ac t p r o ve d t o b e

i

n e f f e c t

i

v e

i

n c o nt r ol l

i

ng

a mb

i

e n t a

i

r p o l l u t

i

o n . I t

l

a ck ed t h e s t r e ng t h t o c o mp e l t h e

f

o r m at

i

o n o f t he r e

q

u

i

r e d p l a n s a nd st a n

d

a r ds o r t o

c o o r d

i

n a t e r egu l at o r y a c t

i

v

i

t

i

e s a c r os s s t a t e bo u nd a r

i

e s . Co n s e

q

u e nt l

y

, a

g

r e at d e a l o f v a r

i

a t

i

o n o c c u r r e d

i

n t he

i

m

p

l e me nt at

i

o n o f t he Ac t . I t be c ame e v

i

d e nt t hat a

(15)

T he C l e a n A

i

r Ac t o f 1 9 70 w a s a m a

j

o r s t e p t o w ar d p r ot e ct

i

n g t h e Na t

i

o n ' s a

i

r

qu a l

i

t y . Un d e r t h e 19 7 0 Ac t , t w o gr o u p s o f p ol l u t a nt s w e r e r egu l at e d : Cr

i

t e r

i

a Po l l u t a nt s a n d A

i

r T o x

i

cs

(

Se e T ab l e I

)

. T he f

i

r s t g r o u p , t he C r

i

t e r

i

a Po l l ut a nt s , c o nt a

i

n ed s

i

x po l l u t a nt s w h

i

c h a r e d

i

s ch a r ge d

i

n t o t h e a t m os p h e r e

i

n l a r ge q u a n t

i

t

i

e s f r o m n u m e r o u s s o u r c es . D u e t o t he v ol u me o f t he s e

po l l u t a n t s em

i

t t ed a nd t

h

e

d i

s

p

e r s

i

o n of e m

i

s s

i

o n s ou r c e s a c r o s s t he Na t

i

o n , t he

y

p

o s e e n v

i

r o nme nt a l

p

r ob l e ms a c r os s b r o ad r e g

i

o n s . T h e Na t

i

o n a l A m b

i

e nt A

i

r

Q

u a l

i

t y S t a nda r ds

(

N A A

Q

S

)

u nde r

S u bc ha p t e r I o f t h e Act w e r e t h e c e nt e r p

i

e c e o f t h e st r a t e g y t o c o n t r o l t h e s e r e g

i

on a l s o u r c e s .

T ab l e I : T h e Co mp o ne nt T

i

t l e s of t h e 19 7 0 C l e a n A

i

r Ac t

Su bc h ap t e r I A

i

r Po l l u t

i

o n P r e v e n t

i

o n an d Co nt r o l

Se c t

i

o n 1 8 7 5c - 7 Nat

i

o na l Em

i

s s

i

o n St a n da r ds f o r Ha z a r d o u s A

i

r Po l l u t a nt s

S ub c h ap t e r I I E m

i

s s

i

on s St a nd a r ds f o r Mov

i

ng Sou r c e s

Sub c ha p t e r I I I Ge ne r a l

(

S

i

e v e , Ma r y R .

, 1 97 6

)

T he N A A

Q

S w e r e n u me r

i

ca l s t a nd a r d s

i

nt e n de d t o pr o v

i

de t w o l ev e l s , Pr

i

ma r y a nd Se co n da r y , o f

p

r o t e c t

i

o n . T he

Pr

i

ma r

y

S t a n da r d s w e r e de v e l o pe d t o pr e v e nt a d ve r s e

i

m

p

a c t o n hu ma n h e al t h ; Se c o nd a r

y

S t a n da r d s w e r e de v e l o pe d t o

p r e v e n t a dv e r s e

i

mpa c t o n t h e e n v

i

r o n me n t . T h e Ac t r e

q

u

i

r e d t h a t t h es e s t a nd a r ds w e r e t o be ba s e d o n s c

i

e n t

i

f

i

c

d e t e r m

i

na t

i

o n o f t hr e sh o l d l e v e l s of a

i

r c o nt am

i

n at

i

o n b el o w wh

i

c h n o a dv e r s e h e a l t h or e n v

i

r o n me nt a l e f f e c t s w o u l d b e

e xp e r

i

e n c e d . I n s p e c

i

f

y i

n

g

a t hr e sho l d

, t he N A A

Q

S a p pr o a c h a c ce

p

t e d a m

i

n

i

m u m l ev e l o f p o l l u t

i

o n .

NAA

Q

S w e r e

i

nt e n de d u nd e r t h e r egu l a t

i

o n t o b e

i

m p l eme nt e d at t he St a t e l e v e l t h r o ug h t he d e v e l opme n t o f S t a t e I mp l e m e nt a t

i

o n Pl a n s

(

SI Ps

)

. T h e S I Ps w er e l ega l l y b

i

nd

i

n

g

a n d c o u l d b e e n f o r c ed b

y

Fed er a l a nd

/

o r S t a t e

a ut h o r

i

t

i

e s . Un f o r t u na t e l y , t he SI Ps h a d s e v e r a l w e ak n e s s e s . S I Ps r equ

i

r e d bo t h a

i

r qu a l

i

t

y

d at a an d a c o mp l e t e

i

n v e n t o r y of em

i

s s

i

o n s ou r c e s p r

i

o r t o t h e

i

mp o s

i

t

i

o n o f c o nt r o l s . C o r r e ct es t i ma t e s o f t h e a c t u a l r edu ct

i

o n s t ha t w o u l d

(16)

ma

j

o r d f i i e n c

i

e

i

n t h k n w l ed ge o f t he n at u r e , t he

qu a nt

i

t y , a n d q ua l

i

t y o f p o l l ut an t e m

i

s s

i

o n s . Fo r e x a mp l e , t h e d

y

n a m

i

c s of po l l ut a n t d

i

s pe r s

i

o n , p o l l u t a n t

t r a ns f o r ma t

i

o n

i

n a mb

i

e nt a

i

r , o r a nd t h e e f f e c t

i

v e n e s s of r e c o mme n de d c o nt r o

l

m e a su r e s w e r e

l

a r

g

e l y u nk n o w n . T he s e we ak n es s es

i

mp e de d t h e

i

mp l eme n t a t

i

o n o f t he SI Ps .

T h e a m b

i

e nt a

i

r qua l

i

t y s t a nd a r ds al s o p r o v ed t o b e c o n t r o v e r s

i

a l . Op p o n e nt s a r gu ed t h a t t h e y w e r e t o o

s t r

i

n ge nt be c au s e t h ey w e r e de s

i

g n e d t o r edu c e t he r

i

s k w

i

t h a n ade qu a t e ma r g

i

n o f s a f et y f o r t h e mo s t e x p o s e d a nd

v u l n e r ab l e pa r t o f s oc

i

e t y . O n t h e ot h e r ha n d ,

i

t wa s

a r gu e d t h a t t h e y w er e t o o w e ak , s

i

n c e t h e y d

i

d n ot c o n s

i

de r mu l t

i

p l e e x po su r es .

T he s e c o n d gr oup o f p o l l ut an t s c o v e r ed u n de r t he 19 7 0 Ac t w e r e t ho s e c o n s

i

d e r e d t o be

i

m me d

i

a t e l y h a z a r d o us t o h u m a n he a l t h , a nd wh

i

c h a r e a s s oc

i

a t ed w

i

t h s pec

i

f

i

c h e a l t h

ef f ec t s . T y p

i

c a l l y t he s e w e r e ca r c

i

no g e n s

, m u t a g e n s , o r r epr o du c t

i

ve t o x

i

n s w h

i

c h h av e a s t he

i

r s o u r c e s p e c

i

f

i

c

i

n du s t r

i

e s

(

We

g

ra a n , 1 9 9 1

)

. Co n s e qu e nt l y

, u n l

i

ke t h e n at

i

o na l a

i

r qu a l

i

t y c o n c er ns , t h e t hr e a t o f e x po su r e t o t he s e c he m

i

c a l s a r e h

i

g he st t o t h o s e pe op l e l

i

v

i

ng ad

j

a c e n t t o a s

i

t e .

C o ng r e s s g a v e E P A a ut h o r

i

t y t o r egu l a t e t he s e A

i

r T o x

i

c s u nd e r Su bc ha p t e r I , Se c t

i

o n 1 8 7 5c

- 7 o f t he 1 9 7 0

s Ac t . T h

i

s s e c t

i

o n d e f

i

n ed A i r T o x

i

c s o r HAP s a s a

i

r po l l ut a nt s t o w h

i

c h n o am b

i

e n t a

i

r qu a l

i

t y s t a n d a r d w e r e ap p

l i

c a b l e a n d wh

i

c h ,

i

n t he

j

u d ge me n t o f t h e A dm

i

n

i

s t r a t o r , ma y c a u s e o r

c o nt r

i

but e t o a n

i

n c r e a s e

i

n mo r t a l

i

t

y

or a n

i

nc r e as e

i

n s e r

i

o u s

i

r r e v er s

i

b

l

e , o r

i

n c a pa c

i

t a t

i

n g r e v e r s

i

b l e

i

l l n e s s . T he Act r e

q

u

i

r e d t he A dm

i

n

i

s t r a t o r t o pu b l

i

sh a n d ,

p e r

i

o d

i

ca l l y r e v

i

s e , a l

i

st o f HA Ps f o r w h

i

ch he

i

n t e nd e d t o es t a b l

i

s h a n e m

i

s s

i

o n s t a n d a r d , a nd t o , w

i

t h

i

n 1 8 0 da y s

af t e r t he

i

n c l u s

i

o n o f a n a

i

r po l l u t a n t o n t h e l

i

s t , pu b l

i

s h a pr op o s e d r e gu l a t

i

o n es t a b l

i

s h

i

n g e m

i

s s i o n s t a n da r ds f o r su ch p o l l u t a nt s t oge t h e r w

i

t h a n o t

i

c e o f pub l

i

c h e a r

i

n g

(

S

i

e v e , Ma r

y

R .

, 1976

)

.

T he E P A w a s o n l

y

ma r

g i

n a l l

y

su c c e s s f u l

i

n

i

mp l e me n t

i

n g t h e H A Ps l e g

i

s l a t

i

o n , a n d be t w e e n 1 9 7 0 a n d 1 9 9 0 , o n l y s e v e n t o x

i

c po l l ut a n t s w e r e l

i

s t ed . I n co nt r a s t t o t he E P A

' s a c h

i

e v eme n t s w

i

t h a

i

r t o x

i

c s , a nd

i

n t h e s a me t

i

me p e r i o d , t h e Oc c u

p

a t

i

o n a l Sa f et

y

a nd He a l t h A dm

i

n

i

st r at

i

o n r egu l a t e d mo r e t h a n 5 0 0 w o r k

p

l a c e t o x

i

c c h em

i

c a l s , a nd t he S t a t e s r e gu l a t e d a p

p

r o x

i

ma t el

y

7 0 0 a

i

r t o x

i

cs

(

Du r e nbe r

g

e r , 199 1

)

.

E P A ' s

p

r ob l e m l ay

i

n t h e w or d

i

n g o f t he 1 97 0 Act a n d

i

t s r e qu

i

r e me n t t ha t E P A p r o v

i

de a n a mp l e ma r g

i

n o f s a f e t y t o p r ot e c t pu b l

i

c h e a l t h . An

i

n

i

t

i

a l gr o up of s

i

x s t a nda r d s we r e

p

r o m u l gat e d be f o r e t he s c

i

e n t

i

f

i

c

i

s s u e s un de r l

y i

n

g

t he

c o nc e

p

t o f "

(17)

j

u d

i

c

i

a l l y c h a l l e ng ed , t he y h a v e r e ma

i

n ed

i

n e f f e c t . Ho we v e r , s t a nd a r ds ad o p t ed s u bs equ e n t l y ha v e b e e n ch a l l e ng ed .

2 . 3 T h e En e r g y S u p p l y a nd E n v i r o n me nt a l C o o r d

i

n at

i

o n A c t o f 1 97 4

T h e E n e r g y S up p l y a nd En v i r o nme n t a l C o o r d

i

n at i o n Act

(

P L - 9 3- 319

)

ca me abo ut a s a r e s u l t o f t h e Ar ab o

i

l e mba r go . T h

i

s Ac t mod

i

f

i

ed c e r t a

i

n a

i

r qua l

i

t y r equ

i

r e me n t s t o

b a l a n c e e n e r g y n e e d s a nd e n v

i

r o n men t al c on c e r n s f o l l o w

i

ng t he em ba r go , but d

i

d

i

mpa c t t he pr o m u l g at

i

o n o f H AP

S t a nd a r d s

(

Q

u a r l e s a nd Lew

i

s , 1 9 91

)

.

T h e Act s p e c

i

f

i

c a l l y e x emp t e d

p

r opo s ed a ct

i

o n s u nde r t h e C l e a n A

i

r Act f r o m NE P A r equ

i

r eme n t s . Ac c o r d

i

ng t o

Se ct

i

o n 7

(

c

) (

1

)

, "

n o a c t

i

o n t a ke n u n de r t h e C l e a n A

i

r A c t sh a l l b e d e eme d a m a

j

o r Fe de r al a c t

i

o n s

i

gn

i

f

i

c a n t l y

a f f e ct

i

ng t h e qu a l

i

t

y

o f t he h u ma n e n v

i

r o n m e n t w

i

t h

i

n t he me a n

i

n g o f t h e Na t

i

o na l En v

i

r o n m e nt a l Po l

i

c

y

Ac t o f 1 9 6 9 "

(

1 5 U. S . C . 7 9 3

(

c

) (

1

)

0

)

(

Q

u a r l e s a nd L ew

i

s , 1 9 9 1

)

.

2 . 4 T h e 19 7 7 C l e a n A

i

r Act A me ndm e n t s

I n 197 7 , a f t e r o n l y s

i

x H A P s t a n da r d s h a d b e e n

e s t a b l

i

s h ed b y E P A u nd e r t he 19 7 0 C A A A , Co n gr e s s a m e n de d t h e Ac t . T he c ompo n e nt s o f t he 1 97 7 C l e a n A

i

r Ac t A m e ndme n t s a r e s h own

i

n Tab l e I I .

T a b l e I I : T h e C om

p

o n e n t T

i

t l e s o f t h e 1 9 7 7 C l e a n A

i

r Act

T

i

t l e I A

i

r P o l l u t

i

o n Pr e v e n t

i

o n a n d Co n t r o l

Pa r t A . A

i

r

Q

u a l

i

t y a nd E m

i

s s

i

o n L

i

mi t at i o n s

Sec t

i

o n 1 1 2 Na t

i

o n a l E m

i

s s

i

o n S t a n d a r ds f o r Ha z a r do us A

i

r Po l l u t a n t s

Pa r t B . Oz o n e Pr ot e c t

i

o n

Pa r t C . Pr e v e nt

i

o n of S

i

g n

i

f

i

c a n t Det e r

i

o r at

i

o n o f A

i

r

Q

ua l

i

t y

Pa r t D . P l a n Requ

i

r e m e nt s f o r No n - A t t a

i

n m e nt Ar e a s

T

i

t

l

e I I Em

i

s s

i

o n S t a n d a r ds f o r Mo v

i

n g So u r c e s

Pa r t A . Mo t o r Ve h

i

c l e Em

i

s s

i

o n a n d Fu e l S t a nda r d s Pa r t B . A

i

r c r a f t E m

i

s s

i

o n S t a nd ar ds

T

i

t l e I I I - G e n e r a l

(

GI , I n c . , 19 93

)

(18)

T h e 19 7 7 Ame n dme n t s w e r e p r

i

ma r

i

l y

i

nt e nd ed t o c o r r e c t t h e d e l a y s w h

i

c h h a d b e e n e n c o u n t e r ed a nd t o f o r c e EPA t o me et t h e g o a l s o f t he l e g

i

s l a t

i

o n . Th e y d

i

r e c t ed a s e c o nd r o u nd of S I Ps w h

i

c h w e r e de s

i

gn ed t o a c h

i

e v e a t t a

i

n me nt b y 19 82 o r at l e a st b y 1 98 7 . T h e 1 9 7 7 r o u nd o f l eg

i

s l at

i

o n a l s o a d dr e s s e d t h e

i

s s u e of H A Ps w

i

t h t h e ob

j

e c t

i

v e of

pu s h

i

ng E P A t o mo v e f o r wa r d w

i

t h

i

t s r egu l at o r y e f f o r t . T h e Act wa s o n l y mo d e r at e l y s uc c e s s f u l

i

n t h

i

s goa l , br

i

ng

i

n g t h e t ot a l n umb e r o f HAP s u nde r r egu l a t i o n t o s e v e n

(

N o v e l l o , 1 9 91

)

. T a b l e I I I

p

r e s e n t s t he l

i

s t o f HAPs St a nd a r d s o n t h e bo ok s b y 19 9 0 .

Th e mo st r e c e nt H AP s s t a n da r d p r om u l g a t ed u n de r t he 1 9 7 7 C A A A o c c u r r e d

i

n 1 9 8 9 a nd 1 9 9 0 t o r e gu l at e Be n z e n e . T h e B en z e n e S t a nd a r d s a r e ba s e d o n t h e D . C. C

i

r cu

i

t C o u r t

' s r e as o n

i

n g

i

n t he 19 8 7 V

i

n y l Ch l o r

i

d e d e c

i

s

i

o n , NRD C v . EP A , 8 2 4 F . 2 d 11 4 6

(

D . C . C

i

r . 1 9 8 7

)

. I n e s t a b l

i

s h

i

n g t h e

s t a nda r d f o r Be n z e ne , EPA c o n f r o nt ed t he z e r o r i s k pr o b l e m he a d- o n , a nd s e t s t a nda r ds r e q u

i

r

i

ng t he t

i

g h t e s t l ev e l o f c o nt r o l s wh

i

c h

i

t h a d d e t e r m

i

n e d t o be t e ch n o l og

i

c a l l y a nd e c o n om

i

c a l l

y

f e a s

i

b l e , a l t ho ug h no t a t z er o r

i

sk . T h e Co u r t o f A p p e a l s d e c l ar e d E PA '

s a p p r oa ch

i

l l e g a l a nd t h at d e c

i

s

i

o n ha l t e d t h e H A Ps r e gu l a t o r y e f f o r t s . T he s e s t a n da r d s w e r e t h e o n l

y

p o s t - V

i

n y l Ch l o r

i

de s t a nda r ds a d op t e d p r

i

o r t o t h e 1 9 9 0 a m e ndmen t s

(

Q

u a r l e s a n d L ew

i

s , 1 9 9 1

)

.

Ta b l e I I I : Ha z a r d o us A

i

r Po l l ut a n t s

(

HAP s

)

L

i

s t e d Unde r t h e C l e an A

i

r Act o f 197 0 a n d t h e Am e n dme n t s o f 1 9 7 7

Me r c u r y Be r y l l

i

u m As be s t o s

V

i

n y l C h l o r

i

d e Ra d

i

o n u c l

i

de s I n o r

g

a n

i

c Ar s e n

i

c Be n z e n e

(

Q

u a r l e s a nd Le w

i

s , 1 9 94

)

2 . 5 H A Ps a nd t he T o x

i

c Re l e a s e I n v e n t o r y

(

T R I

)

T

h

e f o c u s o n H A Ps a s a n e c es s a r

y

s ub

j

e c t o f r e

g

u l at o r

y

a c t

i

o n

i

n c r e as e d d r ama t

i

c a l l

y

du r

i

ng t he l at e 1 9 8 0 '

s . T h

i

s

i

n c r e a s e wa s d

i

r e c t l y

l i

n ke d t o a h e

i

g h t e n ed p u b l

i

c

awa r e n e s s a nd c o n c e r n o v e r

h

a z a r do u s w a s t e s

i

t e s . T h e

g

e n e s

i

s o f t h e pu b l

i

c '

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