EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT IN AN ALASKAN COMMUNITY: CAREER AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION, SCHOOLING TO WORK TRANSITIONS AND AN ALASKA
NATIVE TRIBE
Meghan Evelynne Harter
A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School for
Education (Cultural Studies and Literacies).
Chapel Hill 2018
Approved by: George Noblit
ii © 2018
iii ABSTRACT
Meghan Evelynne Harter: Education and Employment in an Alaskan Community: Career and Technical Education, Schooling to Work Transitions and an Alaska Native Tribe
(Under the direction of George Noblit)
In 2015, I was contacted by a federally recognized tribe in Alaska (referred to by the pseudonym Springfield Corporation, abbreviated as SC) regarding conducting a needs assessment for the tribe. The study was approved and its scope expanded to encompass the general community. Principal stakeholders approved the research questions listed below.
1. What is the Springfield Corporation’s definition of “need?”
2. What would the Springfield Corporation wish for the education and employment of its members?
3. What is an overall picture of the educational and training programs of the Springfield Corporation?
4. What is the status of higher education among Springfield Corporation members? 5. What is an overall picture of the Springfield Corporation’s cultural education and
language programs?
6. What is the overall picture of employment and employment opportunities for Springfield Community members?
7. How are educational and cultural programs preparing people for further education and for employment?
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I constructed a complex needs assessment (Sleezer, Russ-Eft, & Gupta, 2014) using mixed methods according to Creswell and Plano Clark’s (2011) convergent parallel design. Four
subject groups were surveyed and interviewed. I analyzed the quantitative data and transcribed, coded and analyzed the qualitative data. I compared and compiled the sets of quantitative and qualitative data, along with research and background information collected on the local economy and schooling.
In recent decades, the school reform movement resulted in a strong push for students to pursue higher education and in the enactment of standards and accountability legislation for schools and career and technical education, abbreviated as CTE (Ravage, 2016; Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016). As priority was increasingly given to academic subjects, CTE programs were eclipsed and steadily lost funding and enrollment (Jacob, 2017). In contrast, this study found that while many students desire a higher education, many others wish to pursue skilled trades. Participants stated that CTE programs should be restored, extended and improved. Responding to calls for community-based education and for rebalancing funding for CTE may benefit K-12 students and adults and may strengthen and diversify the local economy.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES ... x
LIST OF FIGURES ... xi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xii
CHAPTER 1: A FUNNY THING HAPPENED ON THE WAY TO OUR HONEYMOON ... 1
Introduction and Background ... 1
Contract and Proposal ... 3
Needs Assessment Research Questions ... 4
Execution of Study ... 5
Returning to the Literature ... 7
Chapter by Chapter Summary ... 9
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ... 11
European Influences on American Vocational Education ... 12
American Philosophers and their Influence on Vocational Education ... 12
Influential Early Vocational Educational Practices and Policies ... 16
Apprenticeships... 16
Trade schools ... 17
Formalization of Academic Schooling ... 18
Vocational Education Legislation until the 1980s ... 19
Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act of 1917... 19
Legislation after the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 ... 22
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The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Act of 1984 and its amendments ... 34
Other legislation from the mid-1990s to 2014 ... 36
Alaska and Career and Technical Education... 40
Intersection of Vocational Education in High School and Employment ... 44
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH PROCEDURES... 47
Needs Assessment ... 47
Types of Needs Assessments ... 48
Mixed Methods ... 52
Mixed Methods Procedures ... 55
SC Complex Needs Assessment Structure ... 57
Pre-assessment: Phase I ... 57
Conduct the Needs Assessment: Phase II ... 64
Conduct the Post-Assessment: Phase III... 75
CHAPTER 4: CONTEXT... 76
Springfield and Alaska ... 76
Alaska Native Corporations in Springfield ... 77
Alaska Native/American Indian Families in Springfield ... 80
Industries and Schooling ... 83
Subsistence Economy ... 83
Fishing Industry ... 85
Timber Industry ... 86
Tourism Industry ... 90
Shipyard and Ferry ... 92
Native-owned Businesses ... 93
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Physical Isolation ... 95
Impact of Economic Change ... 96
Shifting Employment Landscape ... 104
CHAPTER 5: FINDINGS ... 108
Local Economy ... 108
Finding: Employee and Employer Demographics ... 108
Finding: Employer Expectations and Workforce Challenges ... 109
Finding: High School Student Goals ... 112
Springfield Schools ... 115
Finding: 2015-2016 School Demographics ... 115
Finding: Schooling and Work Preparation ... 123
Finding: Special Education Services ... 138
Finding: School Counseling ... 139
Finding: Concerns Over School Budget and Environment... 141
Alaska Natives/American Indians and Schooling ... 145
Finding: Native Alaskan/American Indians in K-12 Schools... 146
Finding: SC and Job Training ... 151
Finding: Health of the Springfield Corporation Language Education Program and Cultural Programs ... 153
Health of Subsistence Economy ... 154
Future Suggestions ... 156
The Local Economy and Springfield Community ... 157
Springfield Corporation ... 166
Summary ... 169
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION ... 176
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Study Background ... 180
Study Results ... 181
Literature Review Comparison and Reflection ... 189
Limitations, Implications, and Future Directions... 191
Limitations ... 191
Implications... 192
Future Directions ... 193
Final Reflections ... 194
Study Significant Findings ... 195
Procedural Reflections ... 196
Personal Reflections... 197
x
LIST OF TABLES
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ASCA American School Counselor Association BIA Bureau of Indian Affairs
CTE Career and Technical Education GED General Educational Development IRB Institutional Review Board
NAC Needs Assessment Committee NCLB No Child Left Behind
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CHAPTER 1: A FUNNY THING HAPPENED ON THE WAY TO OUR HONEYMOON
Introduction and Background
LEGAL DISCLAIMER: To protect the anonymity of the study sponsors and of study participants, the names of cities, Alaska Native/American Indian tribes and tribal corporations, the names of tribal programs, the names of Alaska Native/American Indian languages, the names of the schools and school districts and the names of communities and individuals have been replaced with pseudonyms and/or placeholders. All pseudonym names are purely fictitious and any resemblance to actual persons, organizations or business enterprises is purely coincidental. On August 2, 2015, my husband and I were married in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, with plans for further celebrations with my husband’s family and friends in Carlsbad, California. Sam
and I were married in a mixed Sephardic/Ashkenazic Orthodox Jewish marriage ceremony. Afterwards, we celebrated in Chabad, Chassidic style in Carlsbad, California. In the Orthodox Jewish tradition, the first week of marriage is celebrated by well-wishing family and friends who bestow blessings – called sheva brachot – on the new couple. After months of wedding planning and a week of non-stop celebrations, we definitely were in need of a break, and were overjoyed to embark on our long-awaited honeymoon to Alaska.
One of our destinations was the community of Springfield, Alaska, a small,
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accreditations in English language arts and science and my experience as a small business owner’s daughter. She was also aware of my mixed American Indian, Jewish, and Northern
European background. After a fun-filled day hanging out and enjoying food and sightseeing, this friend posed a question. She asked if I would be interested in conducting research for one of the local Alaska Native communities, which I will refer to throughout the dissertation as the
Springfield Corporation (SC). Our friend mentioned that the tribe was in need of research on its educational programming, specifically expressing concern that the school system lacked
culturally-relevant pedagogy within the classroom setting and that the faculty lacked representation from the American Indian/Alaska Native communities. She also had the
perception that dropout rates of eighth graders were abnormally high in Springfield high schools and stated concerns regarding the overall welfare of SC youth who attend public school in Springfield. After listening to her request and her concerns, I empathized and offered to email her my resume and curriculum vitae. However, I insisted that she initiate contact with SC. As an outsider, I did not wish to impose myself on the SC administration and perceived that such action would be considered rude. Each tribe has its own governmental bodies and, in my experience, tends to be a tight-knit community (Case & Voluck, 2012; Wilkins, 2001; Mitchell, 1997). However, if SC administrators decided to contact me, I would be happy to oblige their research request.
One week after returning from our trip, I was pleasantly surprised to receive a phone call from an SC administrator. The administrator asked me what I was interested in studying and I answered that I was open to any suggestion as long as I received approval from my dissertation committee. The administrator stated that SC was interested in a needs assessment of its
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programs. My dissertation advisor was open to the project, subject to approval by my dissertation committee. The SC administrator and I concluded that we should establish a
relationship and that I would commence drafting a dissertation proposal for the needs assessment study. After signing an independent contractor agreement with SC and passing my dissertation proposal with suggestions from the SC administrator and dissertation committee, the proposal was approved. Through this sequence of events, an off-hand conversation on my honeymoon developed into my dissertation topic. I had done some research and writing on American Indian/Alaska Native education in the recent past, fortuitously aligning this topic with some of my intellectual interests.
Contract and Proposal
In December 2015, I executed an independent contractor agreement with tribal officials. The contract stipulated that a needs assessment would be completed with a final report submitted on or before December 31, 2017. The needs assessment was completed, and a draft report was submitted for comment November 3, 2017, followed by the final draft report one month later. The contract also addressed several other items, including stipulations regarding confidential information and the contractor’s right to use collected data for publication. To protect the
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Needs Assessment Research Questions
Originally, SC wished to assess the needs of their tribal community’s educational and social programs and wanted to better understand how best to improve these programs. They wanted me to examine (a) the status of each program, (b) the effectiveness of each program, (c) the strengths and weaknesses of each program, (d) the status of employment within the SC member community, and (e) the ways that the programs and opportunities influence and/or interact with the others. However, after collaborating with my dissertation committee, a decision was made to limit the scope of study to those programs that are managed by SC’s Education and
Training Department.
Another decision was made to broaden the dissertation from a needs assessment report for the SC to a larger study of the needs of education, schooling, training and employment for the greater Springfield community. Accordingly, it was decided to also examine SC’s programs in relation to the public K-12 system, local employment opportunities and the local economy, and to assess the connections among these factors and the gaps in education and employment opportunity that exist in the community. The research questions listed below were created as a product of these decisions and discussions and were approved by both the SC and the
dissertation committee. The needs assessment project addressed these questions: 1. What is the Springfield Corporation’s definition of “need?”
2. What would the Springfield Corporation wish for the education and employment of its members?
3. What is an overall picture of the educational and training programs of the Springfield Corporation?
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5. What is an overall picture of the Springfield Corporation’s cultural education and language programs?
6. What is the overall picture of employment and employment opportunities for Springfield Community members?
7. How are educational and cultural programs preparing people for further education and for employment?
8. What gaps between education and employment are evident? Execution of Study
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In addition to the surveys and interviews, I also researched background information on historical economic and schooling data via primary and secondary sources. Participants in all categories recounted several details about both topics. After I collected all the data, it became apparent that the economic change that occurred in the 1990s and the 2000s was a point of contention raised by several adults, employers, and educators. Through the mid-to-late 1990s, resource-based, extraction economies provided a large portion of the jobs in the local area. Most jobs seemed to be supplied by the timber and fishing industries. Jobs did not necessarily require trained skills provided by higher education. In addition, students, regardless of background, were able to have access to a seemingly good mix of academic and vocational education classes and programs. In this dissertation, the terms vocational education, vocational education and training, and career and technical education (CTE) are used interchangeably.
When the timber industry collapsed in the late 1990s (Kiffer, 2017; Shoaf, 1998; Nie, 2006; Bell, 2014; Alaska Forest Association, n.d.),1 the tourism industry seemed to have filled most of the employment gap that the timber industry had left behind (Kiffer, 2017; Block, 2017).2 However, unlike the timber industry, where jobs with well-paying salaries seemed plentiful throughout the year, interview data with participants indicated that the tourism industry seemed to employ mostly seasonal, part-time workers. Interview data also indicated that the tourism industry also required new skill profiles, such as hospitality, that were not needed in previous decades.
Change also seemed to occur in public education and vocational education and training on a national level as well. Schooling curricula changed for all students to focus more on
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academic preparation for higher education. Vocational education classes and programs seemed to have been reduced and less emphasis on vocational education by SC and the school district as a whole was evident. Participants in all study categories believed that vocational education opportunities for students who desired to learn those work skills became more limited. In the interviews, students expressed concerns that these programs may face further cuts due to budget constraints.
Overall, the results indicated that schooling in Springfield was satisfactory. SC and Springfield educational and training programs seemed to prepare students for both higher education and vocational careers. However, participants in all target groups commented that vocational education and training programs within SC and within K-12 public schooling needed to be restored, extended, and improved. By strengthening vocational education, sufficient
opportunities would be available for students and adults who wished to pursue a variety of career paths involving both academic and vocational education. Emphasizing both academic and vocational education equally within SC programs and K-12 public schools could potentially strengthen and diversify Springfield’s economy.
Returning to the Literature
After the storyline of the data was outlined, it became apparent that CTE was the common thread that held everything together. In order to have a fuller understanding of vocational education and training in Springfield, I felt it important to understand the circumstances in which vocational education and training were administered, how it was
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career and technical education, the intersection of vocational education and training and the economy, and how vocational education and training was implicated in the study.
Only a scarce amount of literature was found that described the intersection of vocational education and training and the economy (Newman & Winston, 2016; Gordon, 2014; Plank, 2001; Plank, DeLuca, & Estacion, 2008; Rosenbaum, 2001; U.S. Department of Education, 2004; Chadd & Drage, 2006; Gray, 2009; Avery & Turner, 2012; Barnes & Slate, 2013; Jacob, 2017). The literature revealed that vocational education in K-12 school systems provided an alternative route for those who did not want to pursue an academic education. According to the literature, vocational education also provided ways for students to earn a living after graduating from their vocational education and training programs. This seemed to be the case in
Springfield. Many students did not want to attend academic higher education programs; students believed that with trade skills they would be able to contribute to Springfield’s economy while at the same time securing well-paying jobs. Adults also desired to take advantage of vocational education and training programs and be hired with the skills they would learn.
Although I found that there was a scarcity of literature relating to Springfield’s vocational education and training programs, research on vocational education and training policy (Newman & Winston, 2016; Gordon, 2014) at the national level seemed to give a glimpse of the health of vocational education and training programs in Springfield. Historically, vocational education and training seemed to have been treated separately from academic K-12 education. However, after the start of the school reform movement, efforts were made to integrate vocational
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efforts to integrate vocational and education programs, funding systems seem to have been kept separate (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016; Jacob, 2017; Dortch, 2012b; Fletcher, 2006), and the literature (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016; Rosenbaum, 2001; Barnes & Slate, 2013; Jacob, 2017) also indicated that there has been de-emphasis of vocational
education and training programs within K-12 schools as a result of the school reform movement and school policies. This was evident by participants’ expressing concern about cuts to
programs and the introduction of standards that they felt may not be pertinent to students pursuing vocational education within the school system. The majority of comments also stated that SC and K-12 vocational education and training programs needed to be reinstituted,
expanded, and improved to help sustain and improve the economy. Chapter by Chapter Summary
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its residents. The chapter also articulates the study participants’ perceptions regarding the impact of the shift from a primarily resource-based, extraction economy to an economy centered
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CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Reflecting upon my research goals and the data collected throughout the study, it became apparent through the various interviews that the history and role of vocational education and training3 in Springfield was an important issue and one that most local residents emphasized. Indeed, analysis of the data revealed vocational education within secondary school or high school as one of the common threads linking the main themes within the project. Therefore, I found it relevant to explore key issues within vocational education in high school education. In this chapter, the history of vocational education policy in the K-12 system and the current state of vocational education within the United States will be briefly discussed. Vocational education within the K-12 system in Alaska will also be explored to the extent that the literature may be applied to Springfield.
This chapter will be split into four main sections: (a) career and technical education practices, policies and legislation from the late 19th century to the 1980s prior to school reform; (b) career and technical education policy during and after school reform; (c) Alaska and career and technical education; and (d) the intersection of vocational education in high school and employment. According to Gordon (2014), trade skills have been referred to by different names throughout history. Similarly, education in those fields has also changed over time. Names applied to this type of education over the years include manual education, industrial education, vocational education, career education, vocational and technical education, and career and
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technical education (Gordon, 2014; Association for Career and Technical Education [ACTE], 2002a).
European Influences on American Vocational Education
According to Gordon (2014), modern vocational education within the United States has evolved from its first formal educational policy in the early 20th century. The roots of vocational education have partial origins in 19th century European movements and European philosophies. In these philosophies, education was segregated primarily by class, and vocational education was what was primarily offered to the lower classes. Gordon (2014) states that the English, Swedish, Russian, and German programs such as Germany’s apprenticeship programs and the
philosophies of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi influenced the
educational policies. Rousseau viewed vocational education “as a means of mentally training”
(Gordon, 2014, p. 3) individuals and Pestalozzi believed that individuals needed to learn a subject kinesthetically, or hands-on.
American Philosophers and their Influence on Vocational Education
American scholars also influenced vocational education in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. Du Bois, David Snedden, Charles Prosser, John Dewey, and Major Dennis Mobley (Gordon, 2014). Washington and Du Bois influenced vocational education in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, while Snedden, Prosser, and Dewey exerted their influence on the field in the early 20th century and Mobley influenced 20th century vocational education.
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(Newman & Winston, 2016, p. 14) and “encouraged Black people to cultivate a spirit of
‘peaceful coexistence’ with White southerners” (Gordon, 2014, p. 34). He also believed that an
educated person had the following attributes: (a) self-discipline; (b) a sense of service; (c) problem-solving skills; (d) cognitive skills; and (e) moral standards. In 1881, he founded the Tuskegee Institute, now a historically Black university (Tuskegee University, 2018). The institute trained African American students in fields such as plumbing, stationary engineering, and blacksmithing (Tuskegee University, 2018; Gordon, 2014). According to Newman & Winston (2016), Washington also believed that each student should have some manual labor training and education (Gordon, 2014). Washington believed that vocational education for African Americans promoted stable careers, jobs, and pay (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016).
Unlike Washington, Du Bois believed in stronger civil rights for African Americans and equality within an educational system that, at the time, promoted segregation. He also advocated that African Americans be offered an academic education separate from a vocational education, with the intention that this would lead to competitive employment opportunities for African Americans. He believed that highly educated African Americans would be better able to fight for equal rights (Newman & Winston, 2016). Ultimately, according to Newman & Winston (2016), Washington would be less influential in the development of vocational education within the early 20th century, with Du Bois’ ideas prevailing in the education debate.
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the first scholars of the 20th century to influence early federal legislation on vocational education within the United States. According to Gordon (2014), Prosser was a student of Snedden and was influenced by his ideas on vocational education. The scholars held similar beliefs and both would be seen as influential on vocational education philosophy and early vocational education policy. Snedden believed that the educational system should create “social efficiency” (Gordon, 2014, p. 40). He also believed that “it was the responsibility of members of society to contribute to the good of that society by working efficiently and by conforming to social norms” (Gordon,
2014, p. 45), effectively maintaining society’s status quo. Snedden also shared the views of industrialists, which further impacted his interpretation of education. He strongly believed in a two-track system where vocational education and traditional education should remain separate.
Snedden directly influenced Prosser’s views on vocational education. Prosser believed
that practicing, or doing, a vocational task and learning the theory of doing that vocational task must be taught simultaneously within student education. Prosser would eventually influence policy makers with sixteen “theorems” he created (Gordon, 2014, p. 41), which were basically
16 qualities that he believed vocational education should exhibit. Some of his theorems, which could be seen as applicable to some modern vocational education program philosophies and legislation in today’s schools, are listed below.
[Theorem] 1. Vocational education should occur in the most realistic setting that replicates the work environment.
[Theorem] 2. Vocational education should only be given where the training jobs are carried on in the same way, with the same tools, and with the same machines as in the occupation itself….
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[Theorem] 7. Vocational education should be taught by instructors who have successful experience in the application of skills and knowledge required of competent workers…. [Theorem] 9. Vocational education should prepare individuals for the occupations as they currently exist in the workforce and for future labor markets as a secondary concern. [Theorem] 10. Vocational education should provide opportunities for students to perform operations on actual jobs and not only simulated work tasks….
[Theorem] 13. Vocational education should meet the needs of individuals when it is needed and in such a way that they can benefit from it (pp. 41-42).
In the 1910s, Prosser’s philosophies would be influential in creating vocational education
frameworks and in policymaking. According to Gordon (2014), the first legislation for vocational education was passed because of his scholarship.
Dewey held different views from those of Prosser and Snedden. Dewey “saw
occupations as central to educational activity” (Gordon, 2014, p. 43). Dewey was concerned that
the two-track system would impose an economic segregation scheme upon society and relegate those unfortunate individuals in the lower economic classes to a life of manual labor and lower wages. He viewed vocational education as a tool for economic mobility so that individuals within lower classes, who in the day would work strictly manual labor jobs such as on shop floors, could develop their intellect and skillsets that would potentially propel them into higher economic classes. As a result, Dewey, unlike Prosser and Snedden, opposed the idea of a dual system and became a critic of the dual system that Prosser and Snedden advocated.
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education. Mobley’s philosophies would influence vocational education legislation during his
term as executive secretary (Gordon, 2014; Kliever, 1965; ACTE, 2002b). According to Gordon (2014), his philosophies included five key points, outlined as follows. First, vocational
education should not be separate from traditional education. Instead, vocational education and traditional education should be one entity, jointly preparing students for the workforce. Second, all students should have access to vocational education. Thirdly, vocational education “must be everybody’s concern” (Gordon, 2014, p. 49). Fourth, vocational education must continue to be
professionalized. Fifth and finally, youth groups “must be considered part of the total career and technical education program” (Gordon, 2014, p. 50). It seems that Mobley’s philosophies and
the legislation he advocated would impact late-20th and arguably early 21st century vocational education legislation (Gordon, 2014; Kliever, 1965; ACTE, 2002b).
Influential Early Vocational Educational Practices and Policies
Along with European vocational practices and American scholars, colonial and 19th century practices and policies informed the rudimentary forms of vocational education in the United States. These practices and policies included apprenticeships, trade schools and the formalization of academic schooling.
Apprenticeships
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necessities upon completing the apprenticeship program. The student, in turn, would learn the trade of his/her master and be able to set up his/her own business (Newman & Winston, 2016). Apprenticeships were unregulated and the quality of education an individual gained varied (Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development, n.d.; Newman & Winston, 2016). During the Industrial Revolution, apprenticeships seen in the colonial period slowly disappeared as individuals who normally trained in apprenticeship programs increasingly worked in factories (Newman & Winston, 2016). However, in the 20th century, apprenticeship programs became more organized and regulated with the support of the federal government under the National Apprenticeship Act of 1937 (Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development, Bureau of Apprenticeship Standards, & Wisconsin Apprenticeship Advisory Council, n.d.; U.S.
Department of Labor, 2018a). Apprenticeship programs retained most of the elements that could have been seen in original apprenticeships, with exceptions such as paid employment, age
requirements, and required academic classes (U.S. Department of Labor, 2018b; Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development et al., n.d.).
Trade schools
Different types of trade schools also began to appear during the Industrial Revolution. For example, private vocational education institutes, tribal boarding school programs and vocational education institutions, and land-grant institutions (Newman & Winston, 2016;
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Newman & Winston, 2016). As mentioned earlier, one well-known trade institute was the independently-operated Tuskegee Institute founded by Washington (Newman & Winston, 2016; Gordon, 2014; Tuskegee University, 2018).
Other examples of trade schools included Rutgers State University and the University of Illinois, two land-grant institutions (Gordon, 2014), and the Carlisle Indian Industrial School, an American Indian boarding school founded by the federal government in 1879. Of particular note was the Carlisle Indian Industrial Schools as this school institutionalized the concept of
assimilating American Indian children into mainstream White society. These boarding schools removed children from their homes and placed them in the boarding school, forced them to learn English and Christianity, and trained students for jobs in various industries (Newman &
Winston, 2016; Ide, 2003; Gregg, 2018; Poverty & Race Research Action Council, 2008). Formalization of Academic Schooling
During the 19th century, academic education started to undergo formalization and regulation. The Department of Education was founded in 1867. The goal of this non-cabinet-level agency was to help regulate traditional education settings, disseminate educational information to state and local education authorities and collect statistical information about educational systems. Many of its original objectives and responsibilities persist to the present day (Cross, Islas, Garcia, & Nevarez, 2018; Ravage, 2016).
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“American children” (Thattai, 2001, para 5), and they were obligated to attend elementary and
secondary schools until the age of sixteen.
Vocational Education Legislation until the 1980s
The philosophical debate surrounding vocational education at the beginning of the 20th century would impact the funding and treatment of vocational education within public academic schools (Kosar, 2011; Kliever, 1965; “Organization and Scope,” 1931; Newman & Winston, 2016; Gordon, 2014). At the start of the 20th century, some states and the federal government began to formalize vocational education. In 1911, the state of Wisconsin was the first state to enact legislation to organize and regulate vocational education, creating formal education policy for specific trades and a school system for vocational education. The aim was to oversee
vocational education via apprenticeships and to ensure that those students also received some academic education (Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development, n.d.; Newman & Winston, 2016). According to Wisconsin’s Department of Workforce Development (Wisconsin
Department of Workforce Development, n.d.), the legislation influenced other states as well as the federal government in the formalization of vocational education.
Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act of 1917
The Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Act of 1917 (also known as the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917), the first effort to formalize vocational education at the federal level, was
influenced by scholars such of Snedden, Prosser (Gordon, 2014) as well as the state of
Wisconsin’s legislation (Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development, n.d.; Newman &
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programs in agriculture, trades, industry, and home economics for students fourteen and older” (Newman & Winston, 2016, p. 42). It funded vocational education separately from academic schooling and provided funds for continuing education and vocational training for adults. This included the vocational education of high school students (“Organization and Scope,” 1931; Gordon, 2014). For example, vocational funds could be “used for full-time schools devoting half
time to vocational training, part-time schools for young workers to receive additional training in their fields, and evening schools to speak to the needs of adult learners” (Newman & Winston, 2016, p. 43). It promoted the regulation of vocational education (“Organization and Scope,” 1931; Newman & Winston, 2016; Gordon, 2014) and provided funding to train teachers to instruct on vocational subjects. It also provided salaries for vocational teachers as well as directors and supervisors of agricultural subjects (“Organization and Scope,” 1931). Finally, the act created the Federal Board for Vocational Education and mandated that state governments establish boards of vocational education. The treatment of vocational education was handled differently from state to state; some states already had boards of education and had to establish vocational education boards that were separate from the State Board of Education (“Organization and Scope,” 1931; Gordon, 2014).
The act allocated federal funding for some vocational education programs and created rules of compliance which each state would have to follow in order to receive federal funding for these programs (“Organization and Scope,” 1931). The 50 states and the U.S. territory of Hawaii were eligible and did receive funding from the act over the next seven years. It was unclear if other territories were able to access funding from the act. However, the data indicate that other territories could have been authorized to receive funding (Buerki, 1981; Gordon, 2014;
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The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 set a precedent for future vocational legislation in secondary schools. The belief that vocational education programs should be treated separately from academic school programs seemed to permeate most legislation through the mid-20th century and school reform (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016). Vocational education would only be partially embedded within secondary schools because vocational education was treated differently from academic subjects within secondary schools. Only some vocational classes and programs would be held in secondary schools while other classes and programs would be housed within host institutions, and funding systems for vocational education also seemed to remain separate from academic funding. In most legislation, oversight by the
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for high school education, young worker continuing education, and adult education for certain vocational education programs. Most federal legislation continued this pattern. The pattern described above seems to repeat itself with future legislation as funding and program guidelines for high school vocational programs would remain separately regulated by future federal
regulation.
Legislation after the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917
Several federal laws built upon the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and/or further developed vocational education in the United States, specifically the following acts: the George-Reed Act of 1929; the George-Ellzey Act of 1934; the George-Deen Act of 1936; the George-Barden Act of 1946; the George-Barden Amendments of 1956; the National Defense Education Act of 1958; the Manpower Development Training Act of 1962; the Vocational Education Act of 1963; the Vocational Education Amendments of 1968; the Education Amendments of 1976; the
Comprehensive Employment Training Act of 1973; the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982; and the Carl. D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984 (Gordon, 2014; Kliever, 1965; Newman & Winston, 2016; Wisconsin Department of Workforce Development et al., n.d.; U.S. Department of Labor, 2018a). These legislative acts will be briefly described below.
Legislation from 1929 to 1957. The George-Reed Act of 1929 increased the budget of
vocational education by one million dollars (ACTE, 2002a; Gordon, 2014). These funds were authorized “to expand vocational education in agriculture [for farm populations] and home economics [for rural populations]” (Gordon, 2014, p. 107). The George-Ellzey Act of 1934
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trade, and agriculture and towards teacher education programs. It also recognized marketing occupations for the first time and provided funds for vocational education classes for distributive trades (Buerki, 1981; Gordon, 2014). The George-Barden Act of 1946 further authorized an increase of funds for vocational education, especially in agriculture, home economics, and industrial education (Gordon, 2014). It cut funds from marketing occupations and was meant to help returning veterans train for skills to improve their employability upon their return to the economy. The George-Barden Amendments of 1956 added to the original George-Barden Act by providing funds for nursing education and fishing industries.
Legislation from the late 1950s to the early 1960s. The National Defense Education
Act of 1958 saw yet another shift in vocational education. The Cold War increased societal pressure to compete in the world sphere in certain academic and vocational fields, especially in science and technology. The public feared that the United States would lose its strategic edge in technology and science if not enough attention was paid to these fields (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016). The act, according to Gordon (2014), was “the first act to stress the
importance of science, mathematics, foreign language, and technical competencies” (p. 109). The act amended the George-Barden Act of 1946 in several ways (Newman & Winston, 2016; National Defense Education Act, 1958). It provided funds for K-12 students in academic schools and for adult education, which included funds for college enrollment and college loan programs. It also provided funding to vocational education programs via apprenticeship programs to help train or retrain older individuals, adults, and youths with vocational or related fields in technical or scientific fields. Finally, it provided state statistical services, testing services, training
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Other legislation that Congress enacted included The Manpower Development Training Act of 1962. The legislation was influenced by the 1960s economy as influencers feared that automation and technology would leave lower-skilled workers jobless. The act provided skill retraining for those workers facing unemployment or relative underemployment in the 1960s economy.
Vocational Education Act of 1963 and its amendments. Following the Manpower
Development Training Act of 1962, Congress passed the Vocational Education Act of 1963. According to Gordon (2014) and Newman & Winston (2016), the Vocational Education Act of 1963 was the most significant legislation of the mid-20th century. It increased funding for vocational education, primarily for adult students, from six million dollars to over 225 million dollars (U.S. Office of Education, 1965; Gordon, 2014). The main goals of the Vocational Education Act of 1963 were “to maintain, extend, and improve existing programs of vocational education” (Gordon, 2014, p. 110). Highlights of the act include the following:
The act redefined the purpose of vocational education to meet the needs of the 1960s
economy.
It provided part-time employment and income to students who wanted to pursue a
full-time education in work-study programs and established residential vocational school programs. Students needed to be at least 15 but no older than 20 years old to enter these programs (U.S. Office of Education, 1965).
The act emphasized blue-collar skills and promoted vocational education for
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individuals, and to help educate adults and students who dropped out of high school or college (U.S. Office of Education, 1965; Newman & Winston, 2016).
It seems that it created two advisory committees on vocational education. One
committee was created by the act to assist the U.S. Commissioner of Education with vocational education regulations, policies, and procedures. The other committee would be appointed by the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to assess the administration of previous vocational education acts and make suggestions for their improvement.
Under previous acts, a portion of vocational education funding was required to be set aside for adults and high school students who were already working, or to non-full-time courses. Additionally, funding was only to be provided for training in prescribed vocational fields. Some high school students had to receive vocational instruction outside of regular academic school hours with either part-time or evening classes. The act freed vocational funding so that it could be used for high school students attending school during regular academic hours (U.S. Office of Education, 1965).
In 1968, Congress passed the Vocational Education Amendments of 1968 (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016). The amendments were written to supersede all previous federal legislation regarding vocational education, with the exception of the Smith-Hughes Act (Gordon, 2014; Evans, Mangum, & Pragan, 1969). The amendments maintained the objectives of the 1963 act (Evans et al., 1969, p. 87) but included a provision for “vocational education in postsecondary schools” and “broadened the definition of vocational education to bring it closer to general education” (Gordon, 2014, p. 111). The amendments intended to place more emphasis
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the amendments, Congress sought to reach a broader range of eligible beneficiaries for vocational education, including extending eligibility to individuals in academic programs and special needs (U.S. Office of Education, 1968; Gordon, 2014). The amendments would allocate funds for vocational education in the following areas:
[h]igh school and post-secondary students[,]
[t]hose who have completed or left high school[,]
[t]hose in the labor market in need of retraining[,]
[t]hose who have academic, socioeconomic, or other obstacles[,]
[t]hose who are mentally retarded, deaf, or otherwise disabled[,]
[c]onstruction of area vocational school facilities[,]
[v]ocational guidance for all persons mentioned[,]
[a]ncillary services (e.g., preparation of state plans, administration, evaluation of programs, teacher education)[, and]
[t]raining in private schools under contract with public schools (Gordon 2014, p. 111).
The amendments also allocated money for a limited time for work-study programs, exemplary programs and residential programs (U.S. Office of Education, 1968) and created the National Advisory Council, which would advise the Commissioner of Education and would report to Congress annually (U.S. Office of Education, 1968). It also mandated that states create their own state advisory councils for vocational education. A state board would administer vocational education and/or supervise local educational agencies that implement vocational education policies. Nine groups of stakeholders would make up a state’s state advisory council and would report to the state board. The state advisory council would inform the state board on the
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the state plan, effectively advising the implementation of state policies for the state plan. Furthermore, the amendments required that each state report their administration, policies, services provided, and long-term goals to the federal government (U.S. Office of Education, 1968 ).
The Vocational Education Amendments of 1976 aimed to encourage states to improve and diversify their program offerings and combat sex bias and stereotypes (Gordon, 2014; U.S. Office of Education, 1976; Stevenson, 1977). It continued existing programs that were enacted by the original legislation and the amendments passed in 1968 with the aim of improving,
expanding and diversifying them. Funds were also made available for supportive services and to assist states in improving vocational education programs such as vocational guidance and
counseling (Gordon, 2014; U.S. Office of Education, 1976), providing “grants to overcome sex bias” (Gordon, 2014, p. 112) and funding pre-service and in-service training for personnel (Gordon, 2014; U.S. Office of Education, 1976).
Comprehensive Employment Training Act of 1973. Another bill that passed during
this time was the Comprehensive Employment Training Act of 1973, which replaced the Manpower Development Training Act of 1962 (Gordon, 2014). It further decentralized regulation of vocational education from the federal level and granted more control to state and local governments to determine use of funding and which programs would be funded. It also permitted local and state governments to contract out to other agencies to administer vocational education. The act also provided funding for “employment counseling, supportive services, classroom training, training on the job, work experience, and public service employment”
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Job Training Partnership Act of 1982. Finally, the Comprehensive Employment
Training Act of 1973 was superseded by the Job Training Partnership Act of 1982, as it was determined that the former law did not adequately explain how the federal government was to decentralize (Guttman, 1983). The 1982 law attempted to define the respective roles of federal and state governments within vocational education. According to Gordon (2014), its aim was to ensure that youth and unskilled adults were trained to enter the workforce. It delegated more control to the private sector and states to train qualifying individuals in federal job training programs, “imposed performance standards, limited support services, and created a new program of retraining displaced workers” (Gordon, 2014, p. 112) and provided affordable training to
economically disadvantaged persons. Another goal of the legislation was to raise high school graduation rates (Guttman, 1983).
The Carl. D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984. The Carl. D. Perkins
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p. 113) populations. Finally, it promoted supportive services like guidance counseling (Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, 1984). As in previous acts, state and federal boards were developed to help regulate the administration of vocational education. States were required to develop and report plans to the Secretary. In the plan, states needed to include objectives such as current occupation needs, assessments of the technological and education quality of curricula, and an assessment of the needs of secondary and adult students in order to improve skill levels. A portion of funding would go towards secondary and postsecondary schooling and programs such as apprenticeship programs for secondary school students. Several amendments to the original Act were eventually passed. This included the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990 (also known as Perkins II), the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act of 1998 (also known as Perkins III) and the Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006 (also known as Perkins IV) (Gordon, 2006; Dortch, 2012a).
School Reform and Vocational Education Legislation
Starting in the early 1980s, global economic pressures from Japan and Europe and a relatively high unemployment rate pressured American academic policy makers and scholars to reexamine and alter the high school curriculum (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016). Publications such as A Nation at Risk published in 1983 (Gordon, 2014; Ravage, 2016) and
America’s Choice: High Skills or Low Wages published in 1990 (The Commission on the Skills
of the American Workforce, 1990) drove high school curriculum reorganization (Gordon, 2014). Recommendations would include longer school days and school years, more graduation
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2016; Darling-Hammond, 2004; Cuban, 1990). These recommendations would eventually be enacted in schools.
Two more pieces of legislation – Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994 and The Improving America's Schools Act of 1994 – established academic standards and assessments by giving states opportunities to develop standards and assessments (Ravage, 2016; Gordon, 2014; Goals 2000, 1994a; Improving America’s Schools Act, 1994b). The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) passed in 2001, requiring that states mandate state standards and high stakes testing as accountability measures to ascertain how much a student had learned according to the standards and how well a teacher had taught the student (U.S. Department of Education, 2005; NCLB, 2001; Ravage, 2016; Gordon, 2014). It also required that students be aware of college and career pathways and become prepared for them (NCLB, 2001). Alaska complied with NCLB. Academic standards and high stakes tests were developed and administered (Hsieh, 2010; Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, n.d.-a, 2006).
In 2009, Common Core State Standards Initiative, or Common Core, proposed nation-wide standards which states had the option to adopt (Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2018; U.S. Department of Education, n.d.; National Public Radio, 2014). Common Core also established college-ready and career-ready standards and coined the term "college and career readiness." (Office of the State Superintendent of Education, n.d.; Common Core State Standards Initiative, 2018; U.S. Department of Education, n.d.). While the grouped term was not clearly defined, detailed definitions of the terms “College Ready” and “Career Ready” were provided. “College Ready” was defined as follows:
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succeed in the academic program of your choice. (Office of the State Superintendent of Education. n.d., para 3).
“Career Ready” was defined as follows:
A Career Ready student possesses both the necessary knowledge and technical skills needed for employment in their desired career field. For example, a student who is ready to become a teacher not only possesses knowledge of education policy, but also possesses all required certifications required to become a teacher. (Office of the State
Superintendent of Education, n.d., para 4)
When combining the terms “College Ready” and “Career Ready” together, it seems that “college and career readiness” assumes that high school students should be prepared with and possess the
education, knowledge, and skills needed to pursue some sort of postsecondary education or training and/or obtain employment in their desired fields. In the same year, a federal education grant program called Race to the Top (U.S. Department of Education, 2009; National Public Radio, 2014; Lohman, 2010) was initiated, with the goal of encouraging the adoption of Common Core standards through the grant application process. According to Lohman (2010), Race to the Top: “encourage[ed] innovation and reform in four areas: (a) enhancing standards and assessments, (b) improving collection and use of data, (c) increasing teacher effectiveness and achieving equity in teacher distribution, and (d) turning around low-achieving schools (para 8).”
Those states that built education reform programs and plans scoring the most points, as measured by the federal government, received grant money (U.S. Department of Education, 2009; National Public Radio, 2014; Lohman, 2010). The fund program showed favoritism toward Common Core by offering points to those plans that adopted Common Core standards (National Public Radio, 2014).
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that its standards were urban centric, top down, too rigid and that they would not act in the best interests of Alaska and Alaskan residents (Hsieh, 2010; Common Core State Standards, n.d.; Lockyer, 2015). It seems that Alaska recognized that not all Alaskan high school students desired or would obtain a postsecondary education in order to reach their job goals. Reasons may include the physical remoteness of some communities and the fact that Alaskans in some communities rely on subsistence economies and extraction-based, resource economies to survive. Alaska opted to keep their state standards, eventually revising them in 2006 (Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, 2006; n.d.-a). Alaska’s current education standards will be discussed in a later section.
Another side effect of school reform was the push for high school students to pursue higher education. Some authors (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016; Rosenbaum, 2001; Barnes & Slate, 2013; Jacob, 2017) discussed how school reform valued academic schooling over vocational education within high school. According to these authors, there was the
perception that, in order for America to remain an internationally competitive economy, schools should concentrate on core academic curriculum and students should receive preparation in the form of a higher education.
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technical education students] would be better served through increases in programs that aim to improve the quality of high school education” (Dortch, 2012b, p. 4); (b) that programs were too
narrow in focus; (c) that programs were unable to show effectiveness; (d) that programs showed weak performance; (e) that vocational education goals could be accomplished through other programs; and (f) that the condition of the overall economy required reductions in funding (Dortch, 2012b,). For instance, during the Bush administration, it was determined that “rather
than funding [career and technical education], the budgets would have provided funding for high school reform” (Dortch, 2012b, p. 4). This reduction of funding could have contributed to the
decline of vocational programming nationwide. However, without further investigation in primary sources, the outcomes of funding reduction for states such as Alaska cannot be known for certain. Other secondary sources exploring this area were not found.
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The Carl D. Perkins Vocational Act of 1984 and its amendments
The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act of 1990, also known as Perkins II (Dortch, 2012a), extended and modified some components of the Carl. D. Perkins Vocational Education Act of 1984 (Gordon, 2014; Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act, 1990). It granted funds to secondary and postsecondary education, including tribally controlled postsecondary vocational institutions. It also required all states to develop standards and measures for vocational education at the secondary and
postsecondary levels (Gordon, 2014). For secondary education, one goal was “to integrate
academic and work-related education through course programs that ‘articulated’ or sequenced high school…” (Newman & Winston, 2016, p. 48), effectively reversing policies that kept academic and vocational education separate (Gordon, 2014). It created what was called the “Tech-Prep Education Act” (Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016; Carl D. Perkins
Vocational and Applied Technology Education Act, 1990). The act established grants for programs which connected high school and postsecondary education. According to Newman & Winston (2016), “the idea was to lead students to a two-year associate’s degree or certificate or a
two-year apprenticeship” (p. 48). Students could study in specific occupational fields including agriculture, health, engineering technology, and business.
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tech-prep programs, including “build[ing] student competence in mathematics, science, reading, writing, communications, economics, and workplace skills through applied, contextual
academics, and integrated instruction, in a coherent sequence of courses” (p. 126) and “lead[ing] to placement in appropriate employment or to further education” (p. 126); (d) it broadened and improved programs and technology; (e) it provided opportunities for professionals in the education system; and (f) it made vocational education accessible to special populations including those with disabilities and single parents.
As of the 2015-2016 school year, the last amendment to the original act was the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006, also known as Perkins IV (Dortch, 2012a; Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act, 2006). Perkins IV officially changed the name of “vocational and technical education” to “career and technical education” (Friedel, 2011). The act “is the main source of specific federal funding for CTE” (Dortch, 2012a, p. 3). Its goal was to improve vocational education in secondary and
postsecondary programs to prepare students for the modern workforce and maintain their skills in order to keep America competitive (Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education
Improvement Act, 2006). It revised and reauthorized programs from the last amendment (Gordon, 2014) to ensure that education research and best practices were promoted and distributed. It created “separate secondary and postsecondary [accountability] indicators” (p. 133) and established a legislative basis for requiring standards for secondary and postsecondary school programs (Gordon, 2014; Threeton, 2007; Dortch, 2012a; Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act, 2006). It also “placed greater accountability on
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strengthen secondary and postsecondary connections (Gordon, 2014), and had a “stronger focus on business and industry” (Gordon, 2014, p. 132). It also required that states develop a plan and that each state’s plan be reported to the Secretary. States would be mandated to adhere to a long
list of requirements. Those included a description of vocational education programs, how secondary and postsecondary education would be linked, and standards and measurements. Finally, the act required the state plan to publicize the criteria by which agencies would be eligible to receive funding (Gordon, 2014; Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act, 2006). For the full list of requirements, please consult the original legislation (Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act, 2006).
Other legislation from the mid-1990s to 2014
Other legislation that had an impact on vocational education included the following acts: The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994; the Workforce Investment Act of 1998; the Workforce Investment Act Amendments of 2005; the Workforce Investment Improvement Act of 2012; the Workforce Investment Act of 2013; the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014; the America Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in
Technology, Education, and Science Act of 2007, the America COMPETES Act (ACA); the ACA Reauthorization Act of 2010; and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (Gordon, 2014; Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act, 2014). Components of the acts listed above will now be briefly described.
The School-to-Work Opportunities Act. The School-to-Work Opportunities Act of
1994 was designed to “attack the problem of disengaged and ill-prepared youth” (Newman &
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vocational and academic education, partnerships with the private sector, providing pathways to postsecondary education, and providing workplace learning opportunities for students (School-To-Work Opportunities Act, 1994). It also aimed to align national standards, performance indicators and measures for vocational education and provide career guidance and technology training and assistance (School-To-Work Opportunities Act, 1994; Gordon, 2014; Newman & Winston, 2016). The “intent of [the act] was for federal funds to serve as seed money; states had
to develop sustainability plans to maintain [School-to-Work Opportunities Act] activities beyond federal funds” (Friedel, 2011, p. 45). In 2001, it expired (Gordon, 2014) as “the legislation had a clause to terminate funding,” (Friedel, 2011, p. 45). Gordon (2014) stressed that once the act
expired federal funding of these programs sunsetted and the responsibility of providing funding would fall upon state and local governments.
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 and its amendments. In 1998, the Workforce
Investment Act was passed. Later, amendments would let it supersede the Job Training
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train and counsel eligible adults, dislocated workers and unemployed workers. The law also required each state to establish accountability and performance measures for programs targeting dislocated-worker and adults. According to Gordon (2014), youth programs required 10
elements be accessible to students:
[t]utoring, study skills, and instruction leading to completion of secondary school[;]
[a]lternative secondary school services[;]
[s]ummer employment opportunities directly linked to academic and occupational
learning[;]
[p]aid and unpaid work experiences, including internships and job shadowing[;]
[o]ccupational skill training[;]
[l]eadership development opportunities[;]
[s]upportive services[;]
[a]dult mentoring[;]
[f]ollow-up services for not less than 12 months after participation[; and]
[c]omprehensive guidance and counseling, which may include drug and alcohol abuse counseling and referral (p. 120).
In 2001, Congress announced that states became eligible of incentive awards under the act. Six states would be eligible to receive the extra funding.
The Workforce Investment Act Amendments of 2005 reauthorized the original act and enacted some changes in an attempt to improve it. Its aim was to increase flexibility in order to meet state and local needs, provide additional training opportunities, provide training for jobs that employers needed “to complete in the global marketplace” (Gordon, 2014, p. 131), improve
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“[improve] access to services in all areas” (Gordon, 2014, p. 131). The Workforce Investment
Act of 1998 was amended by the Workforce Investment Improvement Act of 2012 and reauthorized in 2014.
The Workforce Investment Improvement Act of 2012 further amended the original act. Some of its goals were to combine federal workforce development activities into one program called the Workforce Investment Fund, which “would provide a framework for job training, adult education, and employment service assistance” (Gordon, 2014, p. 144). It required that
two-thirds of the state and local workforce investment members be employers and that local boards would conduct an assessment of the needs of the local workforce. It required that each state establish measures for performance and evaluation for programs. It also restructured Job Corps, invested more in adult math and literacy skills and focused on individuals with disabilities to help them gain employment. The amendments delegated more power to state governors to identify workforce areas. The amendments also required that training and support providers offer more resources and support.
Two additional amendments of the original act would be enacted (Workforce Investment Act, 2013; Gorcon, 2014). The Workforce Investment Act of 2013 created the following
provisions: (a) core programs would unify state and local performance accountability measures; (b) the Workforce Information Advisory Council would be formed; and (c) the council was to provide services to help train and assist individuals with disabilities and other disadvantaged populations (Workforce Investment Act, 2013; Gordon, 2014). The Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act of 2014 is currently the last legislation to amend the Workforce Investment Act of 1998 (Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act, 2014). Its aim was to increase
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with schooling programs, improve the quality and relevance of vocational education programs with respect to the labor market, improve the methods by which individuals are trained and educated, increase America’s competitiveness within the global labor market, improve the
prosperity of workers and employers, and provide additional opportunities for skill development in the workforce. Other provisions included the requirement that state and local governments create boards and plans, that performance accountability measures be developed, and that one-stop delivery systems be improved.
The America COMPETES Act. The goal of the America COMPETES Act was to
improve global competitiveness and to “invest in innovation through research and development” (Gordon, 2014, p. 142). It increased funding to foundations such as the National Institute of Standards and Technology and the National Science Foundation. It also funded research
initiatives for science and industry, and tried to strengthen science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education in elementary and secondary schools. In 2010, the America COMPETES Reauthorization Act of 2010 was passed with the goal of improving American competitiveness by increasing spending on STEM education and research.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. In response to the economic
recession of 2008 and 2009, Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. It established temporarily relief programs for individuals and entities who were affected by the recession. It also aimed to increase employment and retain workers who lost their jobs during the recession.
Alaska and Career and Technical Education
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seem to be limited due to a lack of sufficient information on the Alaska Department of Education & Early Development and the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development
websites. Both departments seem to have had an impact on secondary education. The Alaska Department of Education & Early Development’s website (“Alaska
Department of Education & Early Development,” n.d.-a; n.d.-b) indicates that it complies with the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2006. The department site links to their state plan (Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, 2010), which was presented by the Alaska Department of Education & Early Development, the Alaska Department of Labor and Workforce Development and the University of Alaska. The Alaska Career and Technical Education Plan states in its “Executive Summary” section that the state has
pledged to create world-class schools that prepare graduates for careers—careers that may begin immediately after high school graduation or that may require additional education and training at the postsecondary level (Alaska Department of Education and Early Development, 2010, p. 2).
It also states that vocational education should be accessible to all K-12 students while in high school and that there should be collaboration, cooperation and coordination amongst the private and public sectors. It wanted to ensure that vocational education is accessible to all Alaskans and that there be a smooth transition between all education levels and schooling to work. The plan also aimed to ensure that career training be of high quality. This includes ensuring that individuals are taught by highly qualified instructors and that up-to-date equipment be provided in safe facilities.
