International
Law
Studies—Volume
50
THE
LAW
OF
WAR
AND
NEUTRALITY
AT
SEA
Robert
W.
Tucker
(Author)
The
thoughts
and
opinions
expressed
are
those
of
the
authors
and
not
necessarily
of
the
U.S.
INDEX
A
AERIAL BOMBARDMENT. (See BOMBARDMENT)
AIRCRAFT
attack on merchant ships by, 64, 65-6, 69, 297 belligerent
combatant qualities of, 43-4 medical, 129-31
neutral air space and, 251-2 visit and search by, 104, 333, 342 blockade by, 283n, 289
bombardment by, 146-8. (See also BOMBARDMENT) civil, enemy, 108-11
attack on, circumstances justifying, 11Q-1
destruction following seizure of, circumstances, justifying, llO general principles of law of war held applicable to, 109n immunity from direct attack of, 110
outbreak of war and, 90 prize law extended to, 109
rules governing treatment of unsettled, 108-9
seizure of, absence of definite procedure governing, 110 seizure of, liability to, 109
civil, neutral, 354-6
area of naval operations, in, 30Q-1 prize law applicable to, 355 unneutral service, engaged in, 319n
visit, search, seizure and destruction of, 354-6 war zone declarations and, 299n
false marking of forbidden, 142 state-owned commercial, neutral,
position of, 354n
(See also HAGUE RULES OF AERIAL WARFARE (1923)) AKZIN, B., 335n
ALBRECHT, A. R., 151n
ALTMARK, incident of the, 221n, 236-9, 262n
ALW AKI AND OTHER VESSELS,
case of the, 269nAMERICAN-GERMAN MIXED CLAIMS COMMISSION, 42n
AMERICAN REPUBLICS (1939)
protest against belligerent contraband lists by, 264n
AMERICAN REPUBLICS, GENERAL DECLARATION OF NEUTRALITY
(1939), 241n, 248n, 250n
(See also INTER-AMERICAN NEUTRALITY COMMITTEE) ANGARY, right of, 349n
ASAMA MARU,
incident of the, 328n, 329nASYLUM.
(See NEUTRAL STATES)ATOMIC WEAPONS.
(See NUCLEAR WEAPONS)ATTILIO REGOLO AND OTHER VESSELS,
case of the, 212nAUSTRIA,
permanent neutrality of, 173nAW
A MARU, sinking of the, 98n
BACTERIA,
use of, 52n, 53nBALTO,
case of the, 274nBA TY, T.,
190n, 191nBAXTER,
R. R., 17n, 233nBLOCKADE,
283-317aircraft, by, 283n, 289 application of, 291-2
impartiality required in, 291 neutral warships and, 291 area of, 289-91, 295
B
neutral ports and coasts excluded from, 290
U.S. interpretation in World War I of rule regulating, 290
belligerent practice and customary rules of, growing tension between, 287, 315-6 breach of, 292-5
Anglo-American traditional position on, 293-4 Continental position on, 294
doctrine of continuous voyage applied to, 294-5, 316 knowledge of, 292-3
penalty for, 295 .. commercial," 284 concept of, 283-7
economic warfare and, 284-5 effectiveness of, 288-9
implications of rule requiring, 289 establishment of, 287
insurgency and, 287n long distance, 305-15
World War I system of, 305-12
legality as lawful blockade of, controversy over, 308-10 legality as reprisals of, 306-8
measures making up, scope of, 305-6
novel circumstances as justification for, 310-2 precedent for, 31Q-1
World War II system of, 312-5 legality as reprisals of, 315 operation in practice of, 314 notification of, 288
origin of, 283-4 pacific, 287n purposes of, 283-5
reprisal measures intended to serve purpose of, 285
special zones intended to serve purposes of, 296-305. (See also WAR ZONES) status of law governing, 315-7
submarines, by, 289 termination of, 292
BLONDE AND OTHER VESSELS,
case ,of the, 88nBOCKHOFF, E. H.,
206nBOMBARDMENT,
143-9aerial warfare, in, 146-9
analogies drawn from land or naval warfare, limited relevance of, 148 general principles of law of war, limited results of applying, 146-7 Hague Rules of Aerial Warfare (1923) on, 146n, 148n
""indirect" injury permitted against civilian population undefined, 148, 149 military objectives against which bombardment permitted undefined, 146, 147 .. open town" concept, meaning of, 144-5n
restrictions upon, 146 terror bombing, 147n as war crime, 147n land warfare, in, 143
principle test for determining legitimacy of, 143 naval warfare, in, 143-5
circumstances in which permitted, 144 contrasted with aerial warfare, 144n contrasted with land warfare, 143
places and buildings exempt from attack, 145n undefended enemy ports or towns, 144
BORCHARD, E.,
61n, 89n, 170n, 235BRIGGS, H. W.,
230n, 270n, 288n, 328nBRUNS, V.,
282n, 323nBUDAPEST ARTICLES OF INTERPRETATION,
168nBULLOCK, C. L.,
349nc
CABLES.
(See SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH CABLES)CAPTURE.
(See ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS, seizure of; NEUTRAL VESSELS, seizure of)CARTELS,
97-8(See also ENEMY VESSELS EXEMPT FROM SEIZURE)
CASTREN, E.,
35n, 45n, 68n, 140n, 235n, 342nCHARTER OF THE UNITED NATIONS.
(See UNITED NATIONS) CITY OF FLINT, incident of the, 246nCOLOMBOS, C. J.,
75n, 79n, 258n, 276n, 277n, 316n1 346n, 347n, 349nCOMBATANTS IN AERIAL WARFARE,
43-4belligerent practice and, 43-4
Hague Rules of Aerial Warfare and, 44n
COMBATANTS
IN NAVAL WARFARE.
(See WARSHIPS, belligerent)CONTINUOUS VOYAGE,
doctrine of. (See BLOCKADE; CONTRABAND)CONTRABAND,
263-82absolute, 263 expansion of, 266
transformation of .. nature" of, 266n carriage of, 267-75
Declaration of London on destination required for p 268n destination presently required for, 267-9
direct, 269 indirect, 270
CONTRABAND-Continued carriage of-Continued
principle of continuous voyage applied to, 270n
principle of ultimate enemy destination applied to, 270-2, 279-80 traditional law regarding, 267-8, 271
combatants and civilian population and, distinction between, 278 conception of, 263-7
conditional, 263
consequences attached to carriage of, 276-7 Declaration of London on, 277
infection and, doctrine of, 276n
control of, modern methods for
agreements concluded between belligerent and neutral merchants, 280 burden of proof thrown upon neutral claimants, 272
diversion and detention of neutral vessels in contraband control bases, 271-2 navicert system, 280-2, 312-4
presumptions governing hostile destination, 272-5 rationing imports of neutral states, 274-5
requisition or sale of goods held in prize, 273n, 348n
control of, traditional methods for, 271
distinction between absolute and conditional, 263, 268-9 present status of, 264
effect of belligerent practices during two World Wars upon traditional law of, 264
free goods, 263-4
goods granted special exemption from seizure as, 264-5n lists of, 264-7
belligerent claims of right to draw up, 264-5 Declaration of London on, 265-6
German, 267n
Great Britain and Allied, 267n
neutral protests (1939) regarding belligerent, 264n, 265n United States (1917), 266
neutral-belligerent controversies over recent developments in, analysis of, 278-80 uncertainty marking nineteenth century practice concerning, 264
CONVENTIONAL RULES OF WAR, binding force of, 32 military necessity as exception to, 33-7
reprisals as exception to, 33
CONVERSION. (See WARSHIPS, belligerent) CONVOY
enemy, sailing under, 54n, 321 neutral, right of, 334-5
COVENANT OF LEAGUE OF NATIONS. (See LEAGUE OF NATIONS)
CUSTOMARY RULES OF WAR, binding force of, 32-3 military necessity as exception to, 33-7
reprisals as exception to, 33
DACIA,
case of the, SOnDEAK, F., 201n, 2lln, 283n, 332n,
DECLARATION OF LONDON (1909) abandonment of, 187-8
D
blockade, 284, 288n, 291n, 292n, 293n, 294-5
DECLARATION
OF
LONDON
(1909)-Continued
contraband, 265-6, 268n, 276-7convoy, right of, 334 enemy character of goods, 8I enemy character of vessels, 76n neutral prizes, destruction of, 35o-I transfer of flag, 79-SI
transfer of goods at sea, 86n
unneutral service, 3I8-9, 320n, 326-7, 330n, 33In
DECLARATION OF PANAMA (1939),
225belligerent attitude toward, 225
DECLARATION OF PARIS (1856),
26n, 4o-I, 99-I02, I07n, I82, 263n, 288n enemy goods under neutral flag, 99-I02present status of, IOI-2
DECLARATION OF ST. PETERSBURG,
SinDEFENSIVELY ARMED MERCHANTMEN,
58-63British position on, 58-9 German position on, 59
inconclusive nature of controversy over, reasons for, 6o-3 International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg) on, 67 neutral ports, in, 247-51. (See also NEUTRAL STATES) position under traditional law, reasons for, 6o-1
status of as distinguished from liabilities of, 58n
DOENITZ, ADMIRAL,
65n, 67, 73, I56n, 302n, 353nDOVER CASTLE,
case of the, I32nDRESDEN,
incident of the, 221nDUNBAR, N. C. H.,
34, 35nDUTTWYLER, H. E.,
302nEAGLETON, C.,
93nEDNA,
case of the, SinE
EINSATZGRUPPEN TRIAL
(U.S. v. OTTO OHLENDORF et al.), I47n, I5In, 159nEMDEN,
incident of the, I39nENEMY AIRCRAFT.
(See AIRCRAFT)ENEMY CHARACTER,
76-86cargoes 8I-6
Anglo-American practice, rationale of, 82 British prize law on, 83n
commercial (trade) domicile, doctrine of, 82-3 Declaration of London on, 8I
French practice, nationality of owner as criterion, 84 neutrals resident in enemy territory, 82
ownership as principal test of characcer, 8I
produce of enemy soil impressed with enemy character, 83-4 Trading with the Enemy Acts, 84n
cargoes, transfer at sea of, 85-6 vessels, 76-SI
British prize law on, 77n flag as determining character, 76
ownership or control as determining character, 75 resistance to visit and search, 78
ENEMY CHARACTER-Continued vessels, transfer of flag, 78-81
British position on, 78-9
Continental states, position of, 79 Declaration of London on, 79-80 fraudulent transfer invalid, 78 U. S. position on, 78
ENEMY GOODS
belligerent vessels, 74-6, 102-8 destruction of, 106-8
neutral vessels, on, 99-102 blockade-running goods, lOin captor state or allies, 100 contraband goods, 101
immunity from seizure only while on board neutral vessel, 100 immunity from seizure under Declaration of Paris (1856), 99-100 reprisal measures, and, 102
state-owned goods, lOin transshipped goods, 100
(See also ENEMY CHARACTER)
ENEMY SUBJECTS in naval warfare, treatment of. (See GENEVA CONVENTION (1949) FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECKED MEMBERS OF ARMED FORCES AT_SEA; PRISONERS OF WAR IN HOSTILITIES AT SEA)
ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS attack on, 56-70
armament carried by as justification for, 58-63 British policy during World War II, 65-6
combatant-non-combatant distinction endangered by, 55-6 denial of quarter forbidden in, 71
German policy during World War II, 64-5
integration into belligerent's military effort and, 68-70
International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg) on, judgment of, 67-8 Japanese policy during World War II, 66
London Naval Treaty of 1930 and, 63 London Protocol of 1936 and, 64
novel circumstances as justification for, 68-9 present status of traditional rules respecting, 68-70 public ownership no justification for, 68n
search for and rescue of survivors after, obligation to, 71-2 craditional rules respecting, 56-7
unnecessary use of force forbidden in, 71 U.S. policy during World War II, 66 war zones and, 299n
destruction following seizure of, 105-8 circumstances held to justify, 106-7
obligations of captor before resorting to, 107-8 our break of war, position at, 86-90
belligerent practice in World \Vars I and II, 88-9 British prize law on, 88n, 89n
Hague Convention VI (1907) on, 87
ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS-Continued seizure of, 102-8
act of, 103
adjudication following upon, necessity of, 104-5 aircraft and, 104
capture distinguished from, 105n consequences of, 103-4
conversion following upon, 106n subjects of right, 103
visit and search and, 103-4, 104n when exercisable, 102n
where exercisable, 103
status in neutral ports of armed, 247-51
ENEMY PUBLIC VESSELS. (See ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS; WARSHIPS, belligerent)
ENEMY VESSELS EXEMPT FROM SEIZURE cartel ships, 97-8
coastal fishing boats and small boats engaged in local coastal trade, 95-6 customary basis of immunity granted t01 95
Hague Convention XI-(1907) on, 95
hospital ships and medical transports, 97. (See also GENEVA CONVENTION (1949) FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECKED MEMBERS OF ARMED FORCES AT SEA)
merchant vessels at outbreak of war, 86-90. (See also ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS) scientific or philanthropic character, engaged in missions of, 96-7
Hague Convention XI (1907) on, 96
immunity from seizure dependent upon agreemenc, 97 "philanthropic mission," meaning of, 96
ENFORCEMENT OF LAW OF NAVAL WARFARE, 15Q-61 means available to belligerents for, 150
neutral protests as a means of, 150
punishmsnt of war crimes as a means of, 153-61. (See also WAR CRIMES) reprisals as a means of, 151-3. (See also REPRISALS)
EX INJURIA JUS NON ORITUR,
principle of, 5-9,21-2 application of aggressor, consequences of, 5-6, 8-9meaning of. 5-7 restrictions upon, 7-8
EX INjURIA ]US ORITUR.
principle of, 7F
I FALK, case of the, 347nFARBEN, I. G., TRIAL (TRIALOFCARLKRAUCHANDTWENTYTWOOTHERS), 156n FITZMAURICE, G. G., 275n, 282n, 315n, 347n, 348n
FLAG
enemy character, test of, 76-81. (See also ENEMY CHARACTER) false use of as ruse, 14Q-2. (See also RUSES in naval warfare) FRANCE
Naval Instructions (1934), 320n, 329n, 335n, 340n FRIEDMANN, W., 213n
FRYATT, Captain, case of, 59n
G
GARDNER, R.N., 17nGAS, use of
General Board of U. S. Navy on, report of, 5ln Geneva Protocol of 1925 on, 51
humanity, principle of, and, 51-2
non-combatants, principle forbidding attack upon, and, 51-2 poison, rule forbidding employment of, and, 52
reprisals and, 53
state practice viewed as constituting customary rule prohibiting, 52-3 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF LAW OF WAR, 45-50
definition of, 46
difficulties in application of, 47-50 areas of warfare and, 47-8 varying interpretations and, 48-9 essential function of, 46-7
(See also HUMANITY; MILITARY NECESSITY; NON-COMBATANTS; TREACHERY) GENERAL TREATY FOR THE RENUNCIATION OF WAR. (See
KELLOGG-BRIAND PACT)
GENET, R., 27n, 117n, 122n, 123n, 124n, 125n
GENEVA CONVENTION (1864) FOR THE RELIEF OF THE WOUNDED AND SICK OF ARMIES IN THE FIELD, 117n
GENEVA CONVENTIONS (1949), common provisions of applicability of,
civil war, in, 134-5
conflict not recognized as war, in, 23-4, 134 general participation clause, absent from, 32n, 134 non-signatory powers, to, 134n
occupation, partial or total, to, 134n respect for in all circumstances, 35n
GENEVA CONVENTION (1949) FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CON-DITION OF THE WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECKED MEMBERS OF ARMED FORCES AT SEA, 117-38
application and enforcement, 134-8. (See also GENEVA CONVENTIONS (1949), common provisions of)
abuses and infractions, obligations of parties to prevent and punish, 136-7
agreements be~ween parties to conflict respecting protected persons, limitations upon, 135 field of application, 135
grave breaches of Convention defined, 136-7 grave breaches of Convention as war crimes, 137n inquiry procedure provided, 137-8
Protecting Powers, functions of and limitations upon, 135-6 Protecting Powers, humanitarian organizations as, 136 renunciation of rights prohibited, 135
reprisals against protected persons prohibited, 135 emblems and identification, 131-4
general observations on, 117-8 hospital ships, 123-8
acts forbidden to, 126-7
acts not depriving hospital ships of protection, 127 belligerent right of control over, 128
conversion of, 125-6 definitions of types of, 124 marking of, 132
GENEVA CONVENTION
(1949)FOR THE AMELIORATION
OF THE
CON-DITION OF THE WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECKED MEMBERS
OF ARMED FORCES AT SEA-Continued
hospital ships-Continued notification required of, 124
obligations to facilitate identification of, 133 protection accorded to, 124
purpose of, 124, 126 reconversion of, 125
stay in neutral port, not classed as warships regarding, 126n tonnage required of, 125
unrestricted warfare and effective identification of, problem of, 133-4 withdrawal of protection from, procedure governing, 128
medical aircraft, 129-31
conditions governing use of, 130 defined, 130
neutral territory, flight over, by 13Q-1 medical and hospital personnel, 129 medical transports, 129
neutral ships taking wounded, sick, or shipwrecked persons on board, 121 religious personnel, 129
replaces Hague X (1907) as between parties to, 117 "shipwreck," definition of term, by, 120
sick bays, protection of, 124n
small craft engaged in coastal rescue operations, position of, 126 wounded, sick and shipwrecked, 118-23
besieged area, removal from, 127-8
categories of individuals making up, 119-20 civilians not included among, 119-20
disposition of when landed in neutral territory, 122-3 entitled to treatment as prisoners of war, 122
neutral states' obligations when granting asylum to, 122-3 obligation to search for and collect, 121
removal of from hospital ships, 121-2 treatment to be accorded to, 120
GENEVA CONVENTION
(1949)RELATIVE TO THE PROTECTION OF
CIVILIAN PERSONS IN TIME OF WAR
applicability to private passengers of captured enemy merchant vessels, 114n free passage of goods under, 264n
hospital, safety, neutralized zones, immunity from attack of, 145n, 149n relief supplies to population of occupied territory, 97n
GENEVA
CONVENTION
(1949)RELATIVE TO THE TREATMENT 0:(4
PRISONERS OF WAR
general obligations of captors under, 116
persons entitled to prisoner of war status in hostilities at sea, 113, 113n
GENEVA PROTOCOL OF
1925,51, 53nU. S. and Japan not parties to, 51 U. S. refusal to accede to, 53n
GERMAN HIGH COMMAND TRIAL (TRIAL OF WILHELM VON LBBB
AND THIRTEEN OTHERS),
37n, 161nGERMANY
GERMANY-Continued
Prize Law Code (1939), 64n, 107n, 188n, 214n, 270n, 320n, 323n, 329n, 335n, 340n submarine warfare by, 57, 64-5, 72-3, 296-8, 302
war zones, establishment of, 296-7 GERVAIS, A., 75n
GORDON, E., 334n
GRADISCA,
case of the, 122nGRAF SPEE,
incident of the, 225n, 245n GREAT BRITAINAltmark incident, position taken in, 237-9 armed merchant ships, position on, 58-9
neutral ports, in, 247n, 249
contraband controls employed by, 280-2, 313-5 contraband list of 1939, 267n
Hague Convention VII (1907), denunciation of, 88 Hague Convention XIII (1907), never ratified, 219n hospital ships in World War II, position on, 125n, 126n
"long-distance" blockades, justification for legality of, 306-10, 312 Manual of Military Law, 158n
Manual of Naval Prize Law (1888), 325n Orders in Council
March 11, 1915, 305-6 July 7, 1916, 273n
February 16. 1917, 306 November 27, 1939, 312 July 31, 1940, 281-2, 313-5
postal correspondence, position on, 93n prize law extension to aircraft, liOn
removal of enemy persons from neutral vessels, position on, 329n reprisals at sea affecting neutrals, position on, 255n
state-owned neutral merchant vessels, attitude toward, 214n Trading with the Enemy Acts, 84n
visit and seach of neutral vessels under convoy of neutral warships, position on, 334-5 war zones or military areas, establishment of, 297n
GREGORY, C. N., 209n GROB, F., 25n
GROSS, L., 17n, 30n
GUGGENHEIM, P., 25n, 39n, 68n, 174n GUTTERIDGE,
J.
A. C., 123nH
HABANA CONVENTION OF MARITIME NEUTRALITY (1928}, 220n, 243n, 244n
HACKWORTH, G. H., 57n, 58n, 60n, 89n, 90n, 92n, 94n, 97n, 132n, 142n, 204n, 206n, 209n, 211n, 221n, 222n, 237n, 246n, 248n, 249n, 255n, 265n, 304n, 306n, 312n, 324n, 328n, 335n, 339n, 345n, 349n, 35ln
HAGUE CONVENTION III (1899) FOR THE ADAPTA~ION TO MARITIME WAR OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE GENEVA CONVENTION OF 1864, 117 HAGUE CONVENTIONS OF 1907
"general participation" clause, 32n naval warfare, regulating, 26n
HAGUE CONVENTION)V (1907) RESPECTING THE LAWS AND CUSTOMS OF WAR ON LAND, Regulations Annexed to, 26, 49n, SOn, 71, 140n, 143n, 151n HAGUE CONVENTION VI (1907) RELATIVE TO THE STATUS OF ENEMY
MERCHANT SHIPS AT THE OUTBREAK OF HOSTILITIES, 87-8
HAGUE CONVENTION VII (1907) RELATING .TO THE CONVERSION OF
MERCHANT SHIPS IN TIME OF WAR, 38-40
HAGUE CONVENTION VIII (1907) RELATIVE TO THE LAYING OF
AUTO-MATIC SUBMARINE CONTACT MINES, 303-4
HAGUE CONVENTION IX (1907) RESPECTING BOMBARDMENT BY
NAVAL FORCES IN TIME OF WAR, 143-5
HAGUE CONVENTION X (1907) FOR THE ADAPTATION TO MARITIME WARFARE OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE GENEVA CONVENTION (of 1864)
applicable during two World Wars, 117 background of, 117n
conversion of merchant vessels into hospital ships, 124-5 dissatisfaction with provisions of, 117
marking of hospital ships, 131n persons protected under, 118
protection withdrawn from hospital ships, 128
HAGUE CONVENTION XI (1907) RELATIVE TO CERTAIN RESTRICTIONS WITH REGARD TO THE EXERCISE OF THE RIGHT OF CAPTURE IN NAVAL WARFARE
coastal fishing boats and small boats engaged in local trade, 95 crews of captured merchant vessels, 112-3
enemy dispatches in form of postal correspondence, carriage of, 331
postal correspondence, inviolability of, 91-2. (See also POSTAL CORRESPONDENCE) religious, scientific or philanthropic missions, vessels on, 96-7
HAGUE CONVENTION XIII (1907) CONCERNING THE RIGHTS AND
DUTIES OF NEUTRAL POWERS IN NAVAL WAR, 203n, 205n, 207, 209, 213,
219, 220, 224n, 227-30, 232-6, 24D-7, 260 asylum, no provisions on, 123n
alteration of neutrality regulations during war, 205n belligerent duty to respect neutral territorial waters, 219
entry and stay of belligerent warships in neutral ports, circumstances permitting, 24D-1 fitting out or arming of vessels within neutral jurisdiction intended to engage in hostile
operations against a belligerent, 227-9
hostile acts by belligerent warships within neutral waters, 219 internment of belligerent warships violacing neutral regulations, 242 neutral·duties in event of belligerent violation of neutral rights, 260 neutral duty of impartiality, 203n
neutral duty to refrain from supplying belligerents with war materials, 207 neutral freedom to permit private trade in war materials, 209
neutral ports and waters as base of operations, use by belligerents of, 226-7, 242-3 passage of belligerent warships through neutral territorial wacers, 232-5
period of time belligerent warships are permitted to "remain" in neutral ports and waters, 235-6, 24D-2
prizes in neutral ports, 245-6
repairs permitted in neutral ports, 244
source most authoritative for rules restricting belligerent use of neutral ports and waters, 219
standard neutral is obliged to meet in fulfilling duties, 220
HAGUE RULES OF AERIAL WARFARE (1923)
aircraft entitled to exercise belligerent rights, 44n analogy between naval and aerial warfare, 108-9 area of operations, control of neutral aircraft in, 330n bombardment, limitations on, 146n, 148ncapture in aerial warfare, 109n
departure of aircraft from neutral jurisdiction in a condition to make hostile attack upon a belligerent, 228n
destruction of neutral aircraft, 356n
diversion of neutral aircraft for visit and search, 35Sn persons subject to detention as prisoners of war, 114n prize law applicable to neutral aircraft, 354n, 35Sn seizure of neutral aircraft, 35Sn
weapons employing fire, Sin
HAGUE RULES OF AERIAL WARFARE (1923), GENERAL REPORT OF COM·
MISSION OF JURISTS,
44n, 109n, 2S2n, 343n, 35SnHAGUE RULES FOR THE CONTROL OF RADIO IN TIME OF WAR {1923),
300n, 319n, 32lnHALL, J. A.,
228, 278n, 293nHALL, W. E.,
14lnHALLECK,
138nHAMBORN,
case of the, 77nHAMBRO, E.,
206nHARLEY, J. E.,
349nHARVARD RESEARCH IN INTERNATIONAL LAW, DRAFT CONVENTION
ON RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF STATES IN CASE OF AGGRESSION,
Sn, IOn, 17lnHARVARD RESEARCH IN INTERNATIONAL LAW, DRAFT CONVENTION
ON RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF NEUTRAL STATES IN NAVAL AND AERIAL
WAR,
204n, 207n, 210n, 213n, 220n, 224n, 233n, 240n, 24Sn, 247n, 2Sln, 2SSn, 256n, 260n, 320n,32ln,340n,344n,349nHIGGINS, A. P.,
88n, 256n, 332nHIGGINS AND COLOMBOS,
39n, S8n, 107n, 123n, 256n, 292n, 294nHOSPITAL SHIPS
World War I and, 132n
World War II and, 120n, 12Sn, 126n, 128n, 130n, 131, 132n attack upon in, reasons for, 131
(See also GENEVA CONVENTION (1949) FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDI-TION OF THE WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECKED MEMBERS OF ARMED FORCES AT SEA)
HOSTAGES TRIAL (TRIAL OF WILHELM LIST AND OTHERS),
12n, 36n, 37n, lSln, 161HUMANITY,
principle ofapplication to novel weapons and methods of war, 48-9 conflict between principle of military necessity and, 48n defined, 46
purpose of war as determining application of, 48-9
I
IDLE FOREIGN VESSELS ACT, 89n
INCENDIARY INSTRUMENTS AND PROJECTILES, use of, 51 INDO-CHINOIS, case of the, 337n
INSTITUT DE DROIT INTERNATIONAL, Sn
INTER-AMERICAN NEUTRALITY COMMITTEE, recommendations of, 23ln INTERNATIONAL LAW
decentralization of, 7, 29-30 effectiveness of, 7
general as distinguished from particular, 166n prize law and, 253n
self-preservation and, right of, 35n war and, 3-4
INTERNATIONAL MILIT~RY TRIBUNAL (NUREMBERG)
Charter of, distinction between war crimes and crimes against peace in, 153n Charter of, procedural requirements of a "fair trial" in, 154n
crimes against peace as "waging of a war of aggression", 6 Doenitz, judgment on, 67, 73, 156n, 302n, 353n
Laconia Order, interpretation of, 73
London Protocol of 1936, on obligation of submarines to conform to, 353n operational (war) zones, on status of, 302n
INTERNMENT. (See NEUTRAL STATES) ITALY
War Law (1938), 320n, 335n, 340n
JAPAN, 51, 99n
Naval War Law (1942), 340n JENNINGS, R. Y., 145n
J
JESSUP, P. C., 15n, 177n, 179n, 182n, 186n, 201n, 283n, 332n, 340n JOBST III, VALENTINE, 140n
JUSTICE TRIAL (TRIAL OF JOSEF ALTSTOTTER AND OTHERS), 12n
KAPPLER, IN RE, 151n
KELLOG-BRIAND PACT (1928)
K
Axis Powers resorting to war in violation of, 11 decentralized procedure established by, 13
consequences of, 169-71
discriminatory measures against violators of, 168-9 U. S. position on, 168
distinction made between legal and illegal resort to war by, 4, 13 neutrality and, 166-71
obligations resulting from, 166-8 provisions of, 167n
resort to war against violators of, 168
KOREA, hostilities in
law of war operative with respect to, 17-8 neutrality and, 177n, 178n
refusal to designate as ''war'', 17-8
Security Council resolutions dealing with, 16-7, 177
KORMORAN, incident of the, 140n
KRUPP TRIAL (TRIAL OF ALFRED FELIX ALWYN KRUPP VON BOHLEN
UND HALBACH AND ELEVEN OTHERS), 36n, 159n
KUNZ, ). L., Sn, 7n, lin, 24n, 35n, 61n, 123n, 137n, 174n, 199n, 201n, 202n, 204n, 206n, 222n, 245n
L
LACONIA ORDER, 72-3
International Military Tribunal, interpretation of, 73, 353n
war crimes tribunals, interpretation of, 73 LALIVE,
J.
F., 171n, 176n, 19lnLA PRADELLE, P. DE, 134n
LAUTERPACHT, H., 5n, 8n, lin, 12n, 15n, 28n, 3ln, 54n, 69n, 147n, 166n, 200n, 213, 349n
LAW REPORTS OF TRIALS OF WAR CRIMINALS, 154n, 155n, 156n
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Covenant of
decentralized procedure established by, 13
distinction made between legal and illegal resort to war by, 4, 13 neutrality under the, 172n, 174-5
"qualified" neutrality and, 174-5
"resort to war" under Article 16 of, 13, 172n, 175n
LEONORA AND OTHER VESSELS, case of the, 307n
LEVEE EN MASSE in naval warfare, 119n
LITTLEJOHN V. UNITED STATES, case of, 89n
LLANDOVERY CASTLE, case of the, 132n
LOCKSUN, incident of the, 248n
LONDON NAVAL CONFERENCE (1930), 63
LONDON NAVAL TREATY (1930), 63, 352
LONDON PROTOCOL (1936), 27, 64, 67, 352
LOUISIANA AND OTHER SHIPS, case of the, 272n
M
MAIL SHIPS, 91, 330n. (See also POSTAL CORRESPONDENCE)
MALKIN, H. W., lOOn, 311n
MARTINI, P. A., 60n
McDOUGAL, M. S., 17n
MeN AIR, A. D., 3n
MEDLICOTT, W. N., 184n, 186n, 187n, 190n, 212n, 214n, 281n, 285n, 312n, 314_n, 332n, 34ln, 343n, 347n
MERCHANT VESSELS. (See ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS; NEUTRAL VESSELS)
MILCH, ERHARD, TRIAL OF, 36n
MILITARY NECESSITY, principle of, 33-7 conflict between principle of humanity and, 48n
conventional rules providing for exceptional operadon of, 34n interpretations of,
restriction upon any otherwise valid rule of warfare, 33-4
MILITARY NECESSITY -Continued meanings (varying) imputed to, 33n self-preservation of states and, 35n
survivors of sunken vessels and, treatment of, 72-3
MIM,
case of the, 342n, 345nMINES, 303-5
British practice, 297n, 305n defensive sea areas and, 299-300 German practice, 297n, 304n
Hague Convention VIII (1907) on, 303-4
belligerent obligations not exhausted by provisions of, 304 character of, 303
war zones or barred areas and, 304-5
MOEHLE, KARL-HEINZ. TRIAL OF,
73n.
MONTE CONTES,
case of the, 272n MOORE,J.
B., 186n, 268nMOOS, M., 281n
MOREY, W. C., 209n
MORRISSEY, A. M., 209n
MOSSOP, J. C., 118n, 120n, 122n, 125n, 126n, 128, 131n, 132n
MUNSTER,]., 329n
N
NAVAL BOMBARDMENT. (See BOMBARDMENT)
NAVAL FORCES. (See COMBATANTS IN NAVAL WARFARE)
NAVICERTS
"compulsory" system of, 282, 313-5 concept and purpose of, 281
neutral state responsibility in permitting, 344 types of,
cargo navicerts, 313n
certificates of origin and interest, 313n ship navicert, 313n
ships warrants, 314n
unneutral service following from neutral participation in system of, 315, 322-3, 344 "voluntary" system of, 281-2
NETHERLANDS, 247n
NETHERLANDS AMERICAN STEAM NAVIGATION CO. v. H. M. PROCUR·
ATOR-GENERAL,
case of the, 345nNEUTRAL AIRCRAFT. (See AIRCRAFT)
NEUTRALITY
assumptions underlying traditional institution of, 181-4, 191-2 attitude of indifference and, 191-2
belligerent encroachment in World Wars upon, 181-90 commencement of, 199-201
concept of, 173, 196-9
impartiality identified with, 196
"non-belligerency" in relation to, 198-9
non-participation in hostilities identified with, 196-7 Covenant of the League of Nations and, 172n, 174, 175n declarations of, 201
NEUTRALITY -Continued
economic warfare and, 183-4, 190
"general principles" as determining law of, 182-3 Kellogg-Briand Pact and, 166-71
Korean hostilities and, 177n, 178n
neutral states as contributing to decline of, 191-2 "non-belligerency and," 192-3, 198-9
novel circumstances and, 185-8 prospects for,
difficulties in evaluating, 193-5
distinction between great and small wars and, 193-4 "qualified," status of, 174-5
difficulty of maintaining, 175 reprisals and, 188-90, 254-8
state control of trade and, 194, 211-8
termination of, 202
"total" or "ideological," 206n United Nations Charter and, 171-80
violations of, 258-62
belligerent rights in event of neutral, 261-2
neutral duties and rights in event of belligerent, 259-61 neutral duty to prevent, nature of, 220-3, 256-7, 260 termination of neutral status distinguished from, 258-9 vital interests and, 198n
war and, relationship between, 165-6 (See also NEUTRAL STATES)
NEUTRALITY REGULATIONS OF NORTHERN EUROPEAN NEUTRALS
(1938}, 228n, 231n, 243n, 244n, 250n NEUTRAL STATES
air space, restrictions on belligerent use of, 251-2 entry in distress and, 252
medical aircraft and, 130-1 neutral duty of exclusion, 251 outbreak of war and, 252-3
balance of power between belligerents and, significance of, 181-3
base of operations, duty to prevent belligerent use of ports and waters as, 226-31 belligerent forces and, acts of, 231-47
private individuals and, acts of, 227-31 scope of, difficulty in defining, 226-7
belligerents and, conflicting interests between, 182-3
belligerent "interferences by sovereign right" with commerce of, 184-5 belligerent justification for infringing upon rights of,
novel circumstances as, 185-8 reprisals as, 188-90
change of neutrality regulations during course of war by, 205n declarations of neutrality by, 201
goods and services to belligerents, duty to abstain from supplying,_ 206-18 scope of, 206-9
state control of trade and, 211-8 U. S. policy 1940-41 and, 207n, 208n hostile acts in territorial waters of, 219-26
belligerenl obligation to refrain from committing, 220-4
NEUTRAL STATES-Continued
hostile acts in waters contiguous to territorial waters of, 224-6 Declaration of Panama (1939) and, 225
impartiality, duty of, 202-6 defined, 203-4
discretion permitted neutral in carrying out, 204 political motives and, 204-5
private individuals, acts of, and, 206, 209-10 "total" or "ideological" neutrality and, 206n internment of belligerent forces by,
aircraft, 251-2 prizes, 246
shipwrecked personnel, 122-3 warships, 242
passage of belligerent warships and prizes through territorial waters of, 231-40 Altmark incident and, 236-9
neutral duty respecting, scope of, 233-6 neucral right to forbid, 232
time limit imposed upon, 235-6, 237n
ports (nmed belligerent merchant vessels), 247-51 assimilation to status of belligerent warships, 248-9 neutral right of exclusion from, 247
present confusion as to position of in, reasons for, 25Q-1
use of armameiu as guiding consideration for determining status in, 249-51 ports (prizes), 245-7
circumstances permitting entry and stay in, 246 sequestration in, 246-7
ports (belligerent warships)
circumstances permitting entry and stay in, 24Q-1
neutral duty to prevent belligerent use as base of operations, 242-3 neutral right of exclusion from, 240
period of stay permitted in, 241-2 repairs permitted in, 244-5 supplies and fuel permitted in, 243
private neutral trade wich belligerents, no duty to prevent, 209-10 trade carried on by subjects of
belligerent reprisals affecting, 188-90, 254-8, 296-315
characterization of repressive measures permitted belligerents against, 253n neutral duty to acquiesce to certain belligerent measures taken against, 253-4 neutral ineffectiveness in preventing unlawful belligerent interference with, 255-8 (See also NEUTRALITY)
NEUTRAL VESSELS arming of, 337n
attack on (see UNNEUTRAL SERVICE; \VAR ZONES)
destruction of (neutral prizes), 349-54 customary practice on, 349
Declaration of London on, 350-1
enemy prizes distinguished from, destruction of, 349, 352 indemnity for, 352
London Protocol (1936) on duties of captor in resorting to, 352 submarines and, 353-4
NEUTRAL VESSELS-Continued seizure of, 344-8
crew, position of, 347
distinction between diversion and, 344-5 duties of captor following upon, 347-8 intent distinguishing element in, 345
lawfulness of not dependent upon later condemnation, 346 ··probable cause" justifying, 339, 346n
release of goods formerly held in, effect of, 347n requisition of vessel or goods held in, 348n sale of vessel or goods held in, 346n transfer of title not determined by, 347 visit and search of, 332-44
aircraft by, 333
controversy over interpretation and application of belligerent right to, 332-3 diversion into port for, 339-44
aircraft and, 342
circumstances held co justify, 340-1 early controversy over, 339
factors leading to, 339-40 legitimacy, in principle, of, 340 navicerts and, 343
neutral claim of inconvenience resulting .from, 343 resistance to, 345n
unlawful, neutral claims entertained for, 345n duty to submit to, 336-7n
objects of right, 334-6
privately owned vessels, 334
state owned merchant vessels, 214, 334, 335-6
vessels sailing under convoy of neutral warships, 334-6 warships and other public vessels, 334
procedure for conducting, 336, 338 purpose and justification of, 332 refusal to submit to, 336-7 release after, 338
result of, 338-9
ships papers, attempts to spoil, deface, destroy or conceal, 338n ships papers, evidence furnished by, 338
subjects of right to, 333-4 submarines, by, 333 when exercisable, 333 where exercisable, 333 NIMITZ, C.
W., 67n
NON-BELLIGERENCYdecline of neutrality in World War II and rise of, 192-3 meaning of, 192, 198
neut.rality, concept of, and, 198-9
NON-COMBATANTS
principle distinguishing between combatants and, 46 aerial warfare, application to, 146-9
"indirect injury" to civilian population and, 48 military objective and, concept of, 48
NORNE AND OTHER VESSELS, case of the, 273n NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY, 179n
NORWAY
Altmark incident, posicion on, 237-9
British and French mining of Norwegian waters, 222n
NUCLEAR WEAPONS, use of, 54-5
combatant and civilian population, distinction between, 55 humanity and, principle of, 54-5
legality of, 55
NUREMBERG TRIBUNAL. (See INTERNATIONAL MILITARY TRIBUNAL)
0
OLE WEGGER AND OTHER VESSELS, case of the, 323n
OLINDE RODRIGUEZ, case of the, 346n OPEN TOWNS, concept of, 144-Sn
OPPENHEIM-LAUTERPACHT, Sn, 9n, 24n, 33n, 35n, 40n, 52n, 70n, 107n, 109n, 113n,
123n, 140n, 150n, 159n, 165n, 168n, 170n, 176n, 204n, 214n, 215n, 222n, 229n, 234n, 245n,
249n, 256n, 261n, 276n, 282n, 289n, 299n, 305n, 325n, 330n, 333n, 351n OXFORD MANUAL OF NAVAL WARFARE, 119n
p
PANAMA CANAL. (See UNITED STATES)
P AQUETE HABANA, case of the, 95n PELEUS TRIAL. 73n, 158n
PELLWORM AND OTHER SHIPS, case of the, 103n
PESHITELNI, incident of the, 221n PHILLIPS, C. P., 109n
PHILLIPS, W. A., 182n PLAGA, W., 60n POISON, use of, SOn
POISONOUS GASES. (See GAS)
POMONA, case of the, 89n
POSTAL CORRESPONDENCE, 90-5 censorship of, 94
consequences of applying principle of contraband to, 93 "found on the high seas," meaning of, 92-3
Hague Convention XI (1907) on, 91 inviolability of, 89-90
meaning of, 92
controversy between neutral and belligerent over, 92 Inter-American Neutrality Committee on, 92n nineteenth century practice regarding, 90 U. S.-British controversies over, 92n, 93n, 94n PREUSS, L., 213n
PRISONERS OF WAR IN HOSTILITIES AT SEA, 111-6
persons subject to detention as, 111-5 customary practice on, 111-2
Hague Convention XI (1907) on, 112
Hague Convention XI (1907) and belligerent practice respecting, 112-3
Geneva Convention (1949) Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War on, 113 treatment of, 116
PRISONERS OF WAR IN HOSTILITIES AT SEA-Continued
(See also GENEVA CONVENTION FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECKED MEMBERS OF ARMED FORCES AT SEA)
PRIZE COURTS
captor obliged to show "probable cause" for seizure before, 339, 346 changes in procedure of, 271-2
circumstances justifying diversion determined by, 341n, 345 disposal of goods held in prize, power of, 346n
function of, 105n, 347-8 inactivity of American, 74n law applied by, 253n
necessity for adjudication by, 105, 347-8
presumptions of hostile destination established by, 272-5 procedure of, changes in, 271-2
belligerent claim of right to initiate, 279n release of goods seized in prize, effect of, 347n reprisal orders and, 255n, 258n, 307n
requisition by captor of vessels or goods in custody of, 348n (See also PRIZE LAW; PRIZES)
PRIZE LAW
state owned neutral vessels and cargoes, liability of, to, 214 unlawful war and operation of, 12
U. S. legislation on, 106n
World War II and developments in, vi
(See alsc PRIZE COURTS; PRIZES) PRIZES
aircraft as, 109, 355 angary and, 349n
condemnation required for, 105 conversion of, 106n
destruction of, enemy, 104-8 neutral, 349-54 neutral ports, in, 245-7
release of, modern practice and, 346n requisition of, 348n
seizure in neutral waters, 219, 260n
(See also ENEMY CHARACTER; ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS; NEUTRAL VESSELS; PRIZE COURTS; PRIZE LAW)
QUARTER AT SEA, 71
RADIO
neutral use of, restrictions on, 300 unneutral service through use of, 321, 331
Q
R
(See atso HAGUE RULES FOR THE CONTROL OF RADIO IN TIME OF WAR) RAEDER, ADMIRAL, 65n
RAMB IV, incident of the, 125n
REPRISALS
ambiguous character in naval warfare of, 30-2
belligerent measures in World Wars justified as, 31-2, 57, 64, 188-90 254-8, 297n, 301-2, 305-7, 312-5
"collective measures" distinguished from, 15ln conditions governing resort to, 152
definition of, 151
Geneva Conventions and, 135, 152
legislative function served by, 30-2, 190, 258 neutrals, against, 261-2
neutrals, by, 259-61
neutral rights adversely affected by inter-belligerent, 188-90, 254-8 objects of, 152
observance of law of war dependent upon threat of, 53 proportionality of, rule governing, 153, 262
purpose of, 152, 190, 258
uncertainty of rules governing, 152n, 153n
RITCHIE, H., 28ln
ROSKILL, S. W., 64n, 65n, 72n, 140n
ROSTOCK, incident of the, 125n
ROWSON, S. W. D., 75n, 103n, 106n, 109n, 188n, 195n, 213n, 215n, 286n, 315n, 324n, 332n, 354n
RUCHTESCHELL, HELMUTH VON, TRIAL OF, 7ln
RULES OF 1756, 76n
RUSES IN NAVAL WARFARE, 138-42
defined, 13 8 examples of, 139
false colors, use of, 140-2
land and aerial warfare and, comparison between ruses in, 140, 142 neutral interests and, 141-2
treachery distinguished from, 138-9
SACK~, A. N., 54n
SAFE CONDUCT PASSES, 98 cartels distinguished from, 98n SCHMITZ, E., 30ln
s
SEARCH. (See ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS; NEUTRAL VESSELS) SEIZURE. (See ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS; NEUTRAL VESSELS)
SHIPS. (See ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS; ENEMY VESSELS EXCEPT FROM CAP-TURE; NEUTRAL VESSELS; WARSHIPS)
SMITH, H. A., 27, 28n, 62n, lOin, 105n, 140n, 14ln, 183, 193n, 194n, 222n, 24ln, 256n, 27ln, 303n, 320n, 32ln, 343n
SOURCES OF LAW OF NAVAL WARFARE, 26-32 belligerent practice, general effect of, on, 27-32
contemporary conditions and, 28 Declaration of London (1909) and, 26
effectiveness and continued validity of, relationship between, 29-30 Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 and, 26
London Protocol (1936) and, 27
SOVIET UNION
state-owned neutral merchant ships, claims to exemption from belligerent controls of, 214n supply of war materials to belligerents while neutral, 213n
SPAIGHT,
J.
M., 44n, 54n, 65n, 66n, 90n, 109n, liOn, llln, .114n, 132n, 139n, 142n, 148n)222n, 228n, 251n, 252n, 299n
STIGST AD, case of the, 255n, 307n
STONE,
J.,
3n, 13n, 17n, 18n, 24n, 28n, 3ln, 35n, 40n, 44n, 69n, 76n, 85n, lOin, 139n, 142n, 149n, 193n, 199n, 215-6, 218n, 223n, 258n, 266n, 289n, 296n, 299n, 304n, 309n, 316n, 325n, 352n, 353nSUBMARINES
attack on enemy merchant vessels by, World Wars I and II and, 57-66 British practice, 65-6
German practice, 57, 64-5 U. S. practice, 66
attack on neutral vessels by, World War I and II and, 297-302 British practice in Skagerrak, 303n
German practice, 297-8
blockade by, 289
defensively armed merchant ships and, 58-63 destruction of prizes by, 107-8, 352-4
difficulty in fulfilling obligation to rescue survivors, 72 economic warfare and, 68-9
neutral ports and waters, entry into, 240n
use justified as reprisal by Germany, 57-8, 64, 297-8, 302
visit and search by, 107n, 333
(See also LONDON PROTOCOL (1936))
SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH CABLES, treatment111of,' 95n
1
SURVIVORS AT SEA, obligation to rescue and protect, 71-2 Geneva Convention (1949) for Amelioration of • , • and, 71n Hague Convention X (1907) and, 71n
nature of defined, 72
SWITZERLAND, status in the League of N a dons, 175n
SYDNEY, sinking of the, 140n
TACOMA, incident of the, 248n
T AUBENFELD, H.
J.,
13n, 15n, 177nTELDERS, B. M., 234n
T
THIELE, GUNTHER, AND STEINERT, GEORG, TRIAL OF, 36n
TREACHERY
examples of, 139n
principle forbidding resort to, 46, 138-9 ruses distinguished from, 138-9
TREATY ON THE LIMITATION AND REDUCTION OF ARMAMENT (1930).
(See LONDON NAVAL TREATY (1930))
TREATY OF WASHINGTON {1871), 228n TRENT. incident of the, 325n
TRIEPEL, H., 60n
TUBING EN. case of the, 122n
TUCKER, R. W., 8n
u
UNITED NATIONS
Charter of,
collective defense transformed from right into duty under, 179-80
distinction drawn between lawful and unlawful resort to force in, 4, 14, 22 individual and collective defense under, 18-9
neutrality under the, 171-80
obligations of Members in event of enforcement action ordered by Security Council
under, 171-3
obligations of non-Member states according to, 176
procedure for determining unlawful resort to force in, 14, 171-2 provisions for establishment of international armed force in, 14
war, avoidance of term in, 4, 14, 22
Draft Declaration on the Rights and Duties of States, 176n General Assembly Resolution "Uniting For Peace,'· 19-20
character of recommendations made in accordance with, 19-20, 177
Collective Measures Committee established under, reports of, 20, 177n
International Law Commission of, Report on the Law of the Sea, 232n
operation of law of war in enforcement action by, 14-5
American Society of International Law, committee report, on, 15-6
operation of law of war in hostilities undertaken by national forces~ acting on behalf of, 15-8
Security Council of,
improbable use of powers by, 15, 18, 177, 178-9
improbability of authoritative determination of aggression by, 23, 177
neutrality of non-Members in absence of any effective action by, 178 power to determine existence of threat to or breach of peace by, 14, 171-2 resolutions dealing with hostilities in Korea by, 16-7
UNITED STATES
arming of merchant ships by, 337n
armed merchant vessels in neutral ports, World War I position on, 249n
army manual:
Rules of Land Watjare (1956), 49n, 51n, 52n, 98n, 138n, 140n, 158n, 222n
Awa Maru sinking, position on, 99n
belligerent operations near neutral waters, position on, 224n Declaration of London (1909), attitude as a neutral toward, 188n
defensively armed belligerent merchant ships, posicion on, 58n, 62n departure from neutral duties, justification for, 198n
destroyer-base agreement with Great Britain, 168n, 207n, 230n
diversion of neutral merchantmen, position on in World War I, 339, in World War II, 341n Geneva Protocol of 1925, refusal to accede to, 53n
Idle Foreign Vessels Act, 89n
Kellogg-Briand Pact, interpretation of, 168 lend-lease legislation, 168, 207
"long distance" blockade, objections as neutral to, 308 navy manuals:
Naval War Code (1900), 96n, 112n, 140n, 266n, 293n, 320, 326n, 332n, 335n, 350n
Instructions for the Navy of the United States Governing Maritime Warfare (1917), 64n, 78n,
140n, 266, 270n, 293n, 320n, 328n, 335n, 340n, 348n, 351n
Tentative Instructions for the Navy of the United States Governing Maritime and Aerial
Warfare-(1941), 64n, 79n, 140n, 292n, 320n,328n, 335n, 340n, 348n, 351n
Instructions For Prize Maste1·s and Special Prize Commissioners, 106n
UNITED STATES-Continued
Neutrality Act of May 1, 1937, 200n, 210n
Neutrality Act of November 4, 1939, 142n, 210n, 211n, 231n
Neutrality (General) Proclamation of September 5, 1939, 212n, 231n, 236n, 243n, 244n, 247n, 248n
neutrality laws and regulations, alteration of, during World War II, 205n Panama Canal, regulations governing belligerent use of, 233n
prize statutes of, 106n, 109n, 348n
removal of enemy persons from neutral vessels, position on, 328n reprisals affecting neutrals, position on, 255n
seizure of enemy property at sea, historic opposition to, 74 submarine warfare in World War II, practice in, 66 Trading With The Enemy Act, 84n
use of American flag by British merchant vessels, position on, 142n
war materials, refusal in World War I to place embargo upon private export of, 209-10
UNNEUTRAL SERVICE, 318-31 aircraft and, 319n
carriage of dispatches, 33Q-l liability for, 330
carriage of enemy persons, 325-30
belligerent practice in World Wars I and II, 328-9
customary practice on, 325-6
Declaration of London (1909) on, 326-7 liability for, 325, 327
concept of, vagueness characterizing, 318
Declaration of London (1909) on, obsolescence of, 318-9
direct control of belligerent, operating under, 322-3
liability to same treatment as enemy merchant vessels for, 322
distinction between nature of services performed for and degree of identification with
belligerent, 324
enemy convoy as a form of, sailing under, 321
military operations of belligerents, direct participation in, 319-21
acts constituting, 319-20
liability to same treatment as enemy warships for, 320
navicerts as a form of, 322-3
variety of acts held to constitute, 319
VERDROSS, A., 45n, 60n, 173n, 174n, 204n
VERZIJL, J. H. W., 75n
v
VISIT AND SEARCH. (See ENEMY MERCHANT VESSELS; NEUTRAL VESSELS)
VON GOSSELN, 140n
w
W ALDOCK, C. H. M., 237n, 238n, 239n, 262nWAR
declaration of, 24n
Hague III (1907) on, 24n
distinction between "war in legal sense" and "war in material sense," 10n
illegal crime against peace as waging of, 6
humanitarian considerations and operation of law of war in, 5-6
inequality of belligerents in, 4
law of war in, operation of, 4-11
law of neutrality in, operation of. (See NEUTRALITY)
WAR-Continued
Korean hostilities not designated as, 17-8, 22
law of war and, relationship between, 9
legal position of, 3-4
neutrality, rules of, dependent for operation upon existence of, 199-200 WAR CRIMES, 153-61
armistice agreement and, 155n
commanding officers, responsibility of, 159-61
war crimes tribunals on scope of, 160
Yamashita Trial and, 160n
defined, 153
distinguished from "crimes against peace" and "crimes against humanity," 153n examples of in hostilities at sea, 156
Geneva Convention (1949) Relative to Treatment of Prisoners of War and trial of, 154n
imputed to crews of neutral vessels undertaking offensive operations at sea, 115n
jurisdiction over individuals accused of, 154-5
military necessity as a plea against charges of, 36-7
peace treaty and, 155
penalty for, 154n
procedural requirements of a "fair trial" for enemy individuals accused of, 154n
superior orders as a defense plea against charges of, 157-9
''act of state'' distinguished from, 157n
attitude of belligerents during World War II regarding, 157-8
attitude of states prior to World War II regarding, 157
International Military Tribunal (Nuremberg) on, Charter of, 159n war crimes tribunals on, 158-9
WAR, LAW OF
collective security and operation of, 13-20
League of Nations, 13 United Nations, 14-20, 22-3
distinction between legality of resort to war and operation of, 21
effect of two World Wars upon, difficulty in evaluating, v-vi, 27-32 expanded application to armed conflicts other than "war," 23-5
Draft Code of Offenses Against Peace and Security of Mankind on, 24n
Geneva Conventions (1949) and, 23-4 uncertainty presently characterizing, 24-5
illegality of war as affecting operation of,
belligerent opinion in World War II and, 11 general considerations, 4-11, 21
Geneva Conventions (1949) on, 24
judicial opinion other than war crimes tribunals and, 12 war crimes tribunals and, 11-2
Korean hostilities and operation of the, 17-8
origin and justification of, 1G-1 WARREN, C., 204n
WARSHIPS, belligerent
attack on sight, liability to, 39-40, 56
characteristics of according to Hague VII (1907), 38-9
competence to exercise belligerent rights at sea restricted to, 41-2
conversion of merchant vessels into, 4G-1
belligerent practice in World Wars and, 4G-1 consequences of, 41
WARSHIPS-Continued
"fleet auxiliaries" as, 40n
importance of being able to identify, 38
non-combatant vessels and, reasons leading to dimming of distinction between, 41-3 status not dependent upon armament carried, 39
WARSHIPS, neutral convoy by, 334-6
rescue of wounded and shipwrecked by, 122-3
WAR ZONES, 296-305 aerial, 299n
British declarations of "military areas" or, 297n defensive sea areas as distinguished from, 299-300 functions served by, 296
German declarations of, 297
immediate area of naval operations as distinguished from, 3DO-l legality of, 298-305
belligerent practice in two World Wars and, 301-2
blockades and, 298
enforced by mines as distinguished from submarines and aircraft, 303-5 reprisals and, 301-2, 305
varied terminology attached to, 296n
WEAPONS IN NAVAL WARFARE, 5D-5
applicability of land warfare rules to use of, 50
distinction between legality as such and possible use of, 50
(See also BACTERIA; GAS; INCENDIARY INSTRUMENTS AND PROJECTILES; MINES;
NUCLEAR WEAPONS)
WESTLAKE,
J.,
34n, 143n, 192n, 284nWILSON, G. G., 6ln, 349n
WILSON, R. R., 199n
WOOLSEY, L. H., 90n, 208n, 288n
WOUNDED AND SHIPWRECKED. (See GENEVA CONVENTION (1949) FOR THE AMELIORATION OF THE CONDITION OF THE WOUNDED, SICK AND SHIPWRECK· ED MEMBERS OF ARMED FORCES AT SEA)
WRIGHT, LORD, 154n
WRIGHT, Q., 5, IOn, 19n, 19ln
y
YAMASHITA, IN RE, 155n, 16ln
YAMASHITA, TRIAL OF GENERAL, 160n
ZAMORA, case of the, 258n, 34ln, 348n
ZEMSHUG, incident of the, 139n
