Thesis

CHAPTER I

Introduction

Plants are the reservoirs of chemicals which have been evolved in response to wide range of selection pressures. Each species might have gone through numbers of mutations and genetic recombinations over millions of generations. The bioactive molecules present in plants have evolved as chemical defenses against predation, infection or adverse environmental changes. Special classes of chemicals produced have been put through severe tests by the forces of natural selection at each generation (Wilson, 1992). Consequently, during evolution plants have synthesized compounds whose structural diversity may be beyond the dreams of even the most imaginative organic chemists. In fact, plant species have evolved chemical pathways to produce compounds that are capable of curing many diseases. For instance, almost all the plants make flavonoids that block Ultra Violet (UV) radiation; the higher the radiation to which plants are exposed, higher the turnover of flavonoids. Experiments suggest that plant flavonoids can resist far more UV radiation than what would be caused by worst case scenario of ozone depletion (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999).

Majority of biologically active compounds isolated from plants are secondary metabolites, which are sophisticated arsenal to protect plants from outside dangers. Secondary metabolites perform important ecological functions including defenses against herbivores, bacterial and fungal infections. Many compounds used by the plants for a particular purpose like protection against fungi can be used by humans for a similar purpose. However, secondary metabolites, which have ecological significance for plants, have altogether different effects on humans. For example, in many leguminous plants like Vicia faba, the non-protein amino acid L-Dopa functions as an antifeedant and protects plants from herbivory; but in medicine, it is used as a drug in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease (Simmonds and Grayer, 1999).

Plants – the primary producers - have always been the basis of human survival. All forms of hominids probably experimented with plants. Plants have been meeting the basic needs of food, cloth and shelter ever since the emergence of Homo sapiens. Plants are also the source of human health care products. Kautilya’s Arthasastra gives account of many plants that were used to remove hunger. For example, consumption of doses of

Albizia lebbeck, Ficus racemosa and Prosopis cinereria mixed with ghee removes hunger for a fortnight; ingestion of a dose of the scum prepared from the mixture of Scripus grossus or Cyperus esculentus, rhizome of Nelumbo nucifera, roots of Saccharum officinarum mixed with Aconitum ferox, Cynodon dactylon, milk, ghee and manda enables one to fast for a month; similarly one can go without food for a month by consuming one dose of the powder of Phaseolus radiatus, Hordeum vulgare, Dolichos biflorus and root of Desmostachya bipinnata mixed with milk and ghee (Sensarma, 1996; Viswanathan and Singh, 1996). World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that 80% of the populations living in the developing countries rely almost exclusively on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs, and 85% people in third world use plants or their extracts as the active substances in health care system (Shome et al., 1996; Sheldon et al., 1998).

Plants have been used as medicines since beginning of human civilization. There are written evidences of medicinal uses of plants in texts of the ancient Chinese, Indian and other civilizations. India has had a history of ancient traditional medicinal practice based mostly on Ayurveda, Siddha and Unani systems of medicine. Medicinal plants have always been the main constituents of the traditional medicine. Indian Materia Medica includes about 2000 drugs of natural origin almost all of which are derived from traditional system; out of these 400 are of mineral origin and the rest are of plant origin. Ayurveda is based on natural products of nearly 2,000 cultivated and wild plant species. The written records of Ayurveda like Charaka Samhita, Shushruta Samhita and others contain more than 8,000 herbal remedies. There are literally millions of plants, combinations, traditions and household remedies to treat varieties of diseases and to boost health (Pearce and Moran, 1994; Subrat et al., 2002).

Traditional knowledge of plants for medicinal purposes was based on observations and personal experiences. This knowledge was handed down from one generation to next generations mostly by word of mouth. In most societies there are no written records of such knowledge. By 19th century active principles of medicinal plants were isolated based on such knowledge base and discovery of quinine from Cinchona bark was the first active principle isolated and characterized (Phillipson, 2001). Reserpine, a drug prescribed for hypertension, was isolated from the root of shrub

indica) has always been considered a miracle tree in India for thousands of years. Its parts have been used for leprosy, urinary disorders, diabetes, skin diseases, jaundice, fevers, infections, as tonic, as blood purifier, to clean teeth, to keep away bugs and insects, as veterinary medicine and for various other diseases. In fact the tree has often been called as the village pharmacy. A variety of neem products are available in markets and most of these have been developed from ethnobotanical data. In 1682, life of the son of King Louis XIV of France, who was dying of dysentery, was saved by a Parisian Merchant who gave him root of ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha). This species is native to Brazil and Bolivia where roots of ipecac is commonly used in treating dysentery and amoebic dysentery (Swerdlow, 2000).

It has been estimated that only 20-30% of the world’s flora of approximately 250,000-500,000 species has been subjected to phytochemical investigations (Principle, 1990; Simmonds and Grayer, 1999; Cordell, 2000; Plotkin, 2001). Of an estimated 75,000 edible plant species known in the world, only 2500 species have ever been eaten with regularity and a mere 150 species have been exploited commercially and only 20 feed the world population. About 9,500 wild plant species used by indigenous people for meeting their various requirements have been documented. Out of 7,500 wild plant species used by indigenous people for medicinal purposes, about 950 species have been found to be useful in health care for the first time; out of about 3,900 plant species used as edibles about 800 have been found as novel food yielding species and 250 species among them have potential to develop as alternative sources of food; out of 525 wild plant species used for making fibre and cordage, about 50 species have potential for commercial exploitation; out of 400 wild plant species used as fodder, about 100 species have potential for wider use; and out of 300 wild plant species used as pesticides and piscicides, about 175 have potential for the development of bio-pesticides (Pushpangadan, 1984; Mishra, 1985; Saklani and Jain, 1996; Saini, 1996; Prakash and Singh, 2000; Nautiyal et al., 2000-2001; Satyavati, 2001; Sarin, 2003).

The number of flowering plant species known from India is about 15,000 species. 50% of these species are known to possess medicinal properties. Over 8,000 species of angiosperms, 44 species of gymnosperms, 600 species of pteridophytes, 1,737 species of bryophytes, and 1,159 species of lichens have been recorded from Himalayas and many

region has over 1,748 plant species (1,685 angiosperms, 12 gymnosperms and 51 pteridophytes) of known medicinal value (Samant et al., 1998). Only 280 Himalayan plant species in 316 formulations are used by the pharmaceutical companies. About 175 species belonging to 79 families are confined to the Indian Himalayan region (Dhar et al., 2000). In Charaka Samhita, Himalayas have been described as home of medicinal plants. Traditional knowledge is available not only for the diversity of plants used in health care but also for the diverse ways in which these plants are administered. Different communities often put a single plant to different uses. Wealth of information on wild plants can be unearthed from the unwritten archives of the traditional people. Loss of unwritten traditional knowledge is like burning of library of Alexandria. In India, as in any other part of the world, Local Community Systems (LCSs) have been severely eroded because of variety of factors (Slikkerveer, 1999) and some of them are:

(i) displacement and devaluation by modern systems, such as the replacement of traditional medical practices by modern medical system, and of community customs of conservation by state-sponsored practices of conservation; local knowledge has of late been appropriated by the state and private sectors in the form of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs),

(ii) institutional take over of resources by the state and private sectors, and

(iii) over-exploitation of resources by the state or the private sectors and physical displacement of communities by economic development projects.

Study of traditional knowledge of plants or ethnobotanical approach is one of the approaches amongst many that exist for selecting plants for phytochemical studies. One can select an area rich in plant biodiversity and randomly pick a plant for study. The probability of discovering a useful compound from such randomly selected plants is extremely low. However, such random searches may lead to the discovery of new drugs. For example, taxol is one such anticancer drug. It is very difficult to make a truly random selection and collection of plants for phytochemical study. In recent years, ecosystems rich in plant diversity like Tropical Rainforests and the Himalaya have been the focus of exploration for bioprospecting as these contain high proportion of plants that have not yet been chemically screened. Random selection of plants for phytochemical analysis is the only bioprospecting alternative in the absence of documented ethnobotanical information.

1:8,000 probability of finding a marketable anti-cancer plant-derived drug using random screens. This ratio is comparable to probability of 1:10,000 associated with drug discovery based on the random screening of synthetic compounds (Shah, 1981; 1982; Vaidya and Antarkar, 1994; Simmonds and Grayer, 1999; Farnsworth, 1994).

The use of ethnobotanical information to select plants for drug discovery or other purposes has high success rates. It has been shown that plants that were selected using ethnobotanical information have provided more active leads than random screenings (Vanden Berghe et al., 1985). It has been reported that 119 compounds found from 90 plants are used as single entity medicinal agents; 70% of which have been developed based on ethnomedicinal use (Cox and Balick, 1994; Subrat et al., 2002; Farnsworth, 1985). At least 1,000 plant species are reported to be in use as medicinal agents in China alone (Duke and Ayensu, 1985). Approximately 1,250 Indian medicinal plants are used in formulating therapeutic preparations according to Ayurveda and other traditional system of medicine (Pushpangadan, 1984).

Recent advances in isolation, separation, purification and characterization of natural products coupled with ethnobotanical studies have lead to the discovery of several novel drugs. For example, artemisinin from Artemisia annua, podophyllotoxin from Podophyllum peltatum, vinblastine and vincristine from Catharanthus roseus, camptothecins derived from a Chinese tree species Camptotheca acuminata and kaempferol glycoside extracted from Forsteronia refracta found in Amazon rainforests are novel drugs used in the treatment of dreaded diseases such as malaria and cancer. (Ross, 1999; Williamson et al., 1999; Swerdlow, 2000; Moza, 2005)

Dharchula ranges of North-West Himalaya are located between 290 59' to 300 04' North latitude and 800 28' to 800 57' East longitude 'and are composed of steep rugged slopes covered with snow for over six months. These ranges are known to harbour medicinal and other useful plants (Duthie, 1885; 1906; Hooker, 1879; Strachey, 1906; Shah et al., 1980; Rawat and Pangtey 1987; Arya, 1991-92; Rawal and Pangtey, 1993; Samant et al., 1993; Samant et al., 2001; Satyal et al., 2002; Samant and Pal, 2003). The local communities not only use plants for their health care system and in fact they earn their livelihoods through trade and commerce of plant resources.There is no documentation of traditional knowledge possessed by the local communities with respect

in traditional Indian, Chinese and Tibetan medicinal systems from the region have lead to drastic reduction in wild populations of different species. Further, the potential of traditional knowledge available with locals is not yet put to use for the development of new and novel drugs. The present investigations on “Traditional knowledge of plant resources in Dharchula region: biotechnological potential, conservation and management strategies” were, therefore, undertaken with following objectives;

(i) to explore Dharchula ranges for documentation of traditional knowledge associated with the plant resources and evaluation of their biotechnological potential;

(ii) to undertake economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources in the region; and

(iii) to assess the conservation status of the species used traditionally by the local communities;

(iv) to evolve appropriate Intellectual Property Rights regime for the traditional knowledge possessed by the Bhotia community and associated plant resources and suitable management strategies for sustainable development in the region.

My research investigations will ultimately help initiate plant-human culture, a novel project that was recently launched by Kew and United Kingdom government in association with local community groups in South Asia that use plants in their everyday lives with objectives to bring people and plants together (Simmonds, 2005).

CHAPTER II

Eco-geographical Aspects of the Area Surveyed

Landscape and ecological features have bearing on the conservation and sustainable utilization of plant resources. Keeping this in view eco-geographical features of the area surveyed has been studied.

2.1. Geographical location and major river systems of the area

Study area is located between 290 59' to 300 04' North latitude and 800 28' to 800 57' East longitude in Dharchula sub-division of Pithoragarh District in Kumaon Himalaya of Uttaranchal State (Figure 1). The area encompasses over 2200 square kilometers and comprises three valleys namely Darma, Chaudas and Byas with altitude ranging from 1,200 m to over 7,000 m. The area is bordered by Nepal in the East, Tibet in the North, Munshiari and Askot sub-divisions of Pithoragarh Distrct in the West and South (Figure 2). Magnificent groups of Panchachuli, Api and Annapurna peaks are located in this region.

These mountains, which are masses of tangled peaks and valleys, are known to be associated with several sacred beliefs and represent one of the most rugged ranges in the region. In the ruggedness of feature they are not surpassed by any inhabited tract in the world. Mountains have such irregular and confused appearance that only the line of river valleys enables one to find a clue to their arrangement. The region consists of succession of deep gorges and steep precipitous hill sides containing Kali, Kuti and Dhauli River systems. Kuti River is tributary to Kali but the total volume of water of Kuti River is more than that of Kali River. All these rivers join and is known as Sarda when it reaches Tanakpur in the foothill, a tributary of the Ganges. Panchachuli, Nampa, Api and Chota Kailash are the main glaciers of this region.

2.2. Geology and soils

Perpetually snowcovered zone is separated by the Lesser Himalaya by the Main Central Thrust. The region is largely composed of gneiss and granite. The component rocks have been subjected to severe compressional forces. In several sections this zone is

made up of: (i) intrusive granite, (ii) complex schists resulting from the intrusion of granite into rocks which it has partly absorbed, and (iii) old gneiss, schists, granulites and

Figure 1. Map of India showing location of Uttaranchal and forest cover of all the districts of the state (Sourtce: Forest Survey of India, Dehradun)

highly metamorphosed crystalline limestones, which may include Precambrian and palaeozoic representations. Northern most belt on the North and North-east of greater Himalaya is made up of highly fossiliferous sedimentary formations ranging from Palaeozoic to the Eocene times and is remarkably uniform in lithological sequence (Joshi, et al. 1983). Dhauli river valley in Darma is characterized by porphyritic gneiss zone with the amphibolitic sills with a tectonic contact passes over to sedimentary quartzite, phyllite and limestone zones. The porphyritic gneiss is overlain by mica schist with multilayered weathered amphibolitic sills in Chaudas. The well marked tectonic zone is exposed with

phyllites sequence. Byas valley is characterized by quaternary sediments along Kali and Kuti rivers. Kuti River flows through the exposed clay rock with more carbonaceous material. Southern portion of the area consist of crystalline metamorphic rocks and some granite and basic magmatic rocks (Sinha, 1989). Soil is dark grey to dark brown and black in colour and silty loam to loamy in texture. Soil properties and processes are influenced by climate. As climate changes with elevation so do soil characteristics.

Chamoli TIBET Byas valley Munshiari Darma valley Chaudas valley Bageshwar Dharchula Askot NEPAL Pithoragarh Champawat

Figure 2. Map of Pithoragarh District in Uttaranchal showing Darma, Chaudas and Byas valleys of study area based on Digital Interpretation of IRS ID –LISS –

III,2000 (Source: Forest Survey of India)

In Darma valley, the organic carbon percentage in the soil decreases with increase in elevation probably due to erosion of litter and low decomposition rates due to sub-zero

temperatures. Sand is the predominant constituent of the soils; pH varies from 4.9 to 6.1 and moisture percentage varies between 13.5-34.5% (Ram and Singh, 1994).

2.3. Climate

The region experiences heavy rain (37-50 cm) during the monsoon season commencing from end of June to middle of September, with maximum rainfall being in July-September. In the higher reaches the annual rainfall is just about 10 cm. In this region summers are short and winters very severe and the grounds are entirely covered with snow from October to April. Heavy snow fall and frost are common. Melting of snow in April-May provide abundant moisture. Cloud and fog formation is a common feature even in May, well before commencement of monsoon. Clear sky is limited to only few morning hours. Soil erosion is very pronounced in the region. Frequent landslips in the lower valleys and avalanches in the higher regions and natural perturbations create new ecological niches, which are inhabited by characteristic flora and fauna thereby enhancing biodiversity. A rise of 270 m in altitude corresponds to fall of 10 C in mean temperature up to 1,500 m and this fall in temperature is more rapid towards alpine belt.

2.4. Vegetation

The study area comprises 12,740 ha of dense forest, 3936 ha of open forest, 1153 ha of scrub, 802 ha of water bodies and 203544 ha of non-forest area, which encompass habitations, villages, farmlands, community lands, snow covered areas, etc (Source: Forest Survey of India). The area is known for its rich biodiversity and many of its plant species are of medicinal importance in traditional systems of medicine: Indian, Tibetan and Chinese. Richard Strachey was the first to explore the area in 1846 and subsequently in 1848 with J. E. Winterbottom. Both plant explorers collected over 2000 species between the years 1846-49. J. F. Duthie explored North-Eastern Kumaon in 1883 and catalogued 2672 flowering plants, 201 ferns and allies, 120 mosses and 50 lichens. This catalogue also includes the plants collected by the earlier explorers (Duthie, 1885 and 1906).

The vegetation of the area can be broadly classified in to the following types as per the Champion and Seth Classification (Champion and Seth, 1968) –

2. Moist Temperate Deciduous Forests 3. Low Level Blue Pine Forests

4. Kharsu Oak Forests

5. Western Himalayan Upper Oak/Fir Forests

6. East Himalaya Mixed Coniferous Tansen (Tsuga dumosa) Forests 7. Montane Bamboo Brakes

8. Himalayan Temperate Pastures 9. Oak Scrub Forests

10. Hippophae Scrub 11. Sub-Alpine Forests 12. Sub-Alpine Forests

13. Alpine Pastures and Alpine Scrub River Bed

1. Upper Himalayan Chir Pine Forests – This forest type occurs at altitudes between 1,200 and 2,100 m. Common species are Rhododendron arboreum, Pyrus pashia, Myrica esculenta, Alnus nepalensis, Berberis lycium, Rubus ellipticus, Artemisia nilagirica, Rosa brunenii, etc. with Pinus roxburghii as the dominant species.

2. Moist Temperate Deciduous Forests – This type occurs on deeper and moist soils at altitudes between 1,800 and 2,700 m. Common species are Aesculus indica, Acer caesium, Fraxinus micrantha, Betula alnoides, Juglans regia, Quercus semecarpifolia, Taxus baccata, Rubus niveus, Berberis chitria, Impatiens spp., Aconitum spp., Lilium spp., etc.

3. Low Level Blue Pine Forests - This type is found at altitudes between 1,800 and 3,000 m. Common species are Quercus semecarpifolia and Quercus leucotrichophora with Pinus wallichiana as the dominant species.

4. Kharsu Oak Forests - This type occurs on the southern aspects of mountains at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,500 m extending up to tree line. Common species are Abies pindrow, Betula utilis, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus, Viburnum nenosum, Rosa sericea, Anemone spp., Rumex spp., Clematis spp., etc. with Quercus semecarpifolia as the dominant species.

semecarpifolia, Rhododendron arboreum, Viburnum nenosum, Clematis montana, etc.

6. East Himalaya Mixed Coniferous Tansen (Tsuga dumosa) Forests – These forests are found at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,300 m in the upper reaches of the valleys. It is the eastern limit of Tsuga dumosa. Common species of these forests are Abies pindrow, Pinus wallichiana, Quercus semecarpifolia, Quercus leucotrichophora, Taxus baccata, Betula utilis, Rosa macrophylla, Viola serpens, Fragaria spp., Clematis montana, etc. with Tsuga dumosa as the dominant species

7. Montane Bamboo Brakes – These are the under-storey found in Oak, Rhododendron and Bamboo forests at altitudes above 2,500 m. Dominant species of these forests are Arundnaria falcata, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus, Thamnocalamus falconeri, etc. 8. Himalayan Temperate Pastures –These are the pastures that come up as a result of

repeated burning and continuous grazing, generally close to the human habitations. Common species are Heteropogon contortus, Chrysopogon gryllus, Dactylic spp., Agrostis spp., etc.

9. Oak Scrub Forests – This type is developed as a result of degeneration of the Oak forests because of repeated lopping, burning, cutting for firewood and overgrazing. Dead trunks of Quercus leucotrichophora and Quercus floribunda are found accompanied with Berberis spp., Crataegus crenulata, Prinsipia utilis, Indigofera spp., Cotoneaster spp., etc.

10. Hippophae Scrub – This forest type is found at altitudes between 2,800 and 3,400 m. Dominant species are Hippophae salicifolia and Thymus serpyllum.

11. Western Himalayan Birch/Fir Forests – This forest type is found at altitude above 3,000 m extending up to tree line. Dominant species are Betula utilis, Rhododendron anthopogon, Rhododendron campanulatum, Thamnocalamus spathiflorus, Rubus niveus, Rosa secicea, etc.

12. Sub-Alpine Forests – these forests occur at the altitudes between 3,000 and 3,700 m. Abies pindrow, Quercus semecarpifolia, Betula utilis with undergrowths of Rhododendron campanulatum, Rosa sericea, Ribes glaciale, Rubus niveus, Smilax vaginata, Taraxacum officinale, Rumex nepalensis, Senecio chrysathemoides, Anemone rivularis, etc. are common species of these forests.

13. Alpine Pastures and Alpine Scrub River Bed – These forests are found at altitudes above 3,300 m and are covered by snow most of the time. Common species are Rhododendron campanulatum, Rhododendron anthopogon, Betula utilis, Juniperus spp., Sorbus foliolosa, Viburnum nervosum, Aconitum spp., Corydalis govaniana, Gentiana spp., Iris spp., Anemone spp., Potentilla spp., Primula spp., etc.

CHAPTER III

People, Culture and Plant Resource Utilization

It is important to understand the ecological aspects of human communities for evolving strategies for sustainable development based on the utilization of plant resources. Keeping this in view people, culture and resource utilization aspects of the study area were studied.

3.1. People and culture

People inhabiting Darma, Chaudas and Byas valleys of Dharchula areas of Kumaon Himalaya belong to a semi-nomadic ethnic community known as ‘Bhotia’ or ‘Shauka’. Bhotias are of Mongoloid origin and also inhabit the adjoining areas of Nepal. They have distinct dialect, culture and traditions that have been heavily influenced by Hindu and Tibetan cultures. It is difficult to trace the origin of Bhotias. One view is that they came from Tibet long before Buddhism reached Tibet and their culture and traditions evolved in these valleys surrounded by inaccessible mountains for centuries, adapting to the harsh terrains having the loftiest and most perilous passes. Till the beginning of the last century the Bhotias were afraid of going to the plains and even the lower mountains.

Physical difficulties surrounding their habitations in the midst of the upper Himalayas were so harsh that they were almost insulated from the rest of the world. High mountain ranges acted as effective barrier for physical mobility. It was only after the Chinese invasion in 1962 that a motorable road was constructed up to Dharchula (during 1965-1966) and movement to the plains became easy and unhindered. Even now the upper reaches are inaccessible and can only be approached on foot. The Bhotias have always been considered as an intelligent and mercantile race. They have traditionally been dependent on trade with Tibet and the plains of India. Because of adverse climatic factors, the Bhotias take up agriculture only as a subsidiary occupation from middle of May to middle of October. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. (locally called palti), Fagopyrum tataricum (Linn.) Gaertn. (locally called phaphar or bhe), Hordeum himalayense Linn. (caeleste) (locally known as chama), Triticum vulgare Linn. (locally

known as napal) and potatoes are the main cultivated crops. These crops are grown in flat lands around villages and in terraced fields on mountain slopes.

Having remained isolated for centuries, the Bhotias have depended on nature for almost everything. Bhotias believe that the mountains surrounding their settlements are the storehouse of a number of medicinal, edible and other useful plants. It is possible that these unexplored mountains may still have germplasm of many medicinal plants having great economic potential yearning to be discovered to cure humanity of many dreaded and incurable diseases.

All high mountains, which happen to be close to Mount Kailash are worshipped as protecting deities by the local communities. The forests and trees around the temples are held sacred and are never felled or lopped. To Bhotias spirituality and holiness are manifested in nature. Local inhabitants show respect for non-living and non-human components of nature (environmental resources that form the life supporting systems) at all times and live every moment in a state of respect and awareness of power of creation as manifested by the surrounding mountains. The Bhotias conceive the world in terms of matter and spirit existing in harmony. The traditional healers worship plants and pray to them before collecting them as they believe that plants have spiritual power. They also believe that plants become more potent when processed both spiritually and materially. The efficacy of the herbal medicines is believed to be enhanced when they are prepared and administered by enchanting mantras. The area falls in the traditional pilgrim route to the holy Mount Kailash and Lake Manasarover. Atkinson (1882) had observed in his writings that, "Each rock and rivulet is dedicated to some deity, or saint, and has its own appropriate legend. Nature in her wildest and most rugged forms bears witness to the correctness of the belief that here is the home of the 'Great God'".

After the 1962 Chinese invasion, traditional trade with Tibet got completely disrupted and the Bhotias were forced to look for other means of livelihood. Spread of education, loosening of old taboos and other methods of social control heralded an era when Bhotias looked to fan out onto the outside world seeking modern ways of living. This was the beginning of the end of the traditional way of life. Simultaneously, the traditional knowledge held by them also began eroding. There has never been any attempt to document the traditional knowledge about the plants found in their surroundings and to

3.2. Natural Resource Utilization

The area abounds in natural wealth. Trees are, however, cut to meet household requirements like construction of dwelling houses and for agricultural implements, but never for commerce. Only fallen and dead trees are collected for firewood. Probably, lack of communication has been the main obstacle in the commercial exploitation of timber. Abies pindrow (locally known as wuman-shin) is considered a sacred tree. These trees are cut to erect as flag posts in the local temples and around dwelling houses, which are replaced once in two to three years. There are sacred groves around temples and local deities, where trees are never felled or lopped. Harvest of wild medicinal plants was and is one of the major preoccupations of Bhotias. It is their main source of income. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo, Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle, Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth., Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc., Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissner, Swertia ciliate (G. Don) B. L. Burtt, Corydalis govaniana Wall., Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G. Don) John, Angelica glauca Edgew., Juglans regia Linn. root bark, and Paris polyphylla Smith are the most traded species. The quantum of trade in these species is driven by market forces. There is no organized system of sales and collection of plant species in the region. Moreover, Forest Department has banned extraction of many medicinal plant species from wild in Pithoragarh District (Table 1). The trade in plant species that has been in practice since centuries is now facing major hurdles as a result of notification of entire area including villages, farmlands and home gardens as wildlife sanctuary. This legislation did not take into account its likely implications on the livelihood of the people and the regulatory role of the traditional practices followed by the local people in the maintenance of diversity. This might endanger the biodiversity and plant resources for which wildlife sactuary is established. It is likely that there might be major changes in species composition in the area, because of one or few species dominating other species. A similar scenario is seen in the Valley of Flowers in Garhwal where stoppage of grazing has made Polygonum polystychum as an invasive species dominating other species. Banning harvesting of 30 medicinal plant species mentioned below in the district by the Pithoragarh Forest Division, Government of Uttaranchal may also bring about major changes in plant community structure.

Table 1. Species prohibited by the Forest Department for extraction from wild in Pithoragarh District (Source: Divisional Forest Office,

Pithoragarh Forest Division, Pithoragarh, Uttaranchal)

Local name Botanical name

Akhrot chal (root bark) Juglans regia

Atees Aconitum heterophyllum

Bach Acorus calamus

Ban kakri Podophyllum hexandrum

Banapsa Viola serpens

Chirayta Swertia chirata

Dhoopjad Juniperus recurva

Ken jadi Dioscorea species

Dolu Rheum emodi

Gandrayani Angelica glauca

Ginjaru Slifinia glabra

Guchhi Morchella esculenta

Jatamansi Nardostachys grandiflora

Kaphal bark Myrica nagi

Kakolisir Lilium palifilum

Kilmora Berberis aristata

Kutki Picrorhiza kurroa

Lahsunia Myreatylis beolhobee Mahamaida Polygonatum verticillatum

Meetha Aconitum falconeri

Nairpati Skimmia laureola

Pasanbhed Bergenia ciliata

Patharlong Didimacarpus pedicilata

Ratanjot Anemone obtusiloba

Ridhi-vridhi Habenaria intermedia Salam misri Orchis latifolia

Salampanja Dactylorhiza hatagirea

Samewa Valleriana hardwickii

Somlata Ephedra gerardiana

CHAPTER IV

Materials and Methods

Methodologies followed to carry out ethnobotanical surveys in the area were –

4.1. Ethnobotanical Surveys 4.1.1. Questionnaire:

A structured and pre-tested questionnaire was developed from preliminary interactions with the local communities and survey of relevant literature in order to obtain traditional knowledge possessed by the local communities. The questionnaire used for the ethnobotanical surveys is given below:-

1. Spatial distribution of human settlements and changes over decade. 2. Local name of the plant

3. In which type of localities (altitude, hill slopes, valleys, etc.) does this occur? 4. What are its associates?

5. Which area is the richest in terms of biodiversity? 6. What is it used for?

7. Parts used and how is it used?

8. How is it collected? – Mode of collection (whether whole plant or part of it). 9. At what age is the plant normally collected?

10. Is the method of collection destructive? What would be most appropriate method of collection?

11. Who are the collectors? (male/female and their specific role – gender aspects) 12. How are the plants stored and processed?

13. How is it used?

14. Is it abundantly available now?

15. What was the situation about decade ago? How much is it available now? 16. If it is becoming rare what could be the reasons? What are the threats? 17. Can the resource base be enhanced through propagation in wild? 18. Is there any restriction on collection?

20. Are the cultivated plants different from the wild ones in terms of quality, price, demand, etc.?

21. Given an opportunity whether people will prefer to cultivate it? 22. Why is there reluctance in cultivating the plants?

23. Is there any effect of site condition on the potency of the plant? (Whether plant of any particular locality is more potent)

24. How much is used domestically and how much sold? 25. Extent of demand for the plant

26. Which species are in high demand? Trend in demand (is there gap?)

27. What is the sale price? And what is the price in the markets like Delhi, etc.? 28. Estimated quantity extracted each year.

29. How much does it contribute towards livelihood or family income?

30. Who are the buyers – final market, prices at different stages (middle men etc.) 31. Estimated yearly income of collectors from collection and sale of the plant 32. Is there any myth associated with the plant?

33. What sort of govt. intervention or policy would they prefer?

34. How important is the plant? (Economically, medicinally, spiritually, etc.)

4.1.2. Sampling:

A total of 23 Bhotia villages and 10 localities across the study area were sampled (Table 2). Size of the village varied from 10 households to over 100 households and size of each household with 2- 6 adults up to over 80 years old.

Table 2. Villages and Localities sampled

Village/Locality Altitude in meters Habitat Characteristics Byas valley

Budhi 2750 Partially disturbed

Budhi-Galja 3300 Undisturbed

Chiyalekh 3300 Partially disturbed

Garbyang 3100 Partially disturbed

Changru 3200 Partially disturbed

Nampa 3950 Undisturbed

Gunji 3200 Partially disturbed

Nabi 3250 Partially disturbed

Kuti 3870 Partially disturbed

Chaudas valley

Chipla 4380 Undisturbed

Pangu 2250 Partially disturbed

Sosa 2550 Partially disturbed

Sirdang 2600 Partially disturbed

Rung 2300 Partially disturbed

Sirkha 2550 Partially disturbed

Narayan Ashram 2600 Partially disturbed

Shyangsthan 2700 Undisturbed Karangdang 4000 Undisturbed Sumtonker 3100 Undisturbed Pungwe 3350 Undisturbed Rungling 2900 Undisturbed Samari 2400 Undisturbed Darma valley

Bungling 2250 Partially disturbed

Sela 2150 Partially disturbed

Nagling 2700 Partially disturbed

Baling 2900 Partially disturbed

Bon 3300 Partially disturbed

Filam 3250 Partially disturbed

Dangtu 3300 Partially disturbed

Dugtu 3300 Partially disturbed

Son 3250 Partially disturbed

Dakar 3300 Partially disturbed

Information was gathered by interacting personally with over 50 persons (on an average 2-5 from each village). These included 5 women and over 45 men in the age group of 40-70 years.

Field visits were made to the areas surrounding the villages and those away from the villages which are rich in plant resources used traditionally. For each of the species for which ethnobotanical information was collected, specimens were prepared and were identified in the Herbarium of Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (DD).

80 species were documented (Table 3). Photographs were taken of most species along with habitat and parts used. Botanical name, family, local name, description, phenology, ecology & distribution, propagation, chemical constituents, uses, conservation status, trade, observation and discussions on traditional uses for each species have been given. Descriptions of chemical constituents have been included from available literature.

Table 3. Species collected and for which traditional knowledge documented

1. Abies pindrow Royle 41. Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. 2. Aconitum balfourii Stapf. 42. Pinus wallichiana A. B. Jackson 3. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle 43. Podophyllum hexandrum Royle 4. Ainsliaea aptera DC. 44. Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. 5. Allium stracheyi Baker 45. Polygonum amplexicaule D. Don

6. Angelica glauca Edgew. 46. Polygonum rumicifolium (Royle ex Bab.) 7. Arisaema jacquemontii Blume 47. Polygonum viviparum Linn.

8. Arnebia benthamii (G. Don f.) John. 48. Potentilla sundaica (Bl.) Kuntz 9. Artemisia maritima Linn sensu Hook. f. 49. Prinsepia utilis Royle

10. Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. 50. Prunus cornuta (Wall. ex Royle) Steud. 11. Berberis chitria Lindl. 51. Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham. ex D. Don 12. Bergenia ciliata (Haworth) Sternberg 52. Pyrus pyrifolia Burm. f. Nakai 13. Cannabis sativa Linn. 53. Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissner 14. Carum carvi Linn. 54. Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don 15. Cirsium wallichii DC. 55. Ribes grossularia Linn.

16. Coleus forskohlii (Willd.) Briq. 56. Rosa sericea Lindley 17. Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. 57. Roscoea alpine Royle

18. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. 58. Rubia cordifolia Linn. Sensu Hook. f. 19. Corydalis govaniana Wall. 59. Rubus ellipticus Smith

20. Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo 60. Rubus foliolosus D. Don 21. Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. ex Griseb. 61. Rubus nutans Wall.

22. Duchesnea indica (Andr.) Focke. 62. Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 23. Elaeagnus umbellata auct non Thunb. 63. Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don 24. Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. 64. Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch.-Bip. 25. Fagopyrum tataricum (Linn.) Gaertn. 65. Selinum vaginatum (Edgew.) Clarke 26. Fraxinus micrantha Lingels. 66. Senecio chrysanthemoides DC. 27. Geranium wallichianum D. Don ex Sw. 67. Silene kumaonensis Williams 28. Gerardiana heterophylla (Vahl.) Decne. 68. Solanum nigrum Linn.

29. Hippophae salicifolia (D. Don) Serv. 69. Swertia ciliata (G. Don) B. L. Burtt 30. Hyoscyamus niger Linn. 70. Taraxacum officinale Weber ex Wiggers 31. Impatiens scabrida DC.;

I. roylei Walp. I. balsamina L.

71. Taxus baccata Linn. 32. Iris kumaonensis D. Don ex Royle 72. Thalictrum foliolosum DC.

33. Juglans regia Linn. 73. Thamnolia vermicularis (Sw.) Ach. 34. Juniperus cummunis Linn. 74. Thymus serpyllum Linn.

35. Jurinea macrocephala (Royle) Clarke 75. Urtica dioica Linn. 36. Lilium oxypetalum (D. Don) Baker 76. Urtica parviflora Roxb. 37. Malva sylvestris Linn. 77. Valeriana wallichii DC. 38. Mazus surculosus D. Don 78. Viburnum nervosum D. Don 39. Paris polyphylla Smith 79. Viola serpens Wall. ex Roxb. 40. Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle 80. Zanthoxylum armatum DC.

4.2. Economic Evaluation:

For economic evaluation of traditionally used plant resources, the following four variables were selected –

(i) market value of species extracted,

(ii) value of medicinal plants used in local medicine,

(iii) value of medicinal plants as source of new plant based drugs or drugs synthesized based on plant product, and

(iv) value of potential medicinal plant species lost due to extinction.

The value of medicinal plant resources has been worked out using formula – V = (PE) + (AR) + (DY) + X

Where,

P = Market value of medicinal plants extracted, E = Quantity of medicinal species extracted annually, A = Population using traditional medicine,

R = Rupees saved by one person annually by using wild species for primary health care,

D = Value of a medicinal plant species that serve as source for new drug, Y = Number of species giving rise to new drugs, and

CHAPTER V

Ethnobotanical, Phytochemical and Conservation Aspects of Plant

Resources of Dharchula Region

5.1.

Abies pindrow

Fir)

Family : Pinaceae

Local Name : Wuman shin (Byas, Darma, Chaudas)

Description: A lofty evergreen tree attaining girth of 2.5-4 m and height of 45-60 m, with narrow cylindric crown and horizontal or drooping branches. Bark dark grey and brown, rough, furrowed and exfoliating in regular woody scales. Blaze somewhat fibrous, uniform deep reddish-brown or purplish. Leaves variable, 2.5-6.2 cm long, under surface with 2 silvery bands on either side of mid rib, tip notched and dark green in colour. Cones solitary or in pairs, erect, dark blue, situated a little below the tips of the shoots, ripe cones erect, cylindric. Seeds 2.5-3.2 cm long including wing. (Figure 3a & 3b)

Phenology: New leaves appear during April-May and these persist for 3-5 years. Cones ripen during October – November.

Ecology and Distribution: It is distributed in the northern aspect of the mountains and occur either in pure patches or in association with Quercus semecarpifolia, Taxus baccata, Betula utilis, Pinus wallichiana, Rhododendron anthopogon and R. companulatum at altitudes between 2,500 and 3,700 m. Prefers cool and moist areas in the northern aspects (Figure 3c). At higher elevations it grows on deep and rich soils of all the aspects. It is quite common in Pinkhu forests above Chirkila on way to

Chipla, above Baling village in Darma valley, above Budhi village up to Nampa on way to Kuti in Byas valley and in higher localities in Chaudas.

Figure 3a. Young stands of Abies pindrow at Garbyang in Byas valley

Figure 3b. Unripe cones of Abies piondrow near Budhi village of Byas valley

Propagation: Abies pindrow prefers a good moist but not water-logged soils. It grows well in heavy clay soils. Trees are very shade tolerant, especially when young, but growth is slower in dense shade. It is intolerant of atmospheric pollution. Prefers slightly acidic conditions down to a pH of about 5. Prefers growing on a north-facing slope. Silver Fir sheds seeds

during October-November and seeds germinate in following May-June under fairly heavy shade. The seedlings grow slowly for 3-4 years and afterwards growth is rapid. It attains height of 5-7 m in about 20 years. Seedlings can be produced in the nurseries in beds of fresh, well drained and porous soil under fair amount of sun light. Seeds are sown in the beds in Oct-Nov before snowfall and watered. Seedlings are retained in the beds for 3-4 years before transplanting. Application of nitrogenous and phosphatic manures accelerates the growth. Seedlings are pricked out from the beds when they are about 5 cms tall and planted out in the field at 3 m x 3 m spacing when they are about 30 cm tall. Fortification of seedlings with mycorrhiza is helpful. Young trees are very slow to establish because they are often damaged by late frosts. It is best to grow young trees in high shade to overcome frost. 30-90 cm tall saplings give better growth and higher survival in the field. Larger trees perform badly and hardly put on any growth for several years. This also badly affects root development and wind resistance. Young plants until they are 3-4 years old need protection against livestock which browse on leaves.

Figure 3c. Natural habitat of Abies pindrow at Chiyalekh of Byas valley

Chemical Constituents: A chalcone glycoside (I) along with okanin, okanin-4’-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside,

butein-4’-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, 8,3’,4’-trihydroxyflavanone-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside was isolated; Friedelin, taraxerol, beta-amyrin and ursolic acid identified in heartwood (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993; 1995). A tetracyclic triterpenoid Pidrolactone – 3alpha-hydroxylanosta-7,9(11),22E,24-tetraen-26,23-olide isolated from the leaves of Abies pindrow (Tripathi et al.1996). Bornyl acetate, camphene, carvone, limonene, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene isolated in volatile oils of needles and twigs collected from Kalinchok and Rasuwa regions of Nepal (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998).

On steam distillation leaves yield pale yellow, aromatic oil with balsamic odour. Fresh needles from Jubbal (Himachal Pradesh) yielded oil (0.25%), having following properties: d25 degree, 0.9312; nD25 degree , 1.4910; [alpha]D 25 degree, -10025’; acid val., 7.40; sap val., 60.91; sap val after acetylation, 72.04. The oil contains: alpha-pinene (14.7%); l-limonene (10.6%); delta3-carene (11.8%); dipentene (8.4%); l-bornyl acetate (15.7%); and l-cadinene (9.9%). The needles from Gulmarg (J&K) gave 0.61% oil (d15 degree, 0.8845; nD20 degree, 1.4641) which contained pinenes, sesquiterpenes and ester as bornyl acetate (30.8%). The oil is used for scenting soaps, deodorants, and disinfectants (Anonymous, 1985). Analysis of bark gives following values: extractives (8.1%); tannin (1.58%); carbohydrates (11.1%); lignin (38.0%); and ash (1.64%). Bark also yields 1.7% of a wax-like substance which compares favourably with commercially important waxes (Anonymous, 1985).

Comparative suitability of the timber, expressed as the percentages of the same properties of teak are: wt, 60-75; strength as a beam, 55-70; stiffness as a beam, 70-85; suitability as a post, 65-80; shock resisting ability, 60-75; retention of shape, 60-65; shear, 60-80; hardness, 40-65; and nail or screw holding property, 60-75. In strength, as a beam and as a post, and also in hardness the timber is stronger than spruce (Anonymous, 1985).

Uses: Fresh leaves are mixed with honey in equal quantities and made into paste. One spoonful of this paste is administered twice a day for the treatment of cough and cold (Pandey and Pande, 1999; Joshi, 1993).

Conservation status: Abies pindrow is abundant in Dharchula Himalaya. Natural regeneration is very good particularly in Byas valley. It is not a threatened species in the areas surveyed.

Trade: There is no local trade for any parts or products derived from Silver Fir in Dharchula region. There is no restriction on trading the parts or products of Abies pindrow.

Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Matured cones (Figure 3b) boiled in water and the preparation, which is dark blue in colour, was used as ink in the past. Trees of Abies pindrow are associated with religious beliefs in the whole of Byas, Chaudas and Darma valleys. Consequently, except for the purpose of flag posts to be erected in the local temples and around the dwellings, these trees are not harvested and are well protected in the forests around the Bhotia villages. Temples of the deities are generally built surrounded by Quercus semecarpifolia and Abies pindrow trees. On special religious occasions, mid-sized (up to 15 m tall) silver fir trees are debarked and are erected as flagposts on the temple grounds and around dwellings. These posts are replaced after 2-3 years. The green trees are never felled for the purpose of timber or fuel. Dead and fallen trees are used as fuel. Timber is not considered durable for the purpose of constructions.

Since these trees come up rather easily in its natural habitat, they are ideal for plantations in avalanche prone areas. Abies pindrow colonises the areas devastated by the avalanches and also provide protection to lowlying areas against avalanches.

5.2.

Aconitum balfourii

Family : Ranunculaceae

Local Name : Gobrya-bis (Byas, Darma, Chaudas), Meetha bish

Description: Erect herb, about a meter tall. Roots paired and tuberous, conic or elongate conico-cylindric, 2–5 cm long and about 1 cm thick with few root fibers, externally grayish-brown.Stem simple and straight. Leaves orbicular, ovate-cordate, lower ones long-petioled, upper ones short-petioled, palmately 3-partite, segments 3-lobed, surfaces sparsely hairy. Inflorescence up to about 30 cm long. Sepals elliptic, blue, carpels 5 and glabrous. Berry many-seeded, blackish when ripe. (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Plants of Aconitum balfourii in Budhi Galja of Byas valley

Phenology: It flowers during August-September and fruits during the same period.

Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open grass lands in alpine and sub-alpine regions always in association with other species of Aconitum at altitudes between 2,400 and 4,500 m. It is quite common in Budhi Galja, Kuti, Api, Chiyalekh, Malpa Dhar, Njyang top.

Propagation: Aconitum balfourii thrives in most soils under shade of trees. It grows well in heavy clay soils but prefers moist soil in sun or semi-shade. It inhibits the growth of other species in the community, particularly legumes perhaps due to allelopathy. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown as these give higher percentage of survival. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polythene bags filled soil. Seedlings are allowed to grow in open areas throughout winter. Saplings are then planted in the field during spring or early summer. Tubers are harvested usually after one year growth in the field. It can also be propagated vegetatively through tuber cuttings during spring or autumn (http://www.pfaf.org).

Chemical Constituents: Norditerpenoids

-8-O-methylveratroylpseudaconine, balfourine and veratroylbikhaconine isolated from roots together with pseudaconitine, veratroylpseudacontine, indaconitine, ludaconitine, 8-deacetylyunaconitine, bikhaconitine, neoline and chasmanine; condelphine, bullatine, neoline, isotalatizidine, 1-O-methyldelphisine, pseudaconitine, yunaconitine, bikhaconitine and indaconitine isolated from aerial parts (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1998). Pseudaconitine and veratroylpseudacontine have been found to be the major constituents of aerial and root parts of Aconitum balfourii (Khetwal, 2004).

Uses: In Tibtan medicine tuber is used as anti-inflamatory, analgesic, vermifuge and antirheumatic. It is used to dry up serous fluids. It is also used against all types of pain and inflammations due to gout or arthritis, all disorders

due to worms/microorganisms, amnesia, loss of bodily heat, leprosy and paralysis (Tsarong, 1994).

Conservation status: It is rather rare in wild but not threatened. The rarity is neither due to over-exploitation nor eradication but it is perhaps associated with community characteristics. This plant is considered undesirable in the grazing lands as it is highly poisonous for sheep and cattle.

Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT) has listed this species as critical in North-West Himalaya in India (Anonymous, 1997).

Trade: There is no commercial extraction of this species in the region. Besides, no portion of this plant is traded in Dharchula areas.

Export of plant portions and derivatives of all the Aconitum species obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited vide Notification No. 24 (RE-98)/1997-2002 dated 14.10.1998 of Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. Formulations include products which may contain portions/extracts of plants only in unrecognizable and physically inseparable forms. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export subject to production of certificate of Cultivation from the Regional Deputy Director (Wildlife), or Chief Conservator of Forests, or The Divisional Forest Officer. Further, all formulations – herbal/Ayurvedic medicines, where label does not mention any ingredients extracted from the plant can be freely exported without the requirement of any certificate from any authorities. Besides, formulations made out of imported species will be allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations being exported. If the affidavit is proved to be false action is liable to be taken under Foreign

Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Entire plant including tuberous roots is considered deadly poisonous particularly for sheep and cattle. When human consumes any part of this plant froth is formed in the mouth and may be fatal. It is highly fatal to sheep and cattle. Shephards have to be always on the look out for and guard against this plant. It is likely that shepherds may be weeding these plants out from the grazing lands to avoid fatality amongst the livestock and this may be resulting in this species becoming rare in meadows in the areas surveyed. The most effective antidote for this is the tubers of Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle.

Tubers of this plant are being used for medicinal purposes elsewhere, though not in Dharchula areas. It can become rare if not extinct if extracted indiscriminately like Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle. Cultivation of the species in the homegardens is the best conservation strategy for this species as demonstrated by a local inhabitant in Budhi village of Byas valley.

5.3. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (Aconite)

Family : Ranunculaceae

Local Name : Atis (Darma, Byas, Chaudas), Patis

Description: Perennial herb, about 30 - 50 cm tall. Roots tuberous, biennial, paired, tuberous cylindric to cylindric-oblong or conic, 2-5 cm long and 0.5 to 1.2 cm thick with few root fibres, which break off easily, very bitter in taste. Leaves heteromorphus, ovate or orbicular-cordate, amplexicaule at base. Inflorescence a slender raceme, 10-12 cms long. Flowers light greenish blue. Sepals greenish blue, marked with red or violet. Petals glabrous, carpels 5. Seeds smooth. (Figure 5a & 5b).

Phenology: It flowers during August-September and fruits during the same period.

5a 5b

Figure 5a. Flower of Aconitum heterophyllum plant growing in abandoned fields along with associated ground flora in Bon of Darma Valley.

Figure 5c. Abandoned fields with Aconitum heterophyllum together with associated ground flora in Bon of Darma valley

Figure 5d. Cleaned and air dried Aconitum heterophyllum tubers ready for use and commerce

Ecology and Distribution: It grows in exposed alpine grass lands on humus-rich soils in the alpine and subalpine zones, and in forests in association with other species of Aconitum (Figure 5c). It is found all over Budhi Galja,

Kuti, Api, Malpa Dhar, Njyang top, Bon, Dugtu, Panchachuli and in Byas, Darma and Chaudas valleys in Dharchula Himalayas at altitudes between 2,500 and 4,500 m.

Propagation: Aconitum heterophyllum occurs in most soils under the shade of trees. It grows well in heavy clay moist soils in sun or semi-shade. It inhibits the growth of nearby species, especially legumes. Seeds harvested from ripe fruits are sown during October. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into polybags filled with soil and are allowed to grow through winter. Saplings are planted in the field during late spring or early summer. It can also be propagated by division of tuber during spring and also during autumn (http://www.pfaf.org). Tubers are collected in August – October when plant is approximately one year old in the field. After the tubers are extracted smaller ones are set aside for replanting and plumper ones are separated for drying.

Chemical Constituents: The roots yield 0.79% of total alkaloids. Following alkaloids isolated: atisine (yield, 0.4%), heteratisine (yield, 0.03%), histisine, heterophyllisine (mp 1780), heterophyllidine (mp 2690), heterophelline (mp 2210), atidine, hetidine (C21H27NO4, mp 218-210), benzolheteratisine (C29H37NO6, mp 213-140), F-dihydroatisine (mp 159-610), hetisinone (mp 275-780), atisenol and hetisine (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1990; 1993; 1998; Anonymous, 1985).

Analysis of sample collected from different populations revealed higher alkaloid contents in alpine populations. All identified alkaloids were found higher in mature root tubers harvested in November-December (Bahuguna et al., 2000).

Uses: Tuber is used in Tibtan medicine as anti-inflamatory, analgesic, and febrifuge especially from poisoning, for treatment of fever from contagious diseases, inflammation of intestines and as an antidote for

of root is used for indigestion, abdominal pain and malarial fever. In Pindari area tubers are chewed in small quantity, three times a day to get relief from stomachache and ulcer (Kalakoti and Pangtey, 1988). In remote parts of Almora District (Jhuni village) in Uttaranchal one spoonful root paste mixed with honey or sugar is administered for intestinal worms and to increase body strength. Half tea-spoonful paste mixed with honey and ginger juice is given to children for fever caused by cough and cold (Arya and Prakash, 1999).

In Ayurveda it is used as expectorant, antipyretic, astringent, antiperiodic, antidysenteric, antiemetic, bitter tonic, stomachic, astringent, aphrodisiac. Root powder is used in acute inflammation, dyspepsia, cough, hysteria, piles and throat diseases, gastric troubles of children suffering from cough, diarrhoea and vomiting. It is prescribed with other drugs in treatment of bites from poisonous snakes and scorpions. Root is considered to be aphrodisiac, digestive, valuable febrifuge and an infertility agent. In Yunani medicine system white and dark varieties are used to strengthen body and to alleviate dysentery. It is considered good in piles, in bilious complaints, in plethoric conditions and in removing gases from stomach (Kirtikar and Basu, 1935).

It is highly recommended for diseases in children. It is a keen stimulant to digestive system as an appetizer, digestant and astringent. Diarrhea is controlled with a mixture of Atis and Holarrhena antidysenterica bark and seeds administered with honey. The combination of Atis, Zingiber officinale (Ginger) and Tinospora cordifolia (Geloh) is good for colitis. The powders of Atis and Embelia ribes (Vaivarang) are an effective remedy for worm infestation. Atis powder with honey alleviates cough and asthma. Atis helps to revitalize the sexual desire and reduce excessive accumulation of fats in obesity; it purifies the breast milk in lactating mothers and is also beneficial in rat poisoning (Paranjpe, 2001).

Conservation status: It is common in abandoned fields particularly in Bon in Darma Valley (Figure 5c) and Kuti village in Byas. It has, however, become rare in wild due to over-exploitation.

It is listed as rare and endangered due to over-exploitation in Indian Red Data Book (Jain and Sastry, 1991). FRLHT has categorized this species as critical in North-West Himalaya in India and has put it in endangered list in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997).

Trade: The trade is not open and is carried out clandestinely. It is one of the high value medicinal plants in the region. Tubers are currently sold for Rs 800 to 1,000 per kg.

Export of plant portions and derivatives of all Aconitum species obtained from the wild except the formulations made therefrom is prohibited vide Notification No. 24 (RE-98)/1997-2002 dated 14.10.1998 of Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. Formulations include products which may contain portions/extracts of plants only in unrecognizable and physically inseparable forms. However, plant and plant portions, derivatives and extracts of the cultivated plant are allowed for export subject to production of certificate of cultivation from the Regional Deputy Director (Wildlife), or Chief Conservator of Forests, or the Divisional Forest Officer. Further, all formulations – herbal/Ayurvedic medicines, where label does not mention any ingredients extracted from the plant can be freely exported without the requirement of any certificate from any authorities. Besides, formulations made out of imported species will be allowed to be exported freely without any restriction subject to furnishing of an affidavit to the Custom authorities at the time of export that only the imported plant species have been used for the manufacture of the value added formulations being exported. If the affidavit is proved to be false action is liable to be taken under Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992.

Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Tuber is considered as one of the most potent medicine and, therefore, valued very highly by the local inhabitants. Dried tuber (Figure 5d) is chewed or root paste or root extraction in water is used as an antidote for poison, food poisoning, stomachache due to overeating and other stomach ailments. It is said to be the only antidote for Aconitum balfourii and Aconitum violaceum. It is considered so useful that locals generally carry it in their pocket while going to the forests to be used in case they suspect any foul play by the enemies or adversaries. The root paste is also administered to the goats, sheep or other animals in case they consume poisonous grasses while grazing. It is one of the important constituent in preparation of local medicine for jaundice and fever and sickness in women after delivery. The root is best harvested in the autumn as soon as the plant dies down and is dried for later use. Roots are cleaned and dried in air to the core till they become brittle, snapping when bent. Once dried these can be preserved for many years. Pure roots when dry break with a short starchy fracture. This plant is often mistaken for poisonous Aconitum, which lookes identical in appearance, only tubers are different

Extensive extraction of tuber for medicinal purpose is likely to cause this species to become rare, if not extinct, in wild in very near future. Already, its population in its natural habitat has declined alarmingly. Institutional or Government support for extension, marketing and cultivation in homegardens and abandoned fields is the best conservation strategy for this species. There is plenty of scope for cultivation of Atis and other rare medicinal and economically important plants in the region.

5.4. Ainsliaea aptera DC.

Family : Compositae

Local Name : Jaunka usu (Chaudas)

Description: Slender herb of about 60 cm tall with thick rootstock. Leaves mostly radical, triangular, ovate-cordate, 6-14 cm long, 4-10 cm broad. Leafless stems appear in spring bearing slender uninterrupted spikes of drooping white or pinkish flower-heads; later long stalked leaves appear from the root stock; in rainy season a leafy stem is produced with numerous flower heads, which produce seeds. (Figure 6).

Phenology: It flowers and fruits during March-June.

Figure 6. Ainsliaea aptera plants together with associated ground flora in its natural habitat in Sirdang in Chaudas.

Ecology and Distribution: It grows in grassy slopes in the temperate regions. It is a common herb found throughout Chaudas at altitudes between 1,500 and 3,000 m.

Propagation: Ainsliaea aptera seed is sown in spring. 10-15 cm tall seedlings are transplanted into individual polythene bags. They are planted out in the field in next spring.

Chemical Constituents: Stem barks of allied species Ainsliaea latifolia (D. Don) Sch.-Bip. Syn. A. pteropoda DC. Contains a flavonoid (Anonymous, 1985).

Uses: The herb is diuretic (Anonymous, 1948). Root extract with sugar syrup is given in intermittent fever; decoction is used in painful urination (Gaur, 1999).

Conservation status: It is found in scattered populations in its natural habitat. Although its occurance is common in Chaundas valley, this species is vulnerable to over-exploitation. Commercial extraction in future may threaten its existence in its natural habitat.

Trade: There is no trade of Ainsliaea aptera in Dharchula areas. There is no prohibition in the export or import of any portions/extracts of Ainsliaea aptera or any formulations made out of this plant.

Observations and Discussions on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: In Chaudas, entire plant is used for deworming in the stomach. Powdered roots are used to get quick relief from acute stomachache.

5.5.

Allium stracheyi

Family : Alliaceae (Liliaceae)

Local Name : Jumbu (Darma, Byas, Chaudas)

Description: A glabrous herb, 10-20 cm in height. Bulbs small clustered, narrowly avoid. Leaves 3-5, narrowly linear, obtuse, flat, up to 30 cms long remains green even when dry, have pungent smell. Flowering scapes slender, compressed up to 30 cm tall. Flowers purple or yellow, in dense flowered terminal umbels. (Figure 7).

Phenology: It flowers and fruits during July-September.

Ecology and Distribution: It grows in open meadows having well drained, moist, sandy and loamy soils. It grows naturally in dry open meadows and mountain slopes in Byas valley at altitudes between 2,700 and 4,000 m.

Propagation: Allium stracheyi is cultivated by the local inhabitants for personal consumption and as cash crop for sale. It can be cultivated by planting bulbs fairly deeply. It prefers sunny and light well drained soil. It cannot grow in shade. It grows well with most plants like roses, carrots and beet, but it inhibits the growth of legumes. Seeds are sown in April- May and leaves are harvested in June-July.

Chemical Constituents: Plant contains sulphur compounds, which give them their onion flavour.

Uses: Regular consumption of Allium stracheyi with diet reduces blood cholesterol levels. It also acts as tonic to the digestive system and tonifies the circulatory system. Bulbs and leaves are eaten either raw or cooked and flowers are used as garnish on salads. Consumption in large quantities

is reported to cause poisoning to some mammals; dogs being particularly susceptible (Cooper and Johnson, 1984). The juice of whole plant is used as insect repellent. The whole plant is said to repel insects and moles (Riotte, 1978).

Figure 7. Allium stracheyi plants cultivated in homegardens in Garbyang in Byas valley.

Conservation status: Allium stracheyi is vulnerable to grazing in the alpine meadows in Dharchula Himalaya. It is listed as vulnerable in Indian Red Data Book (Nayar and Sastry, 1987). FRLHT has also put this species in the lsit of vulnerable species in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh (Anonymous, 1997).

Trade: There is very good demand for dry Allium stracheyi. It is sold in the local market for Rs. 120 per kg. There is no restriction or prohibition on export of plant portions and derivatives of Allium stracheyi.

Observations and Discussion on Traditional Uses in the Study Area: Dried leaves of Allium stracheyi are valued very highly by the local inhabitants; they are used by Bhotias as condiment to season lentils (Dal). It gives typical flavour and is considered very healthy additions to the diet.