Multidisciplinary
Multidisciplinary in in chchararactacterer, , it it drdrawaws s on on ththeoreorieies s and and coconcnceptepts s frfrom om popolilititicacal l scscieiencnce,e, economics,
economics, sociologysociology,, adminadministristrative ative lawlaw,, behavi behavioural oural sciensciencece,, managementmanagement and a range of and a range of related fields. The goals of the field of public administration are related to the
related fields. The goals of the field of public administration are related to the democraticdemocratic valuesvalues of improving
of improving equalityequality,, justice, justice, security, efficiency, effectiveness of public services usually in asecurity, efficiency, effectiveness of public services usually in a non-profit, non-taxable venue;
non-profit, non-taxable venue; business administration business administration, on the other hand, is primarily concerned, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with taxable
with taxable profit profit. For a field built on concepts (. For a field built on concepts (accountabilityaccountability,, governancegovernance,, decentralizationdecentralization,, clientele
clientele), these concepts are often ill-defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these), these concepts are often ill-defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these concepts (Dubois & Fattore 2009).
concepts (Dubois & Fattore 2009). In the
In the United StatesUnited States, the academic field draws heavily on, the academic field draws heavily on political science political science andand lawlaw. Scholars such. Scholars such as
as John A. Rohr John A. Rohr write of a long history behind the constitutionalwrite of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacylegitimacy of governmentof government bureaucracy
bureaucracy. In Europe (notably in. In Europe (notably in BritainBritain andand GermanyGermany), the divergence of the field from other ), the divergence of the field from other dis
discipciplilines nes can be can be tratraced ced to to the 1720sthe 1720s continentalcontinental univeruniversity sity curricurriculumculum. . FormFormallyally, , offiofficialcial academic distinctions were made in the 19
academic distinctions were made in the 1910s and 1890s, respectively.10s and 1890s, respectively. One minor tradition that the more specific term "
One minor tradition that the more specific term " public management public management" refers to ordinary, routine" refers to ordinary, routine or typical management concerns, in the context of achieving
or typical management concerns, in the context of achieving public good public good. Others argue that. Others argue that public management as a new, economically driven perspective on the operation of government. public management as a new, economically driven perspective on the operation of government.
Th
This is lalatttter er viview ew is is ofofteten n calcalleled d ""new new publpublic ic manmanageagemenmentt" " by by itits s advadvococatateses. . NeNew w PuPublblicic Management represents a reform attempt, aimed at reemphasizing the professional nature of the Management represents a reform attempt, aimed at reemphasizing the professional nature of the field. This will replace the academic, moral or disciplinary emphasis. Some theorists advocate a field. This will replace the academic, moral or disciplinary emphasis. Some theorists advocate a bright line differentiation of the
bright line differentiation of the professional field from related academic dprofessional field from related academic disciplines like politicalisciplines like political science and sociology; it remains interdisciplinary in nature.
science and sociology; it remains interdisciplinary in nature. As a
As a fielfield, public administrd, public administration can be ation can be comparcompared toed to business administration business administration, and the master of , and the master of public administration (MPA) viewed as similar to
public administration (MPA) viewed as similar to a master of business administration (MBA) for a master of business administration (MBA) for tho
those se wiswishinhing g to to purpursue sue govegovernmrnmentental al or or non-non-proprofit fit carcareereers. s. An An MPMPA A oftoften en empemphashasizeizess substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that are traditionally secondary to that of substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that are traditionally secondary to that of prof
profit for it for businebusiness administrss administratorsators. . The MPA The MPA is related is related to to simisimilar government studies includinlar government studies includingg public affairs,
public affairs, public policypublic policy, and political science. Differences often include program emphases, and political science. Differences often include program emphases on
opposed to focuses on constitutional issues such as
opposed to focuses on constitutional issues such as separation of powers,separation of powers, administrative lawadministrative law,, problems of governance and power, and
problems of governance and power, and participatory democracyparticipatory democracy..
The Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of The Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on practice. The DPA requires a dissertation and significant public administration, focusing on practice. The DPA requires a dissertation and significant coursework beyond the masters level. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, coursework beyond the masters level. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. are often added.
the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. are often added. Public administration theory
Public administration theory is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, bureaucracy, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes place. In recent years, government, bureaucracy, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes place. In recent years, public administration theory has periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical theory public administration theory has periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical theory
and
and postmodernpostmodern philosphilosophicaophical l notionnotions s of of governmgovernment, governance, and ent, governance, and powerpower. . HoweveHowever, r, manymany p
pubublilic c adadmimininiststraratition on scschoholalars rs susupppporort t a a clclasassisic c defdefininititioion n of of ththe e teterm rm ememphphasasiziziningg constitutionality, service, bureaucratic forms of organization, and hierarchical government.
constitutionality, service, bureaucratic forms of organization, and hierarchical government. History
History
Antiquity to the early 19th century Antiquity to the early 19th century Classic scholars including
Classic scholars including PlatoPlato,, AristotleAristotle, Vishnu Gupta (, Vishnu Gupta (KautilyaKautilya) and) and MachiavelliMachiavelli are theare the basi
basis s of subsequent generatiof subsequent generations of ons of publipublic c adminadministristration. Until the ation. Until the birtbirth h of aof a national state,national state, thethe gov
governernors ors priprincincipalpally ly empemphashasizeized d mormoral al and and polpolititical ical humhuman an natnatureure, , as as welwell l as as the the on on thethe organization of the governing bodies. Operations were perceived to be secondary to establishing organization of the governing bodies. Operations were perceived to be secondary to establishing and clarifying the overall guiding theory of government. In
and clarifying the overall guiding theory of government. In MachiavelliMachiavelli's's The PrinceThe Prince,, EuropeanEuropean
princes or governors were offered advice for properly administering their governments. This princes or governors were offered advice for properly administering their governments. This work represents one of the first Western expressions of the methodology of government. As the work represents one of the first Western expressions of the methodology of government. As the centuries moved past, scholars and governors persisted in their various endeavors explaining centuries moved past, scholars and governors persisted in their various endeavors explaining how one governs.
how one governs.
Though progress varied across the globe, 16th century
Though progress varied across the globe, 16th century Western EuropeWestern Europe primarily ascribed to theprimarily ascribed to the "n
"natatioionanal-sl-statatete" " momodel del of of gogovevernrnmement nt and and itits s corcorrerespsponondiding ng admadmininisistrtratiative ve ststruructcturureses.. Predominantly imperial Asia, tribal Africa, and the tribal/colonial Americas were each feeling Predominantly imperial Asia, tribal Africa, and the tribal/colonial Americas were each feeling the extent of Europe's diplomatic strategies whose emphasis was war, profit, and proselytizing. the extent of Europe's diplomatic strategies whose emphasis was war, profit, and proselytizing. In any event, nation-states required a professional force and structure for carrying out the In any event, nation-states required a professional force and structure for carrying out the prim
primary ary purpospurposes es of of governmgovernment: ensuring stabilitent: ensuring stability y with through law, with through law, secursecurity with ity with a a milimilitarytary,, and some measure of equity through
and some measure of equity through taxation.taxation.
Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal records,
for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal records, militarymilitary prowess, andprowess, and taxtax administration, and record keeping. As the Europea
administration, and record keeping. As the Europea n imperialist age progressed and the militarilyn imperialist age progressed and the militarily dominant region extended its hold over other continents and people, the need for increasingly dominant region extended its hold over other continents and people, the need for increasingly conventional administrative expertise grew.
the goal of societal reform.
the goal of societal reform. Johann Heinrich Gottlob JustiJohann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most well-known professor of was the most well-known professor of Cameralism. Thus, from a Western European perspective, classic, medieval, and enlightened Cameralism. Thus, from a Western European perspective, classic, medieval, and enlightened scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that
scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that has come to be called phas come to be called public administration.ublic administration. Mid-1800s - 1930s
Mid-1800s - 1930s Lorenz von Stein
Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from, an 1855 German professor from ViennaVienna, is considered the founder of the, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive.
too restrictive. Von Stein taught: Von Stein taught:
•
• Public administration relies on many prestablished disciplines such asPublic administration relies on many prestablished disciplines such as sociologysociology,, political political
science,
science, adminiadministratstrative ive lawlaw andand publipublic c financfinancee. . FurFurthether, r, publpublic ic admadminiinistrstratiation on is is anan integrating science.
integrating science.
•
• PubPublic lic admadminiinistrstratoators rs need need be be concconcernerned ed witwith h botboth h thetheory ory and and prapractictice. ce. PraPracticticalcal
considerations are at the forefront of the field, but
considerations are at the forefront of the field, but theory is the basis of best practices.theory is the basis of best practices.
•
• PubPublic lic admadminiinistrstratiation on is is a a scisciencence e becbecausause e knoknowlewledge dge is is gengeneraerated ted and and evaevalualuatedted
according to the scientific method. according to the scientific method. In the
In the United States,United States, Woodrow WilsonWoodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration. He firstis considered the father of public administration. He first fo
formrmalally ly rerecocogngnizized ed pupublblic ic adadmimininiststraratition on in in an an 181887 87 arartiticlcle e enentititltled ed "T"The he StStududy y of of Administration." The future president wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to Administration." The future president wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy."
money or of energy."[2][2] Wilson was more influential to the science of public administration thanWilson was more influential to the science of public administration than Von Stei
Von Stein, n, priprimarmarily due ily due to to an an artarticlicle e WilWilson wrote in son wrote in 1887 in 1887 in whiwhich ch he he advoadvocatcated ed foufour r concepts:
concepts:
•
• Separation of politics and Separation of politics and administrationadministration •
• Comparative analysis of political and private organizationsComparative analysis of political and private organizations •
• Improving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes toward daily operationsImproving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes toward daily operations •
• Improving the effectiveness of public service through management and by training civilImproving the effectiveness of public service through management and by training civil
servants, merit-based assessment servants, merit-based assessment
The separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting debate. The different The separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting debate. The different pe
persprspectectiveives s regregardarding ing thithis s dicdichothotomy omy contcontribribute ute to to difdifferferententiatiating ing charcharactacterierististics cs of of thethe suggested generations of public administration.
suggested generations of public administration. 1940s
Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction" Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction" (Fry 1989, 80).
(Fry 1989, 80). Luther Gulick and
Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick Lyndall Urwick are two such second generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, andare two such second generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the
the new new gengeneraeratition on of of admadminiinistrstratoators rs stostood od on on the the shoshouldulders ers of of concontemtemporporary ary behabehaviovioralral,, administrative, and organizational "giants" including
administrative, and organizational "giants" including Henri FayolHenri Fayol,, Fredrick Winslow Taylor Fredrick Winslow Taylor ,, Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. With the help of these specialists and Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. With the help of these specialists and their empirical work on human nature, group behavior, and business organizations, second their empirical work on human nature, group behavior, and business organizations, second generation public administration scholars had a necessary advantage over the pre-generation and generation public administration scholars had a necessary advantage over the pre-generation and first generation scholars. That is, the new generation of organizational theories no longer relied first generation scholars. That is, the new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened theorists.
theorists.
Gulick is considered a watershed theorist, a truly unique administrative scholar credited with Gulick is considered a watershed theorist, a truly unique administrative scholar credited with generating a comprehensive, generic theory of organization. During his seven decade career generating a comprehensive, generic theory of organization. During his seven decade career Gulick differentiated his theories from those of his predecessors by emphasizing the scientific Gulick differentiated his theories from those of his predecessors by emphasizing the scientific me
meththodod, , efeffificicienencycy, , prprofofesessisionaonalilismsm, , ststruructcturural al rerefoformrm, , and and exexececututivive e cocontntrorol. l. GuGulilick ck sum
summarmarizeized d the the dutduties ies of of admadminiinistrstratoators rs witwith h an an acracronyonym;m; POSDCORBPOSDCORB, which stands for , which stands for plann
planning, ing, organiorganizing, zing, staffstaffing, ing, direcdirecting, ting, coordicoordinatinnating, g, reportreporting, ing, and and budgetbudgeting. ing. FinalFinally, ly, FayolFayol offered a systematic, 14-point, treatment of private management. Second generation theorists offered a systematic, 14-point, treatment of private management. Second generation theorists dre
drew w upon upon priprivatvate e manmanagemagement ent prapractictices ces for for admadminiinistrstratiative ve sciscienceences. s. A A sinsinglegle, , genegenericric management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector, was thought management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector, was thought to
to be be pospossisiblble. e. WiWith th ththe e gegenerneral al ththeoeoryry, , ththe e adadmimininiststraratitive ve ththeoeory ry coucould ld be be fofocucusesed d onon governmental organizations.
governmental organizations. Post-World War II - 1970s Post-World War II - 1970s
The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the center of criticism in the third generation. In addition to this area of criticism, remained the center of criticism in the third generation. In addition to this area of criticism, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The sometimes deceptive, and expensive
sometimes deceptive, and expensive American intervention in VietnamAmerican intervention in Vietnam along with domesticalong with domestic scandals including
scandals including WatergateWatergate are two examples of self-destructive government behavior duringare two examples of self-destructive government behavior during the
the thithird rd genegeneratrationion. . TheThere re was was a a calcall l by by citcitizeizens ns for for effefficiicient ent admadminiinistrstratiation on to to repreplaclacee ineff
ineffectiveective, , wastewasteful ful bureaubureaucracycracy. . PublPublic ic adminadministristration would ation would have have to to distdistance ance itseitself lf fromfrom politics to answer this call and remain effective.
politics to answer this call and remain effective.
Elected officials supported such reform. The Hoover Commission, chaired by University of Elected officials supported such reform. The Hoover Commission, chaired by University of Chicago professor
Chicago professor Louis BrownlowLouis Brownlow, to examine reorganization of government. Dr. Brownlow, to examine reorganization of government. Dr. Brownlow subsequently founded the public administration service on the university, 1313 E. 60th Street. subsequently founded the public administration service on the university, 1313 E. 60th Street. The organization PAS provided consulting services to governments at all levels of government The organization PAS provided consulting services to governments at all levels of government until the 1970s.
Ga
Gaebebleler. r. ThThe e nenew w momodedel l advadvococatated ed ththe e ususe e of of prprivivatate e sesectctor or ininnovnovatatioion, n, reresosoururceces, s, anandd organizational ideas to improve the public sector. During the
organizational ideas to improve the public sector. During the Clinton AdministrationClinton Administration (1992- (1992-2000), Vice President
2000), Vice President Al GoreAl Gore adopted and reformed federal agencies accordingly. New publicadopted and reformed federal agencies accordingly. New public management there by became prevalent throughout the US bureaucracy.
management there by became prevalent throughout the US bureaucracy.
Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of Americans as "customers" rather Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of Americans as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an unacceptable abuse. That is, customers are a means to an end, profit, rather than "citizens" is an unacceptable abuse. That is, customers are a means to an end, profit, rather than part of the policy making process. Citizens are in fact the proprietors of government (the than part of the policy making process. Citizens are in fact the proprietors of government (the ow
ownenersrs), ), opopposposed ed to to memererely ly ththe e cucuststomomerers s of of a a bubusisineness ss (t(the he papatrtronons)s). . In In NeNew w PuPublblicic Management, people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants. Nevertheless, the Management, people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants. Nevertheless, the model is still widely accepted at all levels of government.
model is still widely accepted at all levels of government. 1990s
1990s
In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public service model. This model's In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public service model. This model's chief contribution is a focus on Americans as "citizens" rather than "customers". Accordingly, chief contribution is a focus on Americans as "citizens" rather than "customers". Accordingly, the citizen is expected to participate in government and take an active role throughout the policy the citizen is expected to participate in government and take an active role throughout the policy process. No longer are the proprietors considered an end to a mean. Whilse this remains feasible process. No longer are the proprietors considered an end to a mean. Whilse this remains feasible at the federal, state & local levels, where the concept of citizenship is commonly wedded, the at the federal, state & local levels, where the concept of citizenship is commonly wedded, the em
emerergegence nce of of 't'traransnsnanatitiononal al adadmimininiststraratitionon' ' wiwith th ththe e grgrowowining g numnumber ber of of ininteternrnatatioionalnal org
organianizatizations ons and and 'tr'transansnatnationional al exeexecutcutive ive netnetworworks' ks' comcompliplicatcates es the the proprospespects cts for for citcitizeizenn engagement.
engagement.
One example of this is
One example of this is openforum.com.auopenforum.com.au, , an an AustrAustralian non-for-pralian non-for-profit eDemocracy projectofit eDemocracy project whi
which ch invinviteites s polpolitiiticiacians, ns, sensenior ior pubpublic lic serservantvants, s, acadacademiemics, cs, busibusinesness s peoppeople le and and othother er keykey stakeholders to engage in high-level po
stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate.licy debate. New public management (NPM)
New public management (NPM)
The critics of NPM claim that a successor to NPM is
The critics of NPM claim that a successor to NPM is digital era governancedigital era governance, focusing on themes, focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage).
