Chapter 14, Section 1 The Church Reforms
Between 500 and 1000 CE, Vikings attacked many Christian monasteries, and as a result, many centers of learning were destroyed. In addition, the Church was also facing many other problems, chief among those was corruption. As the Middle Ages progressed over the next 300 or years, however, the Church and medieval life began to undergo some radical changes.
Monastic Revival and Church Reform
Beginning in the 1,000s CE, monasteries began a spiritual revolution across Western Europe, their main goal to return the basic principles to the Christian religion. Influenced by pious monks, the Church began to reform. As a result, a new age of Christianity was born: the Age of Faith.
Many problems plagued the Church, but reformers were troubled by three main ones:
• many priests were married and had families, although they were to remain celibate • bishops sold spots in the clergy to people, an act called simony.
• The practice of lay investiture1 gave kings power over bishops. (Church reformers believed that
the Church and no one else should have power over bishops.)
Reform was slow, starting in 910 CE when the Benedictine monastery was founded in a place called
Cluny, France. The monks in Cluny strictly followed Benedictine rule, and soon other monasteries were
founded across Western Europe — by the year 1000 CE, there were over 300 monasteries of a similar belief. In 1098 CE, another order was founded, the Cistercian monks, and their life of hardship won them many followers, causing further reforms. These reforms reached as far as the papacy, where Pope Leo IX began enforcing Church laws against simony and celibacy. Pope Gregory VII, who took office after Leo IX, spent time at Cluny studying, and was determined to purify the Church.
The popes who succeeded Gregory continued to institute reforms. By the thirteenth century CE, the Church began to look like a kingdom, with the Pope at its head. Like a king, the Pope had his own group of advisers, called the papal Curia. The Curia acted as a court, and it dealt with canon law2.
Diplomats from the Vatican began traveling through Europe to deal with bishops and kings, further extending the power of the papacy. The Church also began collecting taxes in the form of tithesA, or
one-tenth of a person's income. The Church also operated different social services, such as hospitals. The practices of simony and marriage of the clergy both declined dramatically.
In the early thirteenth century, wandering friars traveled from town to town spreading the Church's ideals and philosophies. Unlike monks, however, friars did not live their lives isolated from society, rather, they lived amongst everyone else. Their primary income was through begging. Like monks, the friars were also:
• celibate • poverty • obedience
One of the earliest order of friars, the Dominicans, was founded by Dominic, a Spanish priest, who emphasized the importance of study and scholarship. Another order of friars were the Franciscans, founded by Saint Francis of Assisi. The son of a wealthy merchant, he emphasized brotherliness over
scholarship — in his mind, every living being was his spiritual brother or sister.
In addition to men, women also played a key role in the spiritual revival of Christianity. In 1212 CE, an order of female friars called the Poor Clares was founded by Clare and her friend, Francis of Assisi. In 1147, a Benedictine convent was built for women. Although women were not allowed to travel from town to town like the male friars, they still lived in poverty and as beggars. They primarily worked to care for the sick and poor.
Cathedrals — Cities of God
Although the friars made the personal choice to lead a life of poverty, the Church's wealth was apparent everywhere. This was especially the case in the cathedrals built in medieval Europe. Between the years 800 and 1100 CE, churches were built, by and large, in the Romanesque style. These churches had:
• round arches • heavy roof
• supported by thick walls and pillars • small windows to let minimal light in
In 1100 CE, however, a new style of architecture, Gothic, began to evolve. (It originated from the Germanic group, the Goths3.) This term describes the architecture that was typical of churches in
Western Europe during this time:
• light streamed in through massive, stained-glass windows • tall spires
• pointed and ribbed vaults to support the roof • flying buttresses
Soon, Gothic churches spread throughout France. Nearly 500 churches were built in this style during the years 1170 and 1270 CE in Western Europe. The cathedral represented the “City of God,” and as such, it was beautifully furnished with the best money could buy.
Chapter 14, Section 1 The Crusades
The Age of Faith, in addition to reviving spirituality, also inspired war. In 1093 CE, the Byzantine emperor, Alexias Comnenus sent a letter to Pope Urban II asking for protection against the Muslims Turks, who had invaded the empire and were an imminent threat to Constantinople.
Shortly after the appeal from Alexias was received, Pope Urban II began organizing a “holy war,” or a
crusade to begin a pilgrimage and ultimately conquer the Holy Land, Judea, and make it a Christian
state. Over the coming 200 years, Crusades were launched. These Crusades had both economic and spiritual motives. Urban II's call for support brought forth a rush of religious support, which came, in addition from the clergy, the nobles and knights. In 1096 CE, when the First Crusade was launched, between 50,000 and 60,000 knights left their estates and began the journey to Jerusalem. They believe that this “righteous war” was sanctioned by God, and therefore, they will not have sinned. The Church also saw the Crusades as a way to prevent knights from fighting each other by uniting under a common goal. (The knights threatened the peace of the kingdoms in Western Europe, as well as the power of the papacy.) If knights died in the Crusades, they were assured a place in heaven since the killed for a noble cause. In later crusades, merchants made money by lending money to finance the crusades at high interest; they also leased their ships for transport.
The First Crusade
In 1097 CE, three armies gathered outside the walls of Constantinople. While most of the Crusaders were French, there were also:
• German
• English • Scottish • Italians • Spaniards
The First Crusade was very unprepared for the pilgrimage. They knew nothing about the geography or topography of the land, nor had they any strategy to capture Jerusalem. They had no leader or ample supplies. Out of the many tens of thousands that started out, only about 12,000 actually made it to Jerusalem, and in 1099 CE, they captured the city. They captured a narrow strip of land, reaching from Edessa in the north to Jerusalem in the south.
The Second Crusade
In 1144 CE, this strip of territory was recaptured by the Turks. A second Crusade was dispatched from Western Europe to help reconquer the land, but it faced defeat: Jerusalem, the Holy City, was captured by Saladin, a Muslim leader
The Third Crusade
The Third Crusade was to recapture Jerusalem for the second time. It was led by three powerful monarchs:
• Fredrick I, or Barbossa • Philip Augustus
• Richard the Lionhearted
Barbossa died en route to Judea, and Philip and Richard argued, causing Philip to return home as a failure. That left Richard, a ruthless military general (hence the name), and in 1192, Richard and
control, but in return, Saladin promised that the Christians could visit it whenever they so pleased.
The Fourth Crusade
In 1198 CE, a powerful pope, Innocent III, launched yet another crusade, with the same goal: to capture Jerusalem. The knights who went on this Crusade, however, became involved with Byzantine and Italian politics. Instead of continuing on to Judea, they looted the city of Constantinople in 1204 CE, thereby ending the fourth Crusade. This caused a breach in the Churches — the Eastern Orthodox and the Roman Catholic — that would be permanent.
The Crusading Spirit Dwindles
In the thirteenth century CE, the Crusades became increasingly unsuccessful. The religious fervor that was inspired with the First Crusade faded, replace by a desire for monetary gain and fame. In later Crusades, armies marched to North Africa, not Judea. The French king who headed the last two
crusades, was widely respected in Europe, Louis IX, was later declared a saint. None of these attempts at conquering land brought much success, however.
One of the most famous of the last crusades was the Children's Crusade, which took place in 1212 CE. Thousands of children marched to Judea without any weapons — they believed that God would give them Jerusalem. On their journey, many died from cold and starvation, and the rest drowned in the Mediterranean or were sold into slavery.
In Spain, Muslims, called Moors, had controlled the country until the twelfth century CE. The
Reconquista was a long program designed to drive the Muslims out of the country. By the 1400s, the
Moors held only the small kingdom of Granada, and in 1492A, this too was conquered by King
Ferdinand. In addition, this century also brought about the Inquisition, when many Jews and Muslims converted to Christianity or risked being executed. This was to suppress heresy.
The failure of the later Crusades greatly lessened the power of the Pope, as well as feudal nobility. Countless knights were killed, more still lost all of their land and their fortunes. On the other hand, however, the Crusades acted as stimulants for trade between Europe and Asia. For Muslims, the Crusades were also a bittersweet experience. The hatred displayed by the Christians left a bad taste in the Muslims' mouths, a legacy still present today. For Christians and Jews who remained in Judea, the relationships between them and the Muslims worsened still. The same religious fervor that was
displayed by the Crusades can also be seen in the growth of trade, towns, and universities that would begin to form in medieval Europe.
Chapter 14, Section 2
Trade, Towns, and the Financial Revolution
While the Church was reforming, cathedrals were being built, and the Crusades were taking place, other important changes were occurring in medieval society. Between the years 1000 and 1300 CE, agriculture, finance, and trade make astonishing progress. As a result of the Crusades, cities grew. This was also due to the rapidly growing population. It was also during this period that learning took a jump and led to the creation of a new institution, the university.
A Growing Food Supply
Europe's revival would not have been possible without new innovations in regards to agriculture. The rapidly growing civilization needed more food. A warmer climate also helped in growing more food. (This warmer climate lasted from 800 to 1200 CE.) Farmers were able to grow food in parts of Western Europe where it was previously to cold. They also developed new methods to better use and manage the land that they had. Some of the methods that they used were:
• Using Horsepower: For several hundreds of years, peasants relied solely on oxen for plowing.
Although oxen were very low-maintenance, they were also very slow. Although horses required more food, a team of horses could plow around double what an oxen could.
• The Three-Field System: Villagers also began to organize fields differently. Previously, they
would divide their fields in half: one would be used, and the other would lay fallow. Around 800 CE, however, this system changed:
▪ one third would be used for planting winter crops, such as wheat
▪ one third would be used for spring crops, namely legumes, which were high in plant
protein
▪ one third would lay fallow
This process was fittingly called the three-field system. As a result, farmers were able to plant more and make more money. The foods that were grown were also much healthier, such as peas and lentils, which are higher in protein than other foods.
Because more food was needed to feed a growing population, forests were slowly disappearing all over Western Europe.
Trade and Finance Expand
In addition to agriculture, trade and finance were also undergoing serious changes. This was also, in part, responsible for population growth. (The Crusades4 also greatly influenced trade Trade routes
spread across Europe. The Western Europeans traded with the Byzantines and with the Muslims in Spain and northern Africa.
Most trade took place in towns. Peasants from nearby manors would travel to the market, carrying with them items to trade. These items included:
• bacon
• cloth • leather • dyes
The fairs held in the market provided peasants with the materials that they would need for their day-to-day lives. Because of these fairs and markets, not everything had to be produced on a self-sufficient, isolated manor.
Guilds, or groups of people working together with the same occupation, also greatly influenced growth
of trade, similar to today's unions. In medieval Europe, a guild would have control over how much each worker should be paid and how much each product that the guild dealt with should cost. These guilds also enforced product quality. Only masters of a trade would become guild members, however — this was not an easy process. He must first be apprenticed as a young boy (between the ages of five and seven), where he would trade for five to nine years and become a master. After graduation from apprenticeship, the boy would journey from town to town, looking for work. A journeyman whose product met the guild's standards would be inducted.
Due to the rise of fairs and guilds, the need for large amounts of money was created. A merchant would need money to buy the materials to make his product, and then sell this product at a profit. Previously, the merchant might have borrowed money, but the Church forbade charging a fellow Christian interest, a sin called usuryA. Instead, the merchants would go to Jewish moneylenders for loans. (This was one
of the few occupations that Jews were allowed to keep, since dealing with money was considered the “devil's work.”) The Jews were not allowed to live in the cities, rather, they were forced to live in special secluded quarters called ghettos. They were forbidden to own land. Over time, however, the Church became lax in its policy on usury, and baking became extremely popular in many parts of Europe, particularly Italy.
Urban Splendor Reborn
Throughout Western Europe, trade was flourishing and farming methods were improving, causing a spur in population. (Historians estimate that, between the years of 1000 and 1150 CE, the population grew by 12 million.) Despite this, however, European cities were very small when compared to cities such as Constantinople. By the year 1200, no more than 60,000 people inhabited Paris, and this was the largest city in Western Europe. By this time, however, trade had become integral in town life, and these markets started springing up everywhere. As people left the manor to live in towns, the feudal system5
slowly began to deteriorate. Although serfs were still technically bound to their lord's estate, many ran away to live in bigger towns. These towns, however, were very dirty:
• the streets were very narrow with oxen, pigs, and horses taking up much of the roads; their
feces filled the streets
• most people never bathed and dumped their garbage in front of their house • most people never bathed
• most houses lacked sufficient sunlight, fresh air, and clean water • the houses were made of wood and were very unstable
Despite these numerous setbacks, living in cities became quite popular. It was probably an improvement over being a serf—in the city, one was able to have free economic and social
opportunities. Many of the citizens of the Western European cities were former serfs who had run away to improve their lives. The merchants, however, did not really fit in with the clergy/nobles/peasants social scale. At first, the towns were under the control of the feudal lords, who exacted heavy taxes from all of the citizens, burghers, or city residents, rallied and demanded rights from the feudal lord. At times, this turned quite violent, where the peasants won their rights by force.
The Revival of Learning
Growing trade and growing cities also brought a revival of learning. At the center of this revival stood one institution, the university. (Although Constantinople and Muslim already had great centers of learning, the likes of a university were never seen before.) The term university originally meant a group
of scholars who would meet wherever and whenever possible. Unlike today, it was people — not buildings — who were the center of a medieval university. These universities rose up everywhere, from Bologna to the English town of Oxford. Most of the students that attended a university were the sons of burghers or wealthy artisans who were looking for a job in either government or the Church. At this time, most scholars were reading and writing in Latin, and some poets began using this as a vernacular, or their everyday language. Some of these poems are still read today:
• Dante Alighieri wrote the poem Divine Comedy in the year 1321 CE
• Geoffrey Chaucer wrote the poem The Canterbury Tales in the year 1405 CE.
This revival of learning also inspired European scholars to become interested in ancient scholars from the time of Greece and Rome. This brought the Western Europeans in connection again with the Byzantines and the Muslims, who had helped preserve thousands of years' worth of work. In the
twelfth century CE, Western European scholars began visiting Muslim libraries in Spain6. Through this,
the Europeans rediscovered a new body of knowledge that they had long forgotten. Some of the knowledge that was rediscovered included:
• science • philosophy • law
• mathematics
The Crusades also learned from the Muslims:
• ships • navigation
• weapons
These “new” innovations were brought back to Western Europe and reproduced.
Christian scholars were very excited by the Greek writings that they were currently studying. In the mid-thirteenth century CE, a scholar named Thomas Aquinas presented a thesis that all religious truths could be proved through logic. Between the years of 1267 and 1273 CE, Aquinas wrote the Summa
Theologica, which was heavily influenced by the Greek philosopher, Aristotle. This work combined
Aristotelian and Christian philosophiesC.
Aquinas and his fellow scholars who convened at universities were called scholastics. Scholastics used their knowledge of Aristotelian philosophy to debate many issues of their time. Their advancements on thinking influenced the thinking of Western Europe, particularly the countries of England and France. Accordingly, these two countries began to establish democratic institutions and traditions.
6 See Chapter 10, Section 3: Muslim Achievements
Chapter 14, Section 3 England Evolves
By the early 800s CE, small Anglo-SaxonA kingdoms covered all of Britain. In Europe, the decline of the Carolingian Empire7 in the tenth century CE, left a patchwork of small states controlled by local lords. Slowly, the rise of the middle class and the expansion of towns and villages gave rise to changes in government and the development of a nation.
England Absorbs Waves of Invaders
For centuries, invaders from numerous European nations invaded England. Many of them stayed, bringing into England their own cultures and changed England forevermore:
• Danish Vikings: During the ninth century CE, Britain was barraged by attacks from the Danish
Vikings. Only King Alfred the Great, who ruled as a British king from 871 to 899 CE, managed to rid Britain of these Viking invaders. Gradually, Alfred the Great and his successors were able to unite Britain under one rule, and renamed it England, or “Land of Angles,” named after a group of Germanic tribes that had invaded Britain.
• In 1016 CE, the Danish King Canute invaded and ultimately conquered England, and molded
the Anglo-Saxons and the Danish Vikings into one nation. In 1042 CE, King Edward the
Confessor took the throne. He died in 1066 CE without leaving an heir apparent, thus causing a
period of struggle for the throne. This turmoil caused one last invasion to occur.
• The Normandy Conquest: The last invader of England was the duke of Normandy, William the Conquerer. The Normans were Viking descendants and they invaded Britain with a Norman
army. William fought against the Anglo-Saxon Harold Godwinson, and on 14 October 1066, the two armies fought a battle that would change the course of history, the Battle of Hastings. Harold Godwinson was killed, making William the victor. He declared all of England his personal property. Any Englishman who had supported Harold in battle was stripped of his land and gave about 200 fiefs of English territory to Norman lords who had sworn an oath of loyalty to Harold. It is this that caused Harold to lay the groundwork for a centralized government.
England's Government Evolves
William the Conqueror's descendants owned land in both England and Normandy. The English king Henry II married Eleanor of Aquitaine, thereby bringing more French land into English control. Over the following centuries, the English kings tried to achieve two main goals:
• to retain and add on to their French territories
• to get more power than the Church noblemen and rule over them
Eleanore of Aquitaine was both the wife and the mother of two kings. She married French king Louis VII when the Second Crusade8 was called in 1147 CE, and she thus accompanied him to Judea. Shortly
afterwards, she divorced Louis VII and remarried to Henry Plantagenet, who would become King Henry II of England. Together, Henry II and Eleanore had four sons, two of which became kings,
Richard the Lionhearted9 and John. In addition, Henry II's marriage to Eleanore brought him a new
territory of French land, called Aquitaine. Although Henry II was a vassal to the French king, since he owned French land, he was a king over England. During Henry II's rule, which stretched from 1154 CE to 1189 CE, the courts were strengthened by Henry sending out royal messengers to every province of
A Definition: An inhabitant or English native who lived in England prior to the Normandy Conquest. 7 See Chapter 13, Section 1: The Creation of a European Empire
England. Jury trials became popular in England around this time. These messengers also collected taxes. At this point, a body of law was passed that became known as common law. Common law became the basis for much of Western law, including the United States. Henry II was succeeded by his oldest son, Richard the Lionhearted. When Richard died, his younger brother John succeeded him. John, who ruled from 1199 CE to 1216 CE, was a failure of a military leader (ultimately earning him the name “John the Softsword”). He was a cruel dictator. As a result, his nobles revolted, and on 15 June 1215, they succeeded in convincing John to sign the Magna Carta (Great Charter). This document guaranteed every Englishman certain basic rights. (The reason for the Magna Carta was, mainly,
because the lords wanted to maintain their feudal rights without their power being usurped by the king.) Although the Magna Carta was originally intended to protect the rights of the nobles only, it was later extended to all English citizens. Some of the rights given to the citizens in the Magna Carta were:
• no taxation without representation • trial by jury
• protection under the law
These rights later became the basis for the Bill of Rights in the United States.
Another key advancement in democratic government in England was the addition of a parliament. It was the result of King Edward I's struggle to retain the little bit of French land that he had left. He summoned two burghesses (wealthy citizens) and knights from each county in England to serve as a parliament, or a legislative group. In November of 1295 CE, this group convened at Westminster in London. Over the fourteenth century CE, the parliament convened to vote on new tax legislations. Gradually, two “houses” formed in Parliament:
• The House of Lords, which was composed of nobles and knights
• The House of Commons, which was composed solely of commoners that had been invited to
join Parliament.
Chapter 14, Section 3 France Evolves
The kings of France, like those in England, were constantly looking for ways to increase their political power. After Charlemagne's10 empire, French counts and dukes ruled French provinces independent of any king or other form of centralized government. In 987 CE, the last surviving member of the
Carolingian dynasty, Louis the Sluggard, died, and was succeeded by Hugh Capet, an undistinguished nobleman. Although Capet only ruled a small territory, it included Paris at its center. Capet soon began the Capetian dynasty, which ruled France from 987 to 1328 CE.
France Becomes a Separate Kingdom
Though Hugh Capet, his son, and his grandson were all poor leaders, time and geography gave the Capetians an edge over other dynasties. Though small, the territory they controlled encompassed both the city of Paris and key trade routes to Northern France. They used this to extend their power to all of Northern France.
One of the more powerful of the Capetians was Philip II or Philip Augustus, who ruled from 1180 to 1223 CE. When he was crowned king at the age of 15. Although he had little success avenging his father, who lost to Henry II11, or his son Richard the Lionhearted. Philip earned the nickname
“Augustus” for expanding his territory. He took Normandy (which until now had been under Englush control) in 1204 CE from King John. Through his regime, Philip II was able to (approximately) triple the amount of land under his control. Philip II, in addition to extending his territory, also made a more centralized government. He established royal messengers called bailiffs, whose job it was to preside over the king's court in all of his provinces and to collect taxes for the king.
Philip II's Heirs
Philip II's grandson, Louis IX, ruled from 1226 to 1270 CE, and further strengthened the central government. In contrast with his grandfather, Louis IX was a very religious person, and was later sainted after his death. He created an appeals court, whose decision could veto that of a local court's. (It was the royal courts that strengthened the central government and weakened the feudal system.)
In 1302, Philip IV (who ruled from 1285-1314) got into a fight with the pope:
• the pope refused to allow his priests to pay taxes to the king
• the king felt that the pope was unable to control the Church affairs in his kingdom
Just like in England, the French king usually held meetings of both lords and bishops for consultation when making important decisions. In order to gain a greater following, Philip IV also included commoners. (In France, the Church was called the First Estate, the lords were the Second Estate, and the commoners were the Third Estate. The meeting in general was called the Estates-General. )
Like the English Parliament, the Estates-General helped increase royal power and decrease the power of the nobility. Unlike Parliament, however, the Estates-General were never a separate entity and limited the king's powers. Centuries later, however, the Third Estate would the a crucial part in the overthrowing of the king in the French Revolution. Now, however, in the 14th
century, was a century of turmoil in Western Europe. There were religious arguments, plagues and other sickness, and war. This chaotic century threatened the achievements of England and France that could be considered the forerunners of democracy.
Chapter 14, Section 4 A Church Divided
At the turn of the fourteenth century, the papacy could still be considered very strong. Soon, however, both the pope and the church were in serious amounts of trouble.
Pope and King Collide
Pope Beniface VIII tried to enforce the pope's agenda on kings, just like previous popes had. When
Philip IV of France tried to assert his power over French bishops, Boniface VIII issued a papal bull, or a mandate from the pope, saying, effectively, that the king must obey the pope. Philip disregarded this bull, even to the point that, in September of 1313, he took Boniface VIII as prisoner, with the intent on bringing him to trial. Although Boniface VIII was ultimately rescued, he died of old age a month later. This ended the precedent of the pope being more powerful than the kings.
The Great Schism
Although Philip IV failed to keep Pope Boniface VIII captive, he was able to persuade the College of Cardinals to chose a French archbishop to succeed him as pope. Clement V, who was selected, moved the Vatican from the city of Rome to Avignon, located in France. (The popes lived there for the next 67 years.) The move from Rome to Avignon substantially weakened the church. When church reformers tried to move the Vatican back to Rome, however, this further weakened the church. In 1378, Pope Gregory XI died while visiting Rome. The College of Cardinals convened in Rome to appoint a successor, and a mob outside Conclave were demanding a Roman (or at least an Italian) pope. After much deliberation, the College of Cardinals appointed Urban VI as pope. This choice caused instant regret, since Urban VI's passion for reform and arrogance caused the French cardinals to elect another some few months later. They picked Robert of Geneva, who changed his name to Pope Clement VII.
Now, there were two popes, each declaring the other one false and unfit, causing them to
excommunicate one another. This became known as the Great SchismA. As a result, the Council of ConstanceB was called to order. In 1414, when the council first convened, there were three popes:
• an Avignon pope • a Roman pope
• a pope elected at an earlier conference, at PisaC
With the help of the Holy Roman Emperor, the Council of Constance demanded that all three popes resign, and in 1417, the council elected a new pope, Martin V, thereby ending the Great Schism.
A Scholarly Challenge to Papal Authority
Around this time, the Church was also challenged by two professors. One professor was John Wycliffe, who preached that Jesus — not the pope — was the head of the Church. Wycliffe was very offended by the wealth that the clergy brazenly showed off, as did the Pope himself. Wycliffe believed that the clergy should neither own money nor wealth. He also insulted the pope further, saying that the Bible was the final authority, not the pope. He also supported the idea of creating an English translation of the New Testament (it was only available in French or Latin at the time). Influenced by Wycliffe, Jan Hus, a Bohemian professor, also believed that the Bible was above the Pope, and was excommunicated in 1412. He was invited to the Council of Constance and was promised to be brought to no harm, but was tried as a heretic and ultimately burned at the stake in 1415.
A Translated as the “Great Split”
B A council of bishops that was recognized by the Roman Catholic Church.
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