School managers’ perceptions on teacher professional development of ICT : case studies of two rural South African schools

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(1)COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION. o Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. o NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.. o ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original.. How to cite this thesis Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date)..

(2) SCHOOL MANAGERS’ PERCEPTIONS ON TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF ICT: CASE STUDIES OF TWO RURAL SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS By. NAGESHWARI MOODLEY MINI-DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree. MAGISTER EDUCATIONIS In EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT. In the FACULTY OF EDUCATION at the. UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG. Supervisor: Prof. PJ.du Plessis Co-Supervisor: Prof. G.V. Lautenbach OCTOBER 2015. 1.

(3) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . To God Almighty who gave me the strength and mind-power to continue and persevere to complete this dissertation.. . To my husband and children who stood by me during this tenuous journey and for the sacrifices they made to ensure this achievement is possible.. . Professor P Du Plessis for his motivation, guidance and expert advice.. . The participants of the schools, who did not hesitate to avail themselves for data collection.. . Dr E Mutekwe and Mrs Lorraine Stegman for proof reading and editing.. . To Tracy Lawton who offered to transcribe my interviews without hesitation.. . To my principal Mr G King and deputy principal Mr P. Human who supported me throughout this journey.. i.

(4) DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my late mum Mrs Rajambal Kistasamy, who always believed in me and my achievements. It is also dedicated to my loving husband Leslie Moodley and our children, Shivaan, Shrian and Kiara, all of whom have supported me in ways I cannot express here.. ii.

(5) ABSTRACT This qualitative exploratory case study sought to determine the perceptions of school managers towards the professional development of educators in the field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), in rural South African schools. As a case study, it focused on two primary schools purposefully sampled to provide insights into the perceptions of school managers on the continuous professional development of ICT educators. The research also attempted to explore the implications that continuous educator professional development in ICT has on educators particularly in learner performance in rural schools. The concept of teacher professional development was considered as the enhancement of educator knowledge, skills, work ethics and pedagogical competences for effective or best classroom practices. This study, thus conceived as implying the development of educators’ computer skills and abilities for computer mediated teaching and learning, covering aspects as capacity building and developmental in the use of the computer, not only as a tool to enhance blended learning but also in teacher administration, generating pedagogical content knowledge and as tools for communication among management, educators, parents, learners and other stakeholders in the general school community as a whole. Data for this study was collected through interviews and observations, instruments considered as ideal in situations where the researcher would be looking forward to eliciting thick descriptions through exploring the views of participants in their natural settings. The analysis of data followed a thematic approach where the emerging themes were first clustered into code families, described by Nieuwenhuis (2012) as superordinate themes and these formed the basis of the discussion of the findings. Among the key findings of the study was, the study unearthed insights into ways through which rural school managers can help mitigate the rural-urban dichotomy in ICT teaching and learning, which has become characteristic of schools in South Africa. The conclusion derived from this study is that while it is common knowledge that the latter category (urban schools) tend to have access to cutting- edge ICT teaching and learning opportunities, their rural school counterparts still either do not have full access to basic ICT education or depend on ICT educators who lack the requisite teaching and learning media and or the equipment needed for effective iii.

(6) ICT teaching and learning processes. The recommendation made for the study is that unless and until the government steps up its effort to scaffold the teaching and learning of ICT and promote ICT teacher professional development in rural schools, the standard of ICT education in rural primary schools will remain underprivileged for a very long time especially when compared with their urban school counterparts.. Key words: Teacher professional development, skills, computer literacy, ICT, digital divide, e-learning. iv.

(7) LIST OF ACRONYMS CAI. Computer Aided Instruction. CAPS. Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. CD. Compact Disc. CD-ROM. Compact Disc Read only Memory. CPTD. Continuous Professional Teacher Development. DOE. Department of Education. DVD. Digital Video Disc. EFA. Education for All. ELRC. Education Labour Relations Council. EU. European Union. FM. Frequency medium. GBEP. Gansu Basic Education Project. GDE. Gauteng Department of Education. GEG. Google Education Groups. ICT. Information and Communication Technology. INSET. In-Service Education Training. IPTV. Internet Protocol Television. IRI. Interactive Radio Instruction. LTSM. Learner Teacher Support Material. v.

(8) MDG. Millennium Development Goals. MP3. Media Player 3. NCS. National Curriculum Statement. OECD. Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development. OLSET. Open Learning Systems Educational Trust. RCA. Radio Corporation of America. SACE. South African Council for Educators. SMT. School Management Team. SNSA. SchoolNet South Africa. TLRC. Teacher’s Learning Resource Centre. TPD. Teacher Professional Development. USAID. United States Agency for International Development. VCD. Video Compact Disc. VoLP. Voice on Internet Protocol. vi.

(9) DECLARATION I Nageshwari Moodley of Student Number 2009 44444, do hereby declare that this research study is my own original work. Apart from the academic support and advice received from the acknowledged persons, this work is original as it has not been presented elsewhere for examination.. Nageshwari Moodley. vii.

(10) TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE GENERAL ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY 1.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ............................................................................. 2 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ......................................................................................... 4 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION .......................................................................................... 4 1.5 AIM OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................ 5 1.6 OBJECTIVES ........................................................................................................... 5 1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................................................................ 5 1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ......................................................... 6 1.8.1 Population and sampling ..................................................................................... 7 1.8.2 Data collection methods ...................................................................................... 7 1.8.3 Data management and analysis .......................................................................... 8 1.9 ENVISAGED CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ..................................................... 9 1.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................. 11 1.11 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 12 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 13 2.2 THE NATURE OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT .......................................... 13 2.3 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AS HUMAN CAPACITY ................................ 14 2.4 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL TEACHERS IN ICT .................. 15 2.5 A REVIEW OF STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS GOVERNING TPD ...................... 16 viii.

(11) 2.6 WHITE PAPER 7 ON E-LEARNING FOR SCHOOLS.......................................... 17 2.7 THE INVOLVEMENT OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT IN TPD .............................. 18 2.8 FORMS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ICT......................................... 19 2.8.1 Distance Education ........................................................................................... 19 2.8.1.1 Audio-based distance education .................................................................. 20 2.8.1.2 Interactive Audio Instruction (IAI) ................................................................. 21 2.8.1.3 Television and Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) ........................................ 22 2.8.1.4. Videos ........................................................................................................... 22 2.8.1.5. Multimedia ..................................................................................................... 23 2.8.1.6 Computer - Aided Instruction (CAI) ................................................................ 24 2.8.1.7 Web-based distance learning (Online learning) ............................................. 24 2.8.2. Coaching .......................................................................................................... 26 2.8.3. Mentoring ......................................................................................................... 28 2.9 IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES OF TPD IN ICT ............................................. 33 2.9.1 The Digital Divide .............................................................................................. 34 2.10 WAYS OF MITIGATING IMPLEMENTATION CHALLENGES ............................. 35 2.11 SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ 40 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 42 3.2 RESEARCH PARADIGM AND DESIGN ................................................................ 42 3.3 POPULATION AND SAMPLING ............................................................................ 43 3.4 DATA COLLECTION METHODS ........................................................................... 45 3.4.1 Individual interviews .......................................................................................... 45 ix.

(12) 3.4.2 Observations ..................................................................................................... 46 3.5 DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS ............................................................... 47 3.5.1 Coding of data ................................................................................................... 48 3.5.2 Categorizing and consolidating ......................................................................... 48 3.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................... 49 3.6.1. Access, informed consent and the right to self-determination ....................... 49. 3.6.2. Participants’ rights to privacy, dignity, anonymity and confidentiality ............ 51. 3.6.3. Participants’ rights to fair treatment and protection from harm ...................... 52. 3.7 MEASURES TO ENSURE TRUSTWORTHINESS IN THE STUDY ....................... 53 3.8 SUMMARY.............................................................................................................. 56 CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 4.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 57 4.2 THEME 1: RURAL SCHOOL MANAGERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHER PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (TPD) IN ICT ........................................................ 58 4.2.1 Sub –theme: School managers’ understanding of the concept TPD. in ICT 58. 4.3 THEME 2: PROBLEMS RELATING TO TPD IN RURAL SCHOOLS ................. 60 4.3.1 Problem 1: Lack of teacher professional development in ICT ........................... 61 4.3.2 Problem 2: Lack of policy and pedagogical knowledge ..................................... 62 4.3.3 Problem 3: Lack of access to digital resources ................................................. 65 4.3.4 Problem 4: Lack of basic infrastructures ........................................................... 66 4.3.5 Problem 5: Lack of support from DoE on ICT training and development .......... 67 4.3.6 Problem 6: Geographical access ...................................................................... 68 4.4. THE ROLE OF SCHOOL LEADERSHIP IN SUPPORTING TPD IN ICT .............. 69 x.

(13) 4.4.1 The role of school leadership in implementing, monitoring and evaluating TPD 72 4.5. INTERPRETATION AND SUMMARY................................................................. 73. 4.5.1 Summary of observation notes ......................................................................... 73 4.5.2 Summary of data analysis ................................................................................. 73 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 75 5.2 LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................... 75 5.3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ....................................................... 77 5.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY .............................................................................. 77 5.5 IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS ................................................. 77 5.5.1 Rural school managers’ perceptions on the professional development of educators in ICT......................................................................................................... 78 5.5.2 Problems relating to TPD in rural schools ......................................................... 78 5.6 THE ROLE OF SCHOOL LEADERSHIP IN SUPPORTING TPD IN ICT ............... 80 5.7 SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS ............................................................................. 80 5.8 IMPLICATIONS OF THE RESEARCH FOR ICT EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE IN SCHOOLS .................................................................................................................... 81 5.9 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................... 83 5.10 RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 83 5.10.1 Recommendations in terms of who does the Professional.............................. 84 Development .............................................................................................................. 84 5.10.2 Recommendations with regards to the governing body input .......................... 84 5.10.3 Recommendation in terms of DoE training and facilitators .............................. 85 5.10.4 Recommendations in terms of government incentives for TPD ...................... 85 xi.

(14) 5.10.5 Recommendations in terms of teacher TPD to enhance learning ................... 85 5.10.6 Recommendations in terms of the National Education Policies in ICT available in South Africa............................................................................................................ 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 87 Appendix A : Ethical clearance from the University of Johannesburg ...................... 102 Appendix B: Gauteng Department of Education letter of approval to conduct research ................................................................................................................................. 103 Appendix C: Letter to principals ............................................................................... 105 Appendix D: Participants Assent form ...................................................................... 106 Appendix E: Biographical Questionnaire .................................................................. 108 Appendix F: Interview Schedule/Questionnaire ....................................................... 113 Appendix G: Photos to support observations ........................................................... 116. xii.

(15) LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Peer coaching cycle. 27. Figure 2: Teacher centered e-training model. 32. xiii.

(16) LIST OF TABLES Table 1: TPD in ICT by SNSA. 37. Table 2: Profile of selected samples. 44. Table 3: Biographic details of participants – as Appendix E. 111-112. Table 4: Measures adopted to ensure trustworthiness for the study. 54-55. xiv.

(17) CHAPTER ONE GENERAL ORIENTATION TO THE STUDY “The majority of our children, especially in rural provinces, still do not have access to basic education or depend on institutions that lack the teaching media and equipment needed for effective learning and teaching”. (Mandela, 1997). 1.1 INTRODUCTION In line with the above statement, this qualitative exploratory case study seeks to determine the perceptions of school managers towards the professional development of educators in the field of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), in rural schools. It also attempts to explore the implications that educator professional development in ICT has on educators particularly in learner performance in rural schools. In this study the concept of teacher professional development is considered as the enhancement of educator knowledge, skills, work ethics and pedagogical competences for effective or best classroom practices. In terms of ICT education, teacher professional development is thus the development of educators’ computer skills and abilities for computer mediated teaching and learning. It covers capacity building and developmental aspects in the use of the computer for not only as a tool to enhance blended learning but also in teacher administration, generating of pedagogic content knowledge and tool for communication. among. management,. educators,. parents,. learners. and. other. stakeholders in the general school community as a whole. It is envisaged that the study would offer insights into ways of mitigating the rural-urban dichotomy that has become characteristic of schools in South Africa as argued by Mandela (2001) in his assertion that “the divide between the rich and the poor, the privileged and the deprived, the powerful and the marginalized has become marked primarily by a differentiation in access to knowledge and information. Those who have access to cutting- edge knowledge hold the advantage in all arenas of social, political and economic life today”. The above clearly shows that the majority of learners from especially rural provinces, still either do not have access to basic education or depend on institutions that lack the teaching media and 1.

(18) equipment needed for effective learning and teaching, particularly in the area of ICT education. 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY The advent of democracy in South Africa has brought with it many changes not only in terms of the phenomenal increase in teacher production but also in terms of debates, arguments and rebuttals on the merits and demerits of teacher professional development (TPD). Although teacher professional development (TPD) has always existed for years in organizations across the globe, many researchers in this field have tended to emphasize aspects of TPD, such as content knowledge (Desimone, Smith & Ueno, 2006). Very little attention has been given on the need to realign teacher professional development to the changes in the curriculum from C2005, to the current Curriculum and Assessment Policy (CAPS) has been stepped up albeit not without challenges (Mestry, 2014). The challenges encountered have thus necessitated the need for a serious rethink of the TPD (Department of Education, 2007). In addition to the curriculum changes, the introduction of ICT in education and its thrust in e-learning as a 21st century imperative, required teachers to be professionally developed in both pedagogical terms and in the acquisition of ICT skills (Jung, 2005). The pedagogical reforms in ICT have also led to many rural schools to desire to catch up with their urban school counterparts in the area of ICT, particularly in the area of basic infrastructural development and the need for equality of educational opportunity and social justice in education (Mestry, Hendricks & Bishoff, 2009). Robinson (2013) contends that in many developing countries including South Africa, rural schools have always lacked in terms of such infrastructural aspects as electricity, water, sanitation, roads and the built environment especially building structures for classroom practice. These challenges have always restricted the schools’ effectiveness in implementing ICT education (Mingaine, 2013; Khan, 2012; Heselman, 2003). The challenges are acute especially in deep remote rural and farm schools that serve mostly the poverty stricken communities (Naidoo & Perumal, 2014; Tire & Mlitwa, 2009; Herselman, 2003).. 2.

(19) In 2007, The Department of Education released The Guidelines for Teacher Training and Professional Development in ICT as a step towards developing teacher knowledge, skills and competencies in ICT in order to narrow the digital divide that exists between rural and urban schools. The successful implementation of the policy required schools to have access to electricity, relevant buildings and purchasing of hardware and software (Mestry, Ndlovu & Raymond, 2014). It is in view of the above that the focus of this study is to unravel the views of school managers on the professional development of ICT educators in disadvantaged rural schools. The research is closely linked to the policy document, the White Paper 7 on e- Education (2004:8), which seeks to address the benefits of teacher professional development on the use of ICT in schools. By focusing on school managers, the study is premised on the assumption that since one of the functions of school managers or leadership is to facilitate the teachers’ integration of technology into the teaching and learning processes, the implementation of ICT skills, knowledge and pedagogical strengths can be harnessed to enhance learner performance and ultimately produce effective schools (Hussein, 2014). School managers need to be knowledgeable and trained on ICT integration in order to face the challenges they may experience on its implementation in rural schools. Management must also ensure the finance is made available to purchase the necessary ICT resources and equipment. The introduction of ICT in education in schools in the Republic of South Africa has made it absolutely necessary that educators are continually developed to ensure that they are able to integrate ICT into their teaching so as to improve the quality of learning and teaching and minimize administration (Mestry, 2009). Hussein (2014) further contends that training academics in ICT utilization has been widely regarded as a key to successful staff development practice in higher education and, hence, considerable efforts and resources have been invested into ICT training programs. However, little is known about the extent to which higher education policymakers in Africa give attention to the issue of preparing academics for ICT usage. Similar views are expressed by Gartia (2012:1) in the following quotation:. 3.

(20) “As schools continue to change and educational reforms continue to dominate the educational scene, teachers are expected to develop themselves, update their knowledge and skills and remain current. Continuous professional development (CPD) helps to facilitate learning and development among educators, specifically to learn to cope with new and changing roles and new approaches to teaching” In view of the above, the problem statement for this study is as follows: 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT The revolutionary changes and challenges occurring in the educational system necessitate that educational institutions have to adopt the cutting edge technology into the classroom. Educators and school staff need to be empowered with skills, knowledge and competencies through continuous professional development in the use of ICT in the classroom. A large majority of educators in the educational institutions are products of colleges that did not integrate ICT in the curriculum of teacher training courses. Hence most educators lack the skills and are adamant to adopt and integrate ICT in their teaching. The knowledge and skills on the use of ICT in the classroom is of great importance for educators if they are to be functional in the continuous changing trends in education. The Department of Education has initiated programmes to help and support educators on the acquisition of ICT knowledge and skills. The Guidelines for Teacher Training and Professional Development in ICT is a step towards guiding the development of the ICT knowledge and skills of teachers to enhance the educational experiences of learners in the implementation of the National Curriculum Statement and Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. Thus the benefit of ICT also makes it possible for teachers to offer learners unprecedented opportunities for development and lifelong learning. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION The study is guided by the following research question: What are school managers’ views on the professional development of rural school teachers in the use of Information and Communication Technology?. 4.

(21) 1.5 AIM OF THE STUDY The aim of this study is to explore school managers’ perceptions on teacher professional development of ICT in rural schools. 1.6 OBJECTIVES Pursuant to the above aim the following objectives were formulated: . Identify the role school management teams play on the professional development of teachers in ICT in rural schools.. . Examine the professional development programmes available in ICT that will enhance the digital skills of rural teachers.. . Explore the pedagogical reforms in ICT on the use of digital tools in teaching and learning.. . Identify the challenges faced by school managers with regards to the implementation of the ICT policies.. 1.7 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The theoretical framework for this study is basically the human capital perspective, which asserts that professional development is a form of human capital investment. This theory is embellished by insights from the Vygotskian socio-cultural theory, which views the computer as a vital tool for mediating learning experiences (Kozulin, 2002). The discussion of the literature in this section is thus examined under the following subheadings; the nature of professional development, professional development as human capacity building, Professional development in ICT, a review of statutory instruments governing TPD, White Paper 7 on e-learning for schools, school management’s involvement in the ICT professional development of teachers, forms of professional development in ICT, implementation challenges and ways to mitigate the challenges. The literature review thus begins by examining the numerous views of authors who have tackled the subject of professional development and its benefits to the school system. 5.

(22) Vemic (2007: 209) describes professional development as the best approach to complex problems that will benefit both the individual and the school system. Desimone, Smith and Ueno (2006: 42) have identified three core components of effective professional development. These include the improvement of teachers’ knowledge and skills, the development of their teaching practice, and the increase in learners’ performance and can be attained if traditional approaches to professional development are employed in the schools. These traditional approaches include workshops, seminars and conferences that adopt a technological and simplistic view of teaching, rooted on the assumption that teachers’ knowledge and skills can be enhanced by making use of experts from outside the schools (Boyle, Lamprianous and Boule, 2005: 4). These three authors continue in the same vein to illustrate the importance of the professional development within a school. Boyle, Lamprianous and Boule (2005: 22) reassert that when professional development is designed for educators of the same school, department or grade, educators have opportunities to discuss concepts and skills, observe their colleagues, share practices and integrate what they have learnt. This illustrates the effectiveness of professional development and collegiality within a school. Vygotsky (1987) regards the use of computers in general as a way of mediating learning. In his theory, using the computer in the classrooms and school is a form of scaffolding learning so that the learners’ skills are transformed from lower to higher mental functions. For Vygotsky, if the use of the computer as a material tool is adopted at a time when the learner badly needs to progress to higher mental functions, then it yields the best learning results. Vygotsky calls the distance between what a learner can do on his own and what he can do with the aid of a competent peer collaborator or adult, teacher or parent as the zone of proximal development (Wertsch, 2008). For Vygotsky, it follows therefore that effective teacher professional development needs to take into account the ICT teachers’ quest for an effective implementation of ICT use in the classroom. 1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The study adopted a qualitative exploratory case study viewed by Yin (2012) as capable of eliciting in-depth data, given its emphasis on an ontology based on multiple subjective 6.

(23) realities (Nieuwenhuis, 2012). The qualitative research approach chosen for this study follows an epistemology of knowledge as a social construct that is co-constructed as a result of the social interaction of the researcher and the researched. The exploratory case study design genre followed in this study has the advantage of generating what Geertz (2002) calls thick description by exploring the participants’ experiences, opinions, feelings and knowledge on a given subject under study. According to Nieuwenhuis (2010:75) case study research is aimed at gaining greater insight and understanding of the dynamics of a specific situation. He argues further that an exploratory case study has the advantage of generating in-depth data, which in this study pertains to the social reality on the professional development of teachers in ICT.. 1.8.1 Population and sampling The population for this study were rural school managers from two South African rural schools purposively selected on the assumption that they are informed in terms of the views of rural school managers and educators. This implies that the sample for the study is assumed to meet the most suitable criteria of participants based on their scope of knowledge and experience in rural schools on ICT education (Sapsford & Jupp, 2006). From a sampling frame of all educators, a sample of ten participants was identified.. 1.8.2 Data collection methods The data for this qualitative research were collected through interviews and observations. These data collection methods are considered ideal because of their merits in eliciting thick descriptions through exploring the views of rural school educators as participants in their natural settings (Cohen, Manion and Morrison: 2007). Data will thus be collected through semi-structured individual interviews and observations. Individual interviews will be held with school managers at the school. An interview and observation schedule will be formulated and circulated in advance to participants to familiarize them with the interview questions, dates, time and venues for the interviews and observations. At the interview, the proceedings will be audio taped and later transcribed. Observations will be held in and outside the classroom to verify 7.

(24) information gathered from the interviews. At the school I would observe the participants behavior and interactions, daily teaching methodology, school atmosphere and infrastructure, in its natural settings. Through my observations I want to ascertain if the school has the technological media and digital tools such as projectors, iPads and computers, and Wifi connection. Field notes will be made during these observations and will be compared to the transcriptions. The transcribed data together with the field notes of the observation will be sent to the participants to confirm and validate it as true reflections of what was said during the interview process (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011:179). Observations will clarify the trustworthiness of the data. Each interview will be for 90 minutes.. 1.8.3 Data management and analysis An interview schedule will be formulated and circulated in advance to participants to familiarise them with the interview questions. At the interview, the proceedings will be audio-taped and later transcribed. Observations will be held in and outside the classroom to verify information gathered from the interviews. Field notes will be made during these observations and it will be compared to the transcriptions. Observations made it easier for the researcher to gain insight into the interviewees’ views and develop relationships between the transcript of the data and the field notes. Comparisons made between the reflective notes made during observation and the analysed data to establish the relationship between what the participants said and what they do in practice. This had the advantage to extend the trustworthiness of the findings of the data. According to Cohen, Manion & Morrison (2011:179), validity is determined through honesty, depth, richness and scope of the data. Validity questions the extent of the data. Observations will clarify the trustworthiness of the data. The analysis of data was conducted thematically. The data was first segmented into meaningful units and coded which were then clustered into categories where those with similar categories were compared and contrasted. The analyses of the themes made it possible for the discussion of the findings reported in chapter four of this study (Nieuwenhuis (2012).. 8.

(25) 1.9 ENVISAGED CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY It is envisaged that the findings of this study will go a long way towards meeting the demands of the 21st century of learners and teachers, which Verran (2008) regards as the digital natives. The digital natives certainly require ICT educators with adequate levels of skills, knowledge and competencies in the use of ICT in the classroom. It is thus envisaged that the results of his study seek to sensitize school management teams (SMT) to be proactive in implementing educator TPD in ICT. Further to the above, the ICT revolutionary changes and challenges in the South African educational system have also necessitated my desire to sensitized educational institutions to adopt the cutting edge technology in their classrooms (DOE, 2007) as a way of empowering them with the requisite ICT skills, knowledge and competencies, which has become a prominent feature of the 21st century.. The researcher’s motivation for undertaking this study was firstly, on a personal and professional level. As a trained educator in ICT, I am keen on professional development in ICT because it will make teachers become relevant and enable them to meet the changing trends in the education system. The current crop of learners is technologically driven with cell phones and iPads while educators lack the skills, knowledge and competencies on the usage of these electronic devices. A large majority of educators in rural schools are products of colleges that did not integrate ICT in the curriculum of teacher training courses and many come from the Bantu Education system. This created a gap in their knowledge of ICT, hence, the need for educators in rural schools to be professionally developed in ICT. This will make them (educators) meet the demands of the learners and help them achieve their potential through the use of ICT. Secondly, as an educator I come from a school situated in an affluent area. We have fully integrated ICT skills, knowledge and competencies into teaching and learning in the classroom. The school is equipped with a variety of ICT media which are effectively used for teaching, learning and administrative purposes. Recently, the school adopted a rural school from a nearby farm as a Global Partner initiative.. 9.

(26) Teachers and learners from that school were invited to participate in activities on the internet and other ICT programs. They were also required to interact with learners in other parts of the world via the internet. These learners and educators had no concept of how to work through the computer programs and on the internet. On the contrary, educators and learners from my school have skills, knowledge and competencies on the use of ICT because they have been trained on the use of these technological devices. This showed the gap in two ways: firstly they have no knowledge of ICT and secondly they lacked the resources due to lack of infrastructure. This displayed the digital divide that still exists between rural and urban schools. Despite government’s efforts in implementing ICT, TPD at rural schools are minimal and has broadened the digital divide between rural and urban schools. Isaacs (2007) asserts that rural schools are neglected and not given much attention because authorities service the urban schools. The knowledge and skills on the use of ICT in the classroom are of great importance for educators if they are to be functional in the continuous changing trends in education. In light of the above arguments, this has motivated me to try and make a contribution to the professional development of educators in ICT in rural schools by means of my proposed case study on, professional development of educators in ICT in rural schools.. The purpose of this study was to obtain the school managers’ perceptions on the professional development of educators in ICT at rural schools. The evidence provided in this study may demonstrate that professional development of educators in ICT will be beneficial to the learners, the school teachers and to the rural community as a whole or it may contradict the hypothesis. Furthermore it will confirm whether any professional development programs are conducted for educators in rural schools, by either the department of education or private training consultants. This research will also explore whether professional development of educators in ICT, will bridge the digital divide gap that exists between rural and urban school teachers and management. The research focused on school leaders and their school management teams therefore they will be the primary beneficiaries. Secondary beneficiaries will be the learners because their performance will be enhanced, and educators who primarily contribute towards the 10.

(27) success of the school. It will also define the concept of professional development of educators in ICT, and demonstrate to school managers the importance of computer skills development in teaching and learning. Teacher competency on the use of digital devices, the internet and administrative computer software packages, are imperatives for the 21st century educator. The success of this research may also regulate whether management themselves need to be trained in ICT. It will empower school managers to perform a human resource analysis and forecast, to determine the level of the digital training needs for teachers. 1.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Certain ethical considerations were guaranteed by the researcher during the course of research process. According to Betram and Christiansen (2014) ethics in research involves getting informed consent from those who are being interviewed. Informed consent suggests that the interviewee understands the purpose, his or her role during the data collection process and that his contribution made will add value to the research done. Firstly, the researcher applied for ethical clearance from the University for Ethical Clearance. This is a document that gives brief information of the research project that is to be conducted. In it contains a background to the study, intention of the project, the procedures that will be followed when conducting the research interview and the potential risks and benefits of the research. Secondly a letter was sent to the department of education requesting permission to perform the interviews at those schools. A copy of the consent document issued by the Provincial Department of Education was attached to the questionnaire. Then the researcher called the principals of each school and introduced herself and explained that research was to be conducted at those schools. At the interview the ethical clearance certificate was attached to the questionnaire that was handed out. This certificate clarified the ethical principles and procedures to be followed for the entire research. The letter described that the participants’ involvement was voluntary and that they were free to withdraw from the interview and observation process at any time without feeling threatened or fearful to leave. The participants were also informed of the potential risks 11.

(28) and harm or discomfort present during their involvement and that their consent was required to participate. The participants’ confidentiality was guaranteed and that their responses and individuality will remain anonymous throughout the research. The participants were advised that feedback will be provided once the research is complete. 1.11 SUMMARY In this chapter the general orientation to the study was presented. This was done by highlighting the background, rationale, aim and objectives of the study, the research questions, methods of data collection, overall approach and design genre, data collection methods and the justification of each of these research aspects. The concept, professional development of educators was also unpacked in this chapter with the view of putting the study in its proper perspective. Chapter two thus looks at the literature related to the views of school managers regarding the professional development of educators on the use of ICT to mediate learning in rural schools and the implications of their views on the school management teams’ efforts to continuously train teachers in ICT.. 12.

(29) CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW “We must ensure that information and communication technologies (ICT) are used to help unlock the door to education” (Annan, 2005) 2.1 INTRODUCTION In line with Kofi Annan’s (2005) contentions above, this chapter looks at the literature related to the need for constantly building teacher capacity in the use of ICT as a form of mediated learning experiences (Vygotsky, 1987). The chapter employs two broad theoretical perspectives namely, Owens and Valesky’s (2005) human capital and Vygotskian socio-cultural theory to argue that TPD is a condition necessary for not only human capital development, but also for effective mediated learning experience, particularly for digital natives whose classroom experiences now inevitably entails blended learning. The literature review is thus conducted in a manner consistent with the following. subheadings:. the. nature. of. development as human capacity building,. professional. development,. professional. professional development of rural teachers. in ICT, a review of statutory instruments governing professional development in institutions, views from the white paper 7 on e-learning, the involvement of school management in the TPD, forms of professional development in ICT, implementation challenges for TPD and ways of mitigating the implementation challenges of TPD. 2.2 THE NATURE OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT The proposals espoused in the White Paper 7 on e-Education (2004: 1) and the Guidelines for Teacher Training and Professional Development in ICT (2007: 1), in recognizing the importance and need for our educational system, its teachers and learners to be active participants in the digital age, necessitate the need to have ICT introduced into virtually all educational institutions in the country. Vemic’s (2007: 209) contention that professional development is the best approach to complex problems that will benefit both the individual and the school system seems plausible given the three core components of effective professional development as identified by the Department 13.

(30) of Education’s White paper 7 of (2007). These cover the improvement of teachers’ knowledge and skills, the development of their teaching practice, and the increase in learners’ performance and can be attained if traditional approaches to professional development are employed in the schools. These traditional approaches include workshops, seminars and conferences that adopt a technological and simplistic view of teaching, rooted on the assumption that teachers’ knowledge and skills can be enhanced by making use of experts from outside the schools (Boyle, Lamprianous & Boule, 2005: 4). The three authors express the same sentiments to show the importance of professional development within a school context. Boyle, Lamprianous and Boule (2005: 22) further assert that when professional development is designed for educators in the same school, department or grade, it tends to afford beneficiaries opportunities for discussing concepts and skills, observe their colleagues, share practices and integrate what they have learnt into best classroom practices. 2.3 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT AS HUMAN CAPACITY Gartia (2012:1) argues that professional development of educators involves the enhancing of capabilities to keep abreast of current issues and to enable them to implement new innovations. In the same vein, Gamage (2006: 171) asserts that educators require training and believes that training enhances knowledge, understanding and skills. It is in this sense that TPD is considered a process of human capital development (Draker, 2010). Similar sentiments are expressed by Gamage (2006: 171) who further explains that training of educators can bring benefits, to both the individuals themselves and to the educational institutions. Ball and Cohen (1999: 3-4) agree with both Gartia (2012) and Gamage (2006), but go further to include the importance of professional development to enhancing learner performance. Wei et al. (2009: 1-3) also holds a similar view that professional development is important for improving teacher knowledge and assessment techniques that may improve learner performance. Mestry (2009: 1) further qualifies the need for professional development to ensure that the quality of the learners’ experience and achievement is improved in a positive way. It is, therefore, clearly apparent that on-going professional development is of vital importance to ensure 14.

(31) that rural educators continually upgrade their skills and knowledge so that the quality of teaching and learning is enhanced. 2.4 PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL TEACHERS IN ICT Rural schools particularly those situated in deep remote areas within poverty stricken communities often have inadequate infrastructures such as buildings, toilets facilities, telecommunications and equipment. Naidoo & Perumal (2015) contend that there is a continued lack of ICT qualified educators, deliverance of irrelevant curriculum occurs; classes have large number of learners and teachers lack of using necessary teaching aids.. Herselman (2003) supports Tire and Mlitwa (2008) to argue that many rural. educators do not have ICT support facilities. The geographical location of many schools does place many limitations on its connectivity and the use of the internet. Naidoo (2002) cited in Herselman (2003) further. declares that scholars in rural schools are. approximately seven years behind their counterparts in urban schools in basic ICT literacy, numeracy and overall computer proficiency. A further commonly held perception of the term ICT refers to the accessing, acquiring and communicating of information using the available technologies (Lloyd, 2005: 3). With the many advances in ICT and the vast choice of technological resources available, educators must be developed to ensure that they are able to incorporate these media into their teaching so as to improve the quality of learning and teaching and create expanded learning opportunities to commensurate with the learners’ educational needs. According to Price, Waterhouse, Coopers’ (2010:3) essay on ICT on School Education, ICT provides teachers with improved educational content and greater teaching and learning methods. The provision of interactive educational materials will increase learners’ motivation and facilitate easy acquisition of basic skills (Onwuagboke, Singh & Fook, 2015). The South African National Department of Education has taken heed of ICT training and professional development by publishing the Guidelines for Teacher Training and Professional Development in ICT (Department of Education, 2007), a document that serves as an ICT professional development manual for educators. It highlights the importance and need for teacher professional development in ICT, to equip educators with ICT knowledge, skills, 15.

(32) values and attitudes. However, this document is found wanting because it provides very little information on how educators and schools can practically integrate ICT within the South African context (Department of Education, 2007 cited in du Plessis and Webb, 2012: 46) specifically in rural schools. In fact, the continuing professional development of educators in ICT is a vital component for a comprehensive teacher education system of a high quality, as envisaged by the Minister of Education (Department of Education, 2007: 4). This is justified on the grounds that the changing education landscape brought about by globalization and the growth in information technology require that educators should be involved in continuous professional development (Forde, McMahon & Reeves, 2009: 17). According to the Skills Development Act 97 of 1998, it is important that educators in an institution are sufficiently skilled to perform effectively and therefore the continuous professional development of them is vital to the success of the schools. In addition, professional development in ICT is most effective if it is on-going, long-term, and related to the educators’ content area. Moreover, professional development in ICT leads to better instruction and improves learner achievement. Effective professional development results in the following benefits: stimulates and supports school- based initiatives on improving teaching practice; supports school initiatives as well as district initiatives; it is grounded in knowledge about teaching; it models the constructivist teaching which require teachers to explore, question and debate in order to develop cognitive levels of the learners (Zepeda, 2008). Drawing from Vygotskian socio-cultural approach to learning and development, the aforementioned implies scaffolding rural schools’ educators in ICT by equipping them with the latest computer based skills for them to effectively mediate ICT teaching and learning in schools. 2.5 A REVIEW OF STATUTORY INSTRUMENTS GOVERNING TPD Educator Labor Relations Council (ELRC) is a blue print containing the directive principles of the national education policy in which it is declared and decreed that every person has to be protected against unfair discrimination and should achieve equitable education opportunities to redress the past inequalities in education (National Education Policy Act, 16.

(33) 1996). The document seeks to address unfair discrimination by arguing that professional development of rural school teachers, just like their urban counterparts, on the use of ICT, is imperative as it bridges the digital divide that exists between rural and urban teachers. When teachers are professionally developed on the use of ICT, this provides equal lifelong learning opportunities for both rural and urban teachers (National Education Policy Act, 1996: A4). When teachers in rural schools are professionally developed on the use of ICT, it will not only encourage an integrated approach to education and training through the use of ICT, but will enhance the quality of education in rural schools. To ensure quality education in rural schools, the policy states that educators and managers therefore need to be effectively trained. The other document forming part of the legislative requirements is the Employment of Educators Act 76 of 1998, which stipulates the core duties and responsibilities of a teacher is to engage in class teaching using new approaches and techniques that foster learning for progression (ELRC, 1996). Seen in this light, the teacher must recognize learning as an active process and should therefore use a variety of teaching strategies to meet the outcomes spelt out in the curriculum. The use of ICT in rural schools especially for teaching and learning has the potential to ensure that learners are actively involved in their learning. However, the use of ICT in rural schools can occur, only if the teachers are professionally developed on the use of ICT in the classroom (Hardman, 2005). When teachers in rural schools are professionally developed on the use of ICT, they will create and establish a classroom environment which will stimulate positive learning and actively engage learners in the learning process. One policy that emphases the need for ICT in schools is the White Paper 7 on e- Learning. A discussion and relevance of this policy will follow. 2.6 WHITE PAPER 7 ON E-LEARNING FOR SCHOOLS The White Paper 7 on e-learning has set in motion new pathways for teachers and learners by introducing ICTs into our schools. These pathways include the selection, gathering, sorting and analysis of information since a global revolution in ICT is currently taking place in education and training. It is driven by the changing nature of work, the 17.

(34) realities of the information age, new global partnerships and an awareness of the need for equal distribution of educational opportunities. According to this view, education systems have an obligation to deliver on public expectations of quality education for economic growth and social development. However, in the context of developing countries, quality improvement and the enhancement of excellence must take into consideration the need for increased access, equity and redress. These efforts are, in most instances, undermined by factors such as fiscal constraints, spatial barriers and other capacity-related limitations to delivery. As demonstrated in various contexts, ICTs have the potential and capacity to overcome most of these barriers. It is for these reasons that government has been quick to seize the opportunity presented by the practical benefits of ICTs to support teaching and learning. ICTs have the potential to enhance the management and administrative capacity of schools. Further to the above, the Skills Development Act (1998) enacted to govern the educational training needs, helps institutions such as schools to provide an institutional framework to devise and implement national, sector and workplace strategies to develop and improve the skills of the South African workforce and to integrate those strategies within the National Qualifications Framework contemplated in the South African Qualifications Authority Act, of 1995. (Mestry et al.,:2009). 2.7 THE INVOLVEMENT OF SCHOOL MANAGEMENT IN TPD School managers in countries around the world have initiated professional development for teachers on ICT using various strategies (Ahmadi, Paracha, Sokout & Gharanai 2015). These strategies address issues of social justice, economic development, digital divide, accessibility and mobility in the teaching and learning processes. According to this view, the onus of equipping educators with professional development in ICT lies in the hands of the school management team (SMT). They need to plan educator, programs for professional development in ICT because of the benefits that it would accrue to the school and the learners. On-going professional development in ICT in the education and training of educators could include among others; on the job training, mentoring, coaching, direct instruction, skill demonstration and workshops within presentations on ICT (Ahmadi et al., 18.

(35) 2015). In a true Vygotskian socio-cultural perspective, the above implies ensuring that, as teachers are developed professionally, they are also made to adopt computer based mediating learning tools to help them transform their teaching skills to higher psychological functions (John-Steiner & Mahn, 2008). The implications for this for TPD are that continuous teacher professional development in ICT is an inevitable process for all classroom practitioners. According to Robinson (2008), there are several forms or types of teacher professional development as the following section shows. 2.8 FORMS OF PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ICT The geographical location of rural schools, being remotely situated in inaccessible areas, makes it difficult for transport and educational resources and facilities to reach them and is seen as a hindrance to teacher professional development in ICT (Herselman, 2003). Distance education is an effective form of professional development in ICT for educators in inaccessible remote areas. Research shows that distance education bridges the gap for equal education, between urban and impoverished rural pre-service and in-service teachers (McQuaide, 2009 & Hannum and Associates (2009) cited in Howley, Wood & Hough, 2011; Burns & Lawrie, 2011).. 2.8.1 Distance Education UNESCO (2014) defines distance education as “An educational process and system in which all or a significant proportion of the teaching is carried out by someone or something removed in space and time from the learner.” Keegan, (1980) cited in Burns, (2011:19), describes distance education as a planned learning experience regarded as semi-permanent separation of the instructor and learner(s). Within a distance education system, information and communication are exchanged through print or electronic communications media. For the purpose of this study, school managers’ perceptions on the professional development of teachers in ICT in rural schools, the researcher limits the discussion to the professional development of teachers on electronic communications media or ICT.. 19.

(36) Burns (2011) discusses distance learning also known as e-learning as a teaching and learning method intended remotely, for electronic communication in learning. For him, remote rural schools can benefit from e-learning, which in his view, is inexpensive, accessible to rural communities, more flexible in terms of time, and the fact that it can be delivered in a virtual environment. It basically offers an asynchronous learning environment. In situations where traditional ICT education has difficulty operating, elearning offers learning opportunities to improve issues of equity in education by providing equality for underprivileged rural learners and teachers. In both the developing and developed countries, it can be been implemented as an in-service conduit to upgrade the knowledge, skills, and qualifications of under-qualified teachers (Burns, 2011; Roy, 2012). The rapid development of technologies, including the Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) approach allows teachers to interact with a variety of media, collaborate with peers, and receive assessment results almost instantly (Prensky, 2010). The modes of delivery for distance education transcend an evolution of distinctive electronic devices such as those that are audio based; televisions; computer-based multimedia and other mobile models.. 2.8.1.1 Audio-based distance education Audio-based instruction for teacher education involves radio broadcasts of content that is specifically developed for them to enjoy Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) whereby radio content is being used as a mediating tool to scaffold learning to transform their skills from lower to higher mental functions in the zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1987). South Africa’s Open Learning Systems Educational Trust (OLSET)’s English in Action is so far one of the best-known and longest-running examples of IRI that has been adopted to develop fifty two thousand teachers’ English-language, in speaking and writing through radio-scaffolder active learning, games and group work (Naidoo, 2009). IRI was used for both pre-service and in-service distance education with discernible teaching and learning benefits (Gaible & Burns, 2007 cited in Burns 2011). 20.

(37) 2.8.1.2 Interactive Audio Instruction (IAI) In this mode of address, lessons and instructions are often pre-recorded on audiocassette or CD-ROM and are distributed to teachers who have access to the material anytime and are able to use the replay, stop, forward and rewind features as needed (Gaible & Burns, 2007). Also linked to audio-based distance education is the digital audio broadcasting which can transmit multimedia information to computers. Its access is greater because it uses less airtime and supplements radio broadcasts (Gaible & Burns, 2007). Audio based learning has become revolutionized through the invention of the internet. In America and countries such as Bhutan and Sri Lanka, the internet provides programs that allow teachers to listen and record radio programs. Stories can be uploaded that teachers access through internet radios and smart phones and Android tablet applications. This method of accessing the internet is generally used in rural communities where internet access is often unavailable (Pricewaterhouse Coopers, 2010 cited in Burns, 2011). The availability of free internet and web-based audio-conferencing programs in distance education also allows teachers to communicate orally between computers, between computers and phones (skype) and between phones (conference Up). This conferencing is beneficial to teachers because it is synchronous and simpler to use (Burns, 2011). It is a powerful instrument of communication for teachers because it provides them with an in time colleague, instructor or peer to support their learning (Burns, 2011). Gaible and Burns (2007) further note that another audio-based learning tool in teacher professional development is Podcasts because information can be cascaded through MP3 players such as the iPod; smart phones, especially iPhones or Blackberry types; personal digital devices, such as the iPod Touch and via the world wide web or Internet as it is commonly called (Prensky, 2010). As a result schools using audio-based professional development programs would not need internet connectivity; complex training or technology skills. Neither do they need to purchase computers since all professional development sessions can be stored on CD-ROMS or audio cassettes (Prensky, 2010).. 21.

(38) 2.8.1.3 Television and Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) As one of the mediating tool for professional development, the television provides teachers with both the visual and audio instructional techniques for pre-service and inservice training for teacher professional development (Prensky (2010). It is easily accessible to teachers in their homes and classrooms. As a result, it can easily expose them to other more novel teacher instructional practices from which they can take a leaf for their pedagogical practices. As an audio and visual mediator, the television is used in China to upgrade the skills of pre- and in-service teachers, through the China Television Teachers’ College (Burns, 2011). The television can also be connected to the internet through Blu-ray players and game consoles. This increases the impact of television as a distance learning tool. Software programs such as Apple TV and Google TV, which allow users to download internet videos could be watched at their convenience on television, computers or mobile devices. In South Africa, technology companies blend television viewing with the services of the internet. A company, such as Vodafone’s Web box allows a keyboard to be attached to a television, through a standard RCA connector and thus runs an Opera Mini-browser over mobile networks. South Korea is one example of a country that has utilized the internet and television convergence to offer in-service professional development and continuing education to its teachers via Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) (Burns, 2011). The fusion of broadcast television and telecommunications allowed the multimedia content such as data, texts, graphics, video, audio and two-way communication (Prensky, 2010). Using IPTV, teachers can create playlists of professional development and education-related programs for viewing at their own convenience (KERIS, 2009: 12 cited in Burns 2011:38).. 2.8.1.4. Videos Videos can be used by teachers to watch other expert teachers and role models’ teaching strategies and methodologies which the pre-service and in-service teachers can adopt in their own teaching practices. Video recorders have specific functions such as pause, 22.

(39) repeat, rewind and freeze options, which can be interspersed with discussions during TPD activities. In the 21st century, videos are easily available on the internet on such sites as TeacherTube, SchoolTube and Edutopia which could be used as pre-and in-service teacher education tools (Gaible & Burns, 2007). The University of Michigan’s Elementary Mathematics Laboratory Videos has used videos to demonstrate to teachers how they can improve their pedagogical practices. Video cameras are placed in the classrooms of master mathematics teachers so novice mathematics teachers can watch in another location how the master teacher helps struggling mathematics learners to cope with the subject. This method has been reported as successful in improving teachers’ pedagogical skills in rural Nepal and Namibia (Gaible & Burns, 2007). In the developed countries videos can be blended with the World Wide Web, whereby teachers in such states as New York can videotape their lectures and post them online to allow other learners and teachers to view and review them anytime. Through videoconferencing teachers can collaborate in groups with teachers in other locations. They can view other instructors and discuss topics of interest with them (Prensky, 2010). This approach is used in Indonesia for teacher-upgrading programs such as HYLITE. It allows for interaction between school sites and thus helps create partnerships with those that are keen to support rural schools.. 2.8.1.5. Multimedia Multimedia is the use of CD-ROMs, DVDs/VCDs, computer aided instruction and digital learning games for teacher support and learning activities (Prensky, 2010). Mayer as cited in Burns (2011), asserts that the multimedia approach may help both teachers and learners to be more meaningful through the processing of text and images simultaneously thereby helping to boost memory development (Burns, 2011). These technological devices contain graphic and motion data. In rural communities where access to data is limited, DVDs have become a popular mode for films and tele-courses (Prensky, 2010). DVD-based materials can be popularly used for distance teacher professional development for both pre and in-service teachers around the world.. 23.

(40) 2.8.1.6 Computer - Aided Instruction (CAI) CAI is where teaching occurs with computer technologies that assist the teaching and learning processes (Casey & Evans, 2011). The computer becomes the tutor in this case and uses applications such as drill and practice exercises, computer visualization of complex objects and computer-facilitated communication between learners and teachers (Burns & Lawrie, 2015). As a tool that focuses on pedagogical content knowledge for specific subjects, it helps provide opportunities for self-paced learning (Lauzon & Moore, cited in Burns & Lawrie, 2015). It is a powerful tool that serves teachers in geographically remote areas where there is lack of qualified teachers (Burns & Lawrie, 2015). It can be used to improve teacher qualifications through online examinations with updated content to offer vibrant lessons by increasing communication between teachers and learners in remote rural areas. In countries such as Pakistan, Indonesia and Bangladesh, CAI programs comprising of interactive texts and images are being used for pre-and in-service teacher development as supplements to printed information (Burns, 2011). Since professional development of educators in ICT is directly linked to learner performance, multimedia use has the potential to enhance learners’ understanding through visual presentations, manipulation of simulated environments that may be too difficult, expensive, or dangerous to perform in schools, to complex virtual worlds like those used in airplane flight simulators (Douglas, 2000).. 2.8.1.7 Web-based distance learning (Online learning) Online learning occurs successfully through the use of web-based courses worldwide, especially in many developed countries that have access to good broadband, access to personal computers, and a corpus of computer-literate educators. Burns & Lawrie (2011) recommend online learning for teachers in remote rural areas as a cost- effective method of TPD. However, it is limiting in rural school areas due to the lack of accessibility, connectivity and resources and therefore it should be considered as an enhancement of face-to-face TPD.. In terms of the teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) 24.

(41) teachers can enhance their PCK through lesson planning sessions mediated by other more experienced classroom practitioners on sites, through teacher wikis, numerous ‘ask an expert site’ activities, tele-mentoring projects, and a wealth of other varied resources available on the World Wide Web to help expand, develop and cultivate their PCK (Casey & Evans, 2011). Among the other ideal facilities available for curriculum and content support for teachers are educational portals, e-mail, e-lists, blogs, wikis, and educational websites, all of which can be accessed through the internet to provide teachers with a number of digital and cognitive ideas, teaching methodologies and learning resources (Prensky, 2010). Through reflection and dialogue, teachers can also create online communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1998) when they collaborate with peers through such electronic tools as e-mail, blogs, e-lists, bulletin boards, chats, wikis, user groups, online discussion groups, and Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) (Burns & Lawrie, 2015). They can also engage in reflective, analytic learning activities and discussions around specific teaching attributes and practices through writing and posting reflective journals (Capper, 2002: 2). In the area of the requisite tools to model best instructional practices, the integration of Web-based Content knowledge can be combined with learner-centred teachings so that the computer and internet serve as mediating tools to enhance learning and to scaffold learners from their lower to higher mental functions in the Zone of proximal development (ZPD), a concept Vygotsky (1987) coined to describe the difference between what learners can do on their own (prior knowledge) and what they can do with adult assistance or the help of a more competent peer collaborator (new knowledge). Research by, for example, Burns and Lawrie (2015) Kozulin (1998) and Vygotsky (1987) has shown that some of the world’s worst teachers receive workshops or trainings on tool-mediatedteaching and learning especially in ICT but where no support or follow up is given, the chances of their success is certainly not guaranteed. In the case of rural school educators, this implies that customized training sessions and workshops in ICT can be futile exercises or can be of limited value to the school if there is no continuous support from the SMTs. The implications for this are that support is needed in ICT for educators through on-the job training using a variety of TPD approaches. Support, can therefore be provided 25.

(42) through: on-the job training, internal or peer coaching, external coaching, and mentoring (Burns & Lawrie in, 2015: 84- 85). A discussion of the two major forms of support for teacher development, coaching and mentoring will follow.. 2.8.2. Coaching “A coach is a teacher’s teacher. A coach accepts, understands, and addresses the real needs of adult learners in specific schools with the same unfailing, relentless, positive energy that our very best classroom teachers bring to their work with children” (Walpole & Mckenna, 2013). Coaching is a method of guiding, inculcating, tutoring and preparing a person or group of people to achieve a particular goal or to develop a set of specific skills. A coach as a classroom supporter may be a peer, who can be another teacher or leader from the school or an external coach that involves an expert from outside the school, for example from a district office or teacher training college. The coach’s priority is to empower the teacher to use particular skills and approaches to teaching confidently (Burns & Laurie, 2015:8790).Peer coaching is a process by which teachers work with one another to share expertise and provide feedback, support and assistance. The peer coach does not advise or tell. He or she asks questions and supports the coachee (Anonymous,n.d). A manual on ICT peer coaching developed by Microsoft in collaboration with the Australian Department of Education declares that peer coaching is an effective method of professional development that can be aligned to the vision and mission of the school and its leadership. They propose a coaching cycle that focuses on five key components: assess; goals; prepare; implement activities and reflect as indicated in figure 1.. 26.

(43) Existing ICT knowledge and skills. Assess. Presentation and analysis of data, Reflect on learning Plan future. School vision, classroom Reflect. Model & team teach, Apply Observation and data collection on ICT. Figure 1.. Goals. Implement activites. Prepare. goals, ICT skill goals.. Learning activities, Create/adapt materials, Review/learn ICT. Adapted from ICT Peer Coaching Manual (Anon.n.d). Burns & Lawrie (2015) purport that peer coaching results in quality implementation of the content and skills learned in workshops and seminars. Teachers become motivated and are willing to try new approaches to teaching and become more involved in the success of professional development (Darling-Hammond & Bransford,2005). In Ethiopia and Uganda, video based peer coaching model is used. Teachers’ lessons were video recorded and analyzed by their peer coaches for reflection and improvement. External coaching involves a competent “outsider” who is located at a district office or training college. Many donor-funded projects such as those by United States Agency for International Development (USAID) on professional development use this method of coaching. Indonesia, among other countries, used external coaching to help rural schools implement learner-centered teaching as part of a one computer classroom project (Burns & Lawrie, 2011:90).. 27.

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