Bridges2 SB AppendGal 11946

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Grammar appendix

Grammar review

present simpLe FOrm

affirmative negative interrogative

I / You work I / You do not (don’t) work Do I / you work?

He / She / It works He / She / It does not (doesn’t) work Does he / she / it work? We / You / They work We / You / They do not (don’t) work Do we / you / they work?

Uses examples adverbs of frequency / time expressions

A regular habit or routine Do you work on Sundays? _{(Traballas os domingos?)}

always, usually, generally, regularly, occasionally, frequently, often, sometimes, rarely, seldom, never at 1 o’clock, at night, in the morning, on Fridays, every week, once a month, how often ...?

A general truth or scientific fact Water boils at 100º Celsius. _{(A auga ferve aos cen graos.)}

Stative verbs Mary doesn’t think_{attractive. (Mary non cre que o meu}my boyfriend is noivo é atractivo.)

present COntinUOUs FOrm

I am reading I am (I’m) not reading Am I reading?

You are reading You are not (aren’t) reading Are you reading? He / She / It is reading He / She / It is not (isn’t) reading Is he / she / it reading? We / You / They are reading We / You / They are not (aren’t) reading Are we / you / they reading?

Uses examples time expressions

An action which is happening now He is reading a magazine now. _{(Está a ler unha revista agora.)} now, right now, at the moment A temporary action I am studying photography this year. _{(Estou a estudar fotografía este ano.)} this year, at present

A definite plan for the near future My friends are leaving for India tomorrow. _{(Os meus amigos marchan mañá á India.)} this evening, tonight, tomorrow, _{next Friday / week / year}

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Stative Verbs

Como indican un estado, máis ca unha acción, adoitan empregarse en Present Simple. Están relacionados con:

● as emocións e os sentimentos (dislike, enjoy, hate, hope, like, love, prefer, want)

● o pensamento e a opinión (believe, forget, guess, know, remember, think, understand)

● a percepción e os sentidos (feel, hear, see, smell, sound, taste, touch)

● os prezos e as medidas (cost, weigh, measure) ● a posesión (belong, have, own).

Algúns indican tanto estado como actividade e poden empregarse na forma simple e mais na continua.

Sarah thinks the film is boring.

(Sarah cre que a película é aborrecida.) [estado]

Sarah is thinking of selling her house.

(Sarah está a pensar en vender a súa casa.) [actividade] Mentres que o verbo see en Present Continuous indica unha acción futura fixada de antemán.

We’re seeing Ann tonight.

(Veremos a Ann esta noite.) [Xa quedamos.]

Bridges 2 Galician©B Burlington Books

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past simpLe FOrm

I / You visited I / You did not (didn’t) visit Did I / you visit? He / She / It visited He / She / It did not (didn’t) visit Did he / she / it visit? We / You / They visited We / You / They did not (didn’t) visit Did we / you / they visit?

A completed action in the past We visited the museum last week. _{(Visitou o museo a pasada semana.)}

yesterday, last week / year, two days ago, in 2007, in the 1980s, in the 18th century, when, then

A series of completed actions in the past When I opened the door, the dog barked at the postman. (Cando abrín a porta, o can ladrou ao carteiro.)

past COntinUOUs FOrm

I was watching I was not (wasn’t) watching Was I watching?

You were watching You were not (weren’t) watching Were you watching? He / She / It was watching He / She / It was not (wasn’t) watching Was he / she / it watching? We / You / They were watching We / You / They were not (weren’t) watching Were we / you / they watching?

An incomplete action in progress

at a specific time in the past At 9 o’clock last night, they were watching the tennis match. (Ás nove en punto da pasada noite, estaban a ver o partido de tenis.)

last night / week / year, at 4 o’clock, when, while, as An incomplete action interrupted

by another action She was doing her homework when her friends arrived. (Estaba a facer os seus deberes cando os seus amigos chegaron.) Two incomplete actions in progress

at the same time in the past I was cooking dinner while he was setting the table. (Eu estaba a preparar a cea mentres el estaba a poñer a mesa.) FUtUre simpLe

FOrm

I / You will start I / You will not (won’t) start Will I / you start? He / She / It will start He / She / It will not (won’t) start Will he / she / it start? We / You / They will start We / You / They will not (won’t) start Will we / you / they start?

A prediction I’m sure Peter won’t be at the party this evening. _{(Estou certo de que Peter non estará na festa esta noite.)} _{this evening, in an hour, at 3 o’clock,} later, tomorrow, next month / year, soon, in a few weeks, in the future, on 1st May

A timetable My parents will arrive on the 5 o’clock train. _{(Meus pais chegarán no tren das cinco.)} A spontaneous decision I’ll have a sandwich, please. _{(Tomarei un sándwich, por favor.)}

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Be GOinG tO FOrm

I am going to buy I am (I’m) not going to buy Am I going to buy? You are going to buy You are not (aren’t) going to buy Are you going to buy? He / She / It is going to buy He / She / It is not (isn’t) going to buy Is he / she / it going to buy? We / You / They are going to buy We / You / They are not (aren’t) going to buy Are we / you / they going to buy?

A planned action for the future We are going to buy a new computer next month. _{(Imos mercar un novo ordenador o mes que vén.)} this evening, later, in an hour, _{at 4 o’clock, tomorrow, soon,} next month / year, in a few weeks, on 8th May

An action that is about to happen Look at those clouds. It’s going to rain soon. _{(Repara nesas nubes. Vai chover axiña.)}

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O Present Continuous con valor de

futuro

Anuncia accións fixadas de antemán que ocorrerán no futuro próximo. Adóitase reservar para plans persoais xa concertados.

They’re coming home tonight.

(Veñen / Virán á casa esta noite.)

Non expresa unha intención, como be going to, senón algo que foi programado con antelación e que vai pasar con seguridade. Distínguese do Present Continuous normal pois a expresión temporal que vai na frase sinala un tempo futuro e non presente.

The train is arrivingin twenty minutes.

(O tren chega / chegará en vinte minutos.) FUtUre COntinUOUs

FOrm

I / You will be shopping I / You will not (won’t) be shopping Will I / you be shopping? He / She / It will be shopping He / She / It will not (won’t) be shopping Will he / she / it be shopping? We / You / They will be shopping We / You / They will not (won’t) be shopping Will we / you / they be shopping?

An action in progress at a

certain time in the future At this time tomorrow, I will be shopping in town. (Mañá a estas horas, estarei de compras na cidade.) at this time, at this time next ..., on Thursday, in the next decade

Unit 1

Health

present perFeCt simpLe FOrm

I / You have talked I / You have not (haven’t) talked Have I / you talked? He / She / It has talked He / She / It has not (hasn’t) talked Has he / she / it talked? We / You / They have talked We / You / They have not (haven’t) talked Have we / you / they talked?

An action that began in the past and continues

until the future I haven’t talked to Jim for a week. (Non falei con Jim desde hai unha semana.) ever, never, yet, just, already, recently, lately, how long ...?, for, since, in recent years An action that took place at an undetermined

time in the past, but is connected to the present Jack has stopped smoking. (Jack deixou de fumar.)

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Forma

Afirmativa: úsase have / has + o participio do verbo principal. Negativa: ponse have / has + not (n’t) + o participio. Interrogativa: poñemos have / has + o suxeito + o participio. Usos

● Falarmos de accións que comezaron no pasado e aínda continúan (por iso, ás veces tradúcese o verbo en presente). ● Con accións pasadas cuxos efectos son visíbeis arestora. ● Expresarmos que unha acción vén de ocorrer. Daquela ponse

just entre have e o participio.

They have just arrived. (Acaban de chegar.)

Con how long ...? preguntamos canto tempo pasou desde que a acción, que aínda continúa, comezou.

How long have you lived in London?

(Canto tempo hai que vives en Londres?)

For sinala canto durou a acción e since cando comezou. I haven’t seen Beth for two years.

(Non vin a Beth durante dous anos.)

Jim has played tennis since he was 13 years old.

(Tim xoga ao tenis desde que tiña trece anos.)

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Contraste entre o Past Simple e o

Present Perfect Simple

A principal diferenza é que o Past Simple indica o que ocorreu nun intre concreto, mentres que o Present Perfect Simple sitúa a acción nun período de tempo.

We put an advert in the newspaper to sell our car and so far, six people have phoned.

(Puxemos un anuncio no xornal para vender o coche e até agora chamaron seis persoas.)

present perFeCt COntinUOUs FOrm

I / You have been working I / You have not (haven’t) been working Have I / you been working? He / She / It has been working He / She / It has not (hasn’t) been working Has he / she / it been working? We / You / They have been working We / You / They have not (haven’t) been working Have we / you / they been working?

An action that started in the past and which still continues in the present

Dave has been going to the gym for a year.

(Dave leva indo ao ximnasio un ano.)

How long has Steve been walking?

(Cando tempo estivo Steve a camiñar?)

for a year, since 2002, how long ...? An action whose results are still apparent I’m tired. I _{(Estou canso. Levo estudando toda a noite.)}have been studying all night. all night / morning / day / week Forma

Afirmativa: o Present Perfect Continuous fórmase con have / has + been + o verbo na forma ing.

Negativa: engádese not a have / has ou empregamos as formas contraídas haven’t / hasn’t + been + o verbo con ing. Interrogativa: ponse have / has + o suxeito + been + o verbo na forma ing.

Usos

● Expresar accións que comezaron no pasado e que aínda continúan. Como o Present Perfect Continuous resalta o tempo que está a durar a acción, adoitamos traducilo por “levar” en presente + un verbo en xerundio.

● Expresar accións rematadas hai pouco cuxos efectos son visíbeis aínda.

As expresións temporais empregadas con este tempo verbal cómpre que indiquen un período, non un intre concreto. past perFeCt simpLe

FOrm

I / You had started I / You had not (hadn’t) started Had I / you started? He / She / It had started He / She / It had not (hadn’t) started Had he / she / it started? We / You / They had started We / You / They had not (hadn’t) started Had we / you / they started?

A completed action which took place before another action in the past

By the time we arrived at the cinema, the film had already started.

(Cando chegamos ao cinema, a película xa comezara.)

already, by the time, after, before, until, never, just

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Forma

Afirmativa: o Past Perfect Simple fórmase con had + o participio do verbo principal.

Negativa: engádese not ou n’t a had + o participio. Interrogativa: ponse had + o suxeito + o participio.

Usos

● Indica que unha acción ocorreu antes ca outra (que vai en

Past Simple) ou antes dun intre concreto no pasado.

past perFeCt COntinUOUs FOrm

I / You had been travelling I / You had not (hadn’t) been travelling Had I / you been travelling? He / She / It had been travelling He / She / It had not (hadn’t) been travelling Had he / she / it been travelling? We / You / They had been travelling We / You / They had not (hadn’t) been travelling Had we / you / they been travelling?

An action which continued up to another past action

We had been travelling for a few hours when it started snowing. (Levabamos a viaxar unhas poucas

horas cando deu en nevar.)

for hours, since last April, all morning, when, until, before Forma

Afirmativa: fórmase con had + been + o verbo na forma ing. Negativa: engadimos not a had (ou hadn’t) + been + o verbo rematado en ing.

Interrogativa: ponse had + o suxeito + o verbo con ing. Usos

● Falar dunha acción prolongada que ocorreu no pasado antes ca outra acción ou intre tamén pasado. É moi común traducilo como “levar” en pretérito imperfecto + xerundio (ou “a”+infinitivo).

She had been writing short stories for years until she decided to publish them. (Levaba anos a escribir contos

até que decidiu publicalos.)

O habitual é que esas dúas accións vaian unidas por unha conxunción, que pode ser temporal como as do cadro (when,

until, before), concesiva (although) ou causal (because).

He put on weight because he hadn’t been getting

enough exercise. (Engordou porque non estivera a facer

exercicio abondo.)

FUtUre perFeCt simpLe FOrm

I / You will have finished I / You will not (won’t) have finished Will I / you have finished? He / She / It will have finished He / She / It will not (won’t) have finished Will he / she / it have finished? We / You / They will have finished We / You / They will not (won’t) have finished Will we / you / they have finished?

A completed action at a

certain future time By the end of June, we will have finished school. (Contra fins de xuño, teremos rematado o colexio.) by this time next week, by 10 o’clock, by the end of ..., by then, by August, in three months Forma

Afirmativa: emprégase will have + o participio dun verbo. Negativa: poñemos will not (won’t) + have + o participio. Interrogativa: ponse will + o suxeito + have + o participio. Usos

● Indicarmos que unha acción concluirá nun momento concreto do futuro.

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Os prefixos

● Os prefixos un, im, il, in e dis engádense a algúns adxectivos, substantivos e verbos para formaren os seus opostos.

pleasant (agradábel) unpleasant (desagradábel) patient (paciente) impatient (impaciente)

legal (legal) illegal (ilegal)

correct (correcto/a) incorrect (incorrecto/a)

satisfied (satisfeito/a) dissatisfied (insatisfeito/a)

● O prefixo mis engádese a algúns substantivos e verbos para indicar que algo se fai mal ou incorrectamente.

use (uso) misuse (mal uso)

● Con en fórmanse verbos que describen o paso ao estado sinalado pola palabra á que se engade este prefixo.

close (pechar) enclose (encerrar) Bridges 2 Galician©B Burlington Books

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Verbos seguidos de xerundio e de infinitivo

Verbos como begin, propose, forbid, intend ou start poden ir con xerundio ou infinitivo e significan o mesmo.

I’ve started to go / going to the gym.

(Comecei a ir ao ximnasio.)

Mais stop, remember, regret e forget non significan o mesmo se van seguidos dun xerundio ou dun infitivo.

●_{forget + xerundio emprégase en frases negativas para} indicar a imposibilidade de esquecer algo ocorrido no pasado. I’ll never forget seeing the Eiffel Tower for the first time. (Nunca esquecerei cando vin a Torre Eiffel por

primeira vez.)

forget + infinitivo significa “esquecer facer algo”. I forgot to buy the newspaper.

(Esquecín mercar o xornal.)

● regret + xerundio significa “arrepentirse de ter feito algo no pasado”.

He regrets staying at home.

(Arrepíntese de ter quedado na casa.)

regret + infinitivo significa “lamentar o que se vai dicir a continuación”.

I regret to tell you that we can’t do anything.

(Lamento que saibas que non podemos facer nada.) ● remember + xerundio significa “lembrar algo que se fixo

no pasado”.

I remember buying the tickets.

(Lembro ter comprado as entradas.)

remember + infinitivo significa “lembrarse de facer algo”. Remember to take your passport.

(Lémbrate coller o pasaporte.)

● stop + xerundio significa “deixar un hábito”. She stopped training for a few weeks.

(Deixou de adestrar durante unhas semanas.)

stop + infinitivo significa “deixar de facer algo para facer outra cousa”.

We stopped to have lunch. (Paramos para xantar)

● Os prefixos under, over e non son doados de entender, e no que se refire a co, re, inter, anti, bi, pre e multi, significan o mesmo que na nosa lingua:

underline (subliñar) international (internacional)

overloaded (sobrecargado) anti-hero (antiheroe)

non-smoker (non fumador) bilingual (bilingüe)

co-pilot (copiloto) prehistoric (prehistórico)

rewrite (reescribir) multiracial (multirracial)

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O xerundio e o infinitivo

O xerundio

É a forma verbal rematada en ing que funciona como substantivo. Por iso podemos atopalo:

● Como suxeito, falando de feitos en xeral. Eating healthy food helps you keep fit.

(Comer comida sa axúdache a manterte en forma.) ● Como obxecto directo dalgúns verbos: continue, dislike,

enjoy, finish, hate, like, love, miss, prefer, recommend, suggest, etc.

Helikes running marathons.

(Gústalle correr maratóns.) ● Detrás das preposicións.

She’s interested in doing Pilates.

(Está interesada en facer Pilates.)

● Detrás dalgunhas formas verbais: be / get used to, can’t help, can’t stand, don’t mind / wouldn’t mind, feel like, it’s no use, look forward to, spend (time), etc. I feel like going to the concert tonight.

(Teño ganas de ir ao concerto esta noite.) O infinitivo

É a forma verbal precedida de to e emprégase nestes casos: ● Como suxeito, falando dun feito concreto.

To apply for that job would be a good idea.

(Solicitar ese traballo sería unha boa idea.)

● Detrás de verbos como: agree, appear, choose, decide, expect, hope, learn, manage, plan, promise, refuse, seem, want, wish, etc.

I promised to help him with his homework.

(Prometín axudarlle cos deberes.)

● Detrás dalgúns adxectivos (busy, happy, ready, tired, etc.) e adverbios (fast, high, low, slowly, etc.)

I am happy to be here. (Estou leda de estar aquí.)

● Detrás do obxecto indirecto de verbos como: advise, invite, persuade, teach, tell ou warn.

They told him to eat three meals a day.

(Dixéronlle que fixera tres comidas ao día.)

Algúns verbos de percepción (feel, hear, see, etc.), make e let van seguidos de verbos na forma base (infinitivo sen to).

His parents let him participate in the race.

(Seus pais deixárono participar na carreira.)

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O estiLO indireCtO

tense direct speech reported speech

Present Simple “He works in a restaurant.” _{(“El traballa nun restaurante.“)} She said that he worked in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el traballou nun restaurante.)} Past Simple “He worked in a restaurant.” _{(“El traballou nun restaurante.“)} She said that he had worked in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el traballara nun restaurante.)} Future Simple “He will work in a restaurant.” _{(“El traballará nun restaurante.“)} She said that he would work in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el traballaría nun restaurante.)} Present Continuous “He is working in a restaurant.” _{(“El está a traballar nun restaurante.”)} She said that he was working in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el traballaba nun restaurante.)} Past Continuous “He was working in a restaurant.” _{(“El estaba a traballar nun restaurante.“)} She said that he had been working in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el estivera a traballar nun restaurante.)} Present Perfect Simple “He has worked in a restaurant.” _{(“El ten traballado nun restaurante.“)} She said that he had worked in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el tiña traballado nun restaurante.)} Present Perfect Continuous “He has been working in a restaurant.” _{(“El estivo traballando nun restaurante.”)} She said that he had been working in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el estivera a traballar nun restaurante.)} Past Perfect Simple “He had worked in a restaurant.” _{(“El traballara nun restaurante.“)} She said that he had worked in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el traballara nun restaurante.)} Past Perfect Continuous “He had been working in a restaurant.” _{(“El estivera a traballar nun restaurante.“)} She said that he had been working in a restaurant. _{(Ela dixo que el estivera a traballar nun restaurante.)}

Unit 2

Jobs

CamBiOs nOs mOdais

direct speech reported speech

can could

may might

must / have to must / had to

will would

CamBiOs nOUtras paLaBras e expresiOns

direct speech reported speech

now then

today that day

tonight that night

yesterday the previous day / the day before last week the previous week / the week before a month ago the previous month / the month before

tomorrow the following day / the day after / the next day next week the following week / the week after

here there

this / these that / those

O estilo indirecto emprégase para contarmos o que alguén dixo sen citar exactamente as súas palabras.

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Reported statements

Podemos contar en presente o que alguén vén de dicir, para o cal abonda con suprimir as comiñas e cambiar o pronome suxeito e a persoa do verbo.

“I have got a part-time job.”

He says that he has got a part-time job.

(Di que ten un traballo a tempo parcial.)

Mais o normal é contalo en pasado (He said...). Daquela o verbo seguinte dá un salto atrás: o Present Simple pasa a Past Simple, will a would, etc. (só o Past Perfect permanece invariábel), e ademais dos pronomes persoais, cambian os demostrativos, os posesivos e as expresións de tempo e de lugar.

“I graduated from university last year,” she said.

She said that she had graduated from university the year before. (Dixo que se licenciara na universidade o

ano anterior.)

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Se a frase enuncia un feito que segue a ter vixencia no presente, non hai cambio nos tempos verbais.

“London is the capital of Great Britain,” he said.

He said that London is the capital of Great Britain.

(Dixo que Londres é a capital de Gran Bretaña.) Como xa coñeces, os verbos máis comúns para introducilo son say e tell. Tell sempre leva un obxecto indirecto sen a preposición to. Say pode levar obxecto indirecto ou non, mais de levalo cómpre que vaia con esa preposición.

“The film will start at 8 o’clock,” he said.

He said / said to us / told us (that) the film would start

at 8 o’clock. (Dixo que a película comezaría ás 8.)

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Reported questions

● As Yes / No questions (as que se poden contestar cun “si” ou un “non”) pásanse a estilo indirecto empregando o verbo ask + if ou whether.

Daquela, como a pregunta deixa de selo e se converte nunha oración enunciativa, non hai inversión do suxeito e o verbo, sinal de interrogación nin comiñas.

“Did you have an exam yesterday?” Mum asked.

My mum asked meif I had had an exam the day before. (Miña nai preguntoume se tivera un exame o día anterior.)

● As Wh-questions (as que comezan con who, what, etc., e non se poden contestar cun “si” ou un “non” empregan a partícula interrogativa no canto de if ou whether, mais tampouco hai inversión suxeito-verbo, sinal de interrogación nin comiñas.

“What are the job requirements?” I asked.

I asked what the job requirements were.

(Preguntei cales eran os requisitos para o traballo.) “How many people work here?” he asked.

He asked how many people worked there.

(Preguntou cantas persoas traballaban alí.)

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Reported orders

Para pasarmos unha orde a estilo indirecto cómpre cambiar o imperativo polo infinitivo. Mais antes empregamos un verbo que exprese mandato, como order ou tell, seguido do obxecto indirecto.

“Please be quiet.”

The teacher told us to be quiet.

(A profesora díxonos que calaramos.)

Se a orde é negativa, poñemos not diante do infinitivo.

“Don’t park your car here.”

The policeman ordered me not to park my car there.

(O policía ordenoume que non aparcara o meu coche alí.)

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Reported suggestions

Para expresarmos unha suxestión en estilo indirecto empregamos os verbos suggest ou recommend en pasado. Logo, contamos o que dixo esa persoa de dúas formas:

● Cun verbo en xerundio, indicando que quen fixo a suxestión se incluía nela.

“Let’s go to the cinema tomorrow,” Jim said.

Jim suggestedgoing to the cinema the following day. (Jim suxeriu irmos ao cinema o día seguinte.)

● Ou empregando unha oración con that + suxeito + verbo na forma base, indicando que a suxestión se refería a outra ou outras persoas.

“Try the new restaurant,” Beth said.

Beth suggestedthat I try the new restaurant.

(Beth suxeriu que eu probase o novo restaurante.)

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Reporting verbs

Say, tell e ask só introducen a mensaxe sen engadir máis información, mentres que os seguintes verbos transmiten tamén a intención do falante ou o ton en que falou:

● en afirmacións: admit, agree, answer, apologise, boast, claim, complain, declare, deny, explain, inform, insist, mention, offer, promise, refuse, remind, reply

“I’ve had problems with my computer,” he said.

He complained that he had had problems with his computer. (Queixouse de que tivera problemas co seu

ordenador.)

● en preguntas: enquire, request, want to know, wonder

“Did you leave your previous job?” John asked.

John wanted to know ifI had left my previous job.

(John quería saber se deixara o meu traballo anterior.) ● en ordes: demand, order, shout, warn

“Stay here!” she said.

She ordered me to stay there.

(Ordenoume que ficara alí.) ● en súplicas e rogos: beg

“Please wait for me,” he said.

He begged me to wait for him.

(Rogoume que agardase por el.)

● en suxestións: advise, invite, suggest, recommend “You should apply for that job,” Lucy said.

Lucy advised him to apply for that job.

(Lucy aconselloulle que solicitase ese traballo.)

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Os sufixos

Son terminacións que engadimos a algunhas palabras para formaren outras novas.

Sufixos para formaren substantivos

● Para formaren substantivos a partir de verbos empregamos os sufixos ment, tion / sion e er / or.

agree (acordar) agreement (acordo)

invite (invitar) invitation (invitación) conclude (concluír) conclusion (conclusión)

drive (conducir) driver (condutor) act (actuar) actor (actor)

● Tamén se forman substantivos engadindo os sufixos ity, ship, ness e ence / ance a algúns adxectivos, substantivos ou verbos.

personal (persoal) personality (personalidade)

friend (amigo) friendship (amizade) happy (feliz) happiness (felicidade)

obedient (obediente) obedience (obediencia) annoy (molestar) annoyance (molestia)

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Sufixos para formaren adxectivos

● Os sufixos ful e less engádense a algúns substantivos e axudan a saber o significado dos adxectivos resultantes, pois ful significa “con” e less “sen”.

care (coidado) careful (coidadoso/a) careless (descoidado/a) ● Tamén se forman adxectivos engadindo os sufixos ous, al,

able / ible e ive a algúns substantivos e verbos. danger (perigo) dangerous (perigoso/a)

nation (nación) national (nacional) predict (predicir) predictable (predicíbel) reverse (inverso) reversible (reversíbel)

attract (atraer) attractive (atractivo/a) ● Outros sufixos que engadimos a verbos son ed e ing.

bore (aborrecer) bored ([estar] aborrecido/a)

boring ([ser] aborrecido/a) Cando o adxectivo termina en ed significa que a persoa ou cousa á que se refire sofre o efecto do adxectivo e cando acaba en ing significa que a persoa ou cousa produce ese efecto.

➡

Verbos seguidos de preposici

ó

n

Algúns verbos adoitan ir seguidos sempre da mesma preposición.

apply for (solicitar) wait for (agardar) listen to (escoitar (a))

Mais outros poden levar distintas preposicións:

arrive at (“chegar a” un lugar)

arrive in (“chegar a” unha cidade ou un país) hear about (“saber de”)

hear of (“ouvir falar de”)

talk about (“falar de / sobre” algo)

talk to / with (“falar con” unha persoa)

think about (“opinar (sobre), parecer”; “coidar en”) think of (“coidar en”)

Repara na listaxe de verbos con preposición que hai nas páxinas finais.

a VOZ pasiVa

tense active passive

Present Simple Many people sell unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts are sold by many people. Present Continuous Many people are selling unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts are being sold by many people. Past Simple Many people sold unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts were sold by many people. Future Simple Many people will sell unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts will be sold by many people.

Present Perfect Simple_{Many people have sold unwanted gifts.} _{Unwanted gifts have been sold by many people.}

Modals Many people can sell unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts can be sold by many people. Past Continuous Many people were selling unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts were being sold by many people. Past Perfect Simple Many people had sold unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts had been sold by many people. Modal Perfects Many people must have sold unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts must have been sold by many people. have to Many people have to sell unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts have to be sold by many people. be going to Many people are going to sell unwanted gifts. Unwanted gifts are going to be sold by many people.

Unit 3

Shopping

Forma

Afirmativa: fórmase co verbo to be + o participio do verbo principal.

Negativa: só cómpre engadir not ao auxiliar to be + o participio do verbo.

In the end, the party wasn’t held last night.

(Ao final non se celebrou a festa a pasada noite.)

Interrogativa: as preguntas comezan con to be, pois o suxeito colócase entre o auxiliar e o participio.

Were you advised by your parents?

(Aconselláronte os teus pais?)

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● Se na pregunta hai un modal, un verbo en futuro ou un tempo composto, a frase pasiva comeza co modal ou o verbo auxiliar, o mesmo ca na voz activa.

Can the dress be taken back to the shop?

(Pódese volver o vestido á tenda?) Have the windows been cleaned?

(Limpáronse as fiestras?)

● As preguntas que levan partícula interrogativa tamén invirten a orde do verbo auxiliar e do suxeito, agás cando a partícula fai de suxeito.

What present have you been given?

(Que agasallo che fixeron?) Who was chosen as president?

(Quen foi elixido como presidente?)

Como pasarmos unha oraci_{ón a pasiva}

A pasiva é máis frecuente en inglés ca en galego; nós adoitamos empregar o verbo en activa ou na forma impersoal.

● Poñer o verbo to be no mesmo tempo que tiña o verbo principal na voz activa.

He sold his car last week.

His car was sold last week.

(O seu coche foi vendido / vendérono a semana pasada.)

● Ponse como suxeito o primeiro complemento que haxa logo do verbo en activa, sexa o directo ou indirecto.

They will send some books to Pam.

Some books will be sent to Pam.

(Mandaranlle algúns libros a Pam.) They will send Pam some books.

Pam will be sent some books.

(A Pam mandaranlle algúns libros.)

Se o obxecto indirecto é un pronome, cómpre cambialo á forma de suxeito.

She showed me her new house.

I was shown her new house.

(Amosoume a súa nova casa.)

Esta pasiva adoita empregarse cos verbos ask, give, lend, pay, offer, promise, sell, send, show e tell, que levan o dobre complemento: directo e indirecto.

● Pasar o suxeito da oración activa ao final da pasiva precedido de by. E se é un pronome persoal, cambialo pola súa forma obxecto correspondente.

Shakespeare didn’t write that play.

That play wasn’t written byShakespeare.

(Esa obra non a escribiu Shakespeare.) The police arrested the thief.

The thief was arrested bythe police.

(O ladrón foi arrestado pola policía.)

● Como se ve no cadro da páxina anterior, os modais e be going to non cambian, é o verbo que os segue o que se pon en pasiva (be + participio).

You can open the window.

The window can be opened. (Pódese abrir a ventá.)

Usos

Os principais usos da voz pasiva son:

● Salientar a acción máis ca o suxeito que a realiza. ● Cando o suxeito que realiza a acción é obvio, ou

descoñecido, ou non se quere nomealo. All the money has been stolen.

(Roubaron todo o diñeiro.)

● E relacionado co anterior, para evitar unha frase activa cuxo suxeito sexa they, somebody, nobody, etc.

Someone left this hat here.

This hat was left here. (Deixaron aquí este chapeu.)

➡

Os verbos causativos:

have / get + something + done

Os verbos have e get + un substantivo + un participio expresan accións que encargamos a alguén.

I had / got my bedroom painted.

(Pintei / Pintáronme o dormitorio.)

Esta estrutura ten un sentido pasivo, pois o susbstantivo que vai no medio recibe a acción do verbo que vai en participio. Mais adóitase traducir na voz activa.

I’m going to have / get my hair cut next week.

(Vou cortar o pelo a semana que vén.) [farao outra persoa, non eu]

Aínda que have e get se empregan indistintamente, get é máis informal e, polo tanto, máis común no inglés falado.

I must get my watch repaired.

(Teño que arranxar o meu reloxo.)

➡

Phrasal Verbs

Chámanse así porque van seguidos dunha partícula (que pode ser unha preposición, un adverbio ou as dúas cousas), formando con ela unha palabra nova.

Pick out the shoes you like the most.

(Elixe os zapatos que máis che gusten.)

Hai phrasal verbs transitivos (que deben levar complemento directo) e intransitivos (que non o poden levar). Dentro dos transitivos, hainos que permiten poñer o complemento entre o verbo e a partícula ou ben despois da partícula:

I picked my brother up. I picked up my brother.

(Recollín a meu irmán.)

Porén, se o complemento directo é un pronome, debe ir sempre entre o verbo e a partícula:

I picked him up.

(Recollino.)

Outros phrasal verbs transitivos son inseparábeis, polo que o complemento debe ir sempre despois da partícula:

I’ll pay for the dinner.

(Pagarei eu a cea.)

I’ll pay for it.

(Pagareina eu.)

Repara na listaxe de phrasal verbs que se inclúe en páxinas máis adiante para ver máis casos.

0 Bridges 2 Galician©B Burlington Books

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as OraCiOns COndiCiOnais First COnditiOnaL

Conditional clause result clause examples

if

+ Present Simple unless

Future Simple If I feel better later, we will go shopping together. (Se me sinto mellor máis tarde, iremos xuntos de compras.) modal + base form We might / may visit our relatives if we have got some

time.

(Podemos visitar os nosos parentes se temos tempo.) Present Simple If I am late, my parents worry.

(Se chego tarde, meus pais preocúpanse.)

imperative Search on the Internet if you want to learn more about _{the Amish.} (Procura en Internet se queres aprender máis sobre os Amish.) seCOnd COnditiOnaL

if would

+ base form could / might

I would read more books if I had spare time.

(Lería máis libros se tivese tempo libre.) + Past Simple

Jane could / might help us if she were here.

(Jane podería axudarnos se estivese aquí.) unless

tHird COnditiOnaL

if + Past Perfect

would have

+ past participle could / might have

If Mark and Jim had visited us, we would have been delighted. (Se Mark e Jim nos tivesen visitado, nos estariamos

encantados.)

If you hadn’t been so busy, we could / might have met.

(Se non tiveses estado tan ocupado, poderiamos ternos coñecido.”)

Unit 4

Relationships

Son oracións compostas por unha proposición subordinada que expresa a condición (conditional clause) e unha principal que indica o resultado (result clause). Hainas de tres tipos:

O primeiro condicional

Empregamos if + Present Simple na condición e Future Simple no resultado. Expresa o que ocorrerá de cumprirse a condición sinalada.

Non importa a orde en que se coloquen as proposicións, mais se a condición vai primeiro adóitase pór unha vírgula entre ambas as dúas.

If we are honest with each other,our relationship will work. (De sermos sinceros o un co outro, a nosa

relación funcionará.)

Ademais do Future Simple, no resultado tamén se poden empregar os verbos modais, o Present Simple ou o imperativo.

If it rains, we can’t go to the beach.

(Se chove, non podemos ir á praia.)

Para expresar que algo non ocorrerá se non se cumpre a condición, a proposición introdúcese pola conxunción unless, que equivale a if not (“a non ser que”, “non sendo que”), ou négase o verbo en Present Simple.

Unless Anne moves to another city, she won’t leave

her job. (A non ser que Ann se mude a outra cidade, ela

non deixará o seu traballo.)

Repara en que unless se emprega con moita frecuencia no primeiro condicional, mais é menos frecuente no segundo condicional e nunca se emprega no terceiro.

O segundo condicional

Emprégase if + Past Simple na condición, e would + verbo na forma base no resultado. Expresa condicións hipotéticas referidas ao presente, é dicir, que é pouco probábel que ocorran, por iso traducímolo como un pretérito imperfecto de subxuntivo.

If Tom liked Mary, he would invite her to have dinner with him.

(Se a Tom lle gustase Mary, convidaríaa a cear con el.) Se o verbo da condición é to be, adóitase empregar were en todas as persoas.

If he weren’t so upset, he would phone you.

(Se el non estivese tan desgustado, chamaríate.) Para dar consellos emprégase a fórmula If I were.

If I were you, I would ask my parents for permission.

(Eu de ti, pediría permiso aos meus pais.)

No canto de would podense empregar could e might, mais ambos os dous sinalan que a probabilidade é menor. Equivalen a “podería” ou “talvez / quizais”.

I could go to the party if my parents lent me the car. (Podería ir á festa se meus pais me deixasen o coche.) ‘

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Unless I were certain, I wouldn’t say anything to him.

(A non ser que estivese segura, non lle diría nada.) O terceiro condicional

Fórmase con if + Past Perfect na condición e would have + participio no resultado. Neste caso a condición é imposíbel, pois refírese ao pasado e xa non pode realizarse.

You wouldn’t have fallen in love withher if you had known her intentions. (Non te terías namorado dela se

coñeceses as súas intencións.)

As variantes para formaren o terceiro condicional son could have e might have + participio na proposición principal.

If you hadn’t gone out last night, you could / might have finished the project. (Se non tiveses saído esta

noite, poderías ter rematado o proxecto.)

➡

As oracións temporais

As referidas ao futuro fórmanse como as do primeiro condicional:

Present Simple na proposición subordinada e futuro con will na

principal. O que cambian son as conxuncións, que neste caso son when, as soon as, as long as, by the time, etc.

I will phone you as soon as I arrive home.

(Chamareite tan axiña como chegue á casa.) as OraCiÓns desideratiVas

Form Uses examples

wish / if only

+ Past Simple Refers to a present situation that the speaker is unhappy about

He wishes his house were bigger.

(Oxalá a súa casa fose meirande.) If only I lived near the school. (Oxalá vivise preto da escola.) wish / if only

+ Past Perfect Expresses regret about a past action or situation

Pam wishes she and Tom hadn’t broken up.

(Pam desexaría que ela e Tom non tivesen roto.) If only Sarah had arrived earlier.

(Oxalá Sarah tivese chegado máis cedo.) wish / if only

+ could / would + base form Expresses a desire for something to happen in the future

I wish I could improve my marks.

(Oxalá poida mellorar as miñas cualificacións.) If only he would call me.

(Oxalá me chame / chamase!) As oracións desiderativas expresan un desexo e poden formarse

de dúas maneiras: co verbo wish ou coa expresión if only. O verbo wish adoita levar como obxecto directo unha oración subordinada introducida pola conxunción that (que adoita omitirse). Equivale ao hipotético “desexaría” ou “gustaría”, agás na 1ª persoa que se traduce por “oxalá”.

A expresión if only ten o mesmo significado: “Oxalá”, “Se polo / cando menos...”.

I wish / If only he had been here last night.

(Oxalá el tivese estado aquí a pasada noite.)

Tanto whish como if only poden empregarse con varios tempos verbais, como se ve no cadro:

●_{Co Past Simple referímonos a situacións presentes que} quixeramos mudar ou mellorar.

Rick wishes Mary had more patience.

(Rick desexaría que Mary tivese máis paciencia.) Se o verbo que vai en Past Simple é to be cómpre empregar were en todas as persoas, incluídas a 1ª e a 3ª (é un resto do subxuntivo).

I wish he weren’t angry with me.

(Oxalá el non estivese enfadado comigo.)

●_{Co Past Perfect referímonos a feitos pasados, lamentando o} que ocorreu.

I wish the exam hadn’t been so difficult.

(Oxalá que o exame non tivese sido tan difícil.)

● Con could ou would + un verbo na forma base expresamos os nosos desexos sobre situacións futuras, indicando que é pouco probábel que ocorran.

I wish / If only I could go to the party tomorrow.

(Oxalá puidese ir á festa mañá.)

Se o suxeito de wish e o do verbo na forma base son diferentes, empregamos would.

I wish Peter would stop behaving so badly.

(Oxalá Peter deixase de se portar tan mal.)

➡

Adxectivos seguidos de preposición

Algúns adxectivos adoitan ir seguidos dunha preposición + un substantivo, pronome ou xerundio.

Sophie is very fond of her grandmother.

(Sophie ten moito agarimo á súa avoa.) His parents were proud of him.

(Seus pais estaban orgullosos del.) I’m afraid of flying. (Dáme medo voar.)

Repara na listaxe de adxectivos con preposición que hai na páxina 29.

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as OraCiÓns de reLatiVO deFininG reLatiVe CLaUses

Uses examples

who and that refer to people There are many holidaymakers who / that prefer travelling in their own country. _{(Hai moitos veraneantes que prefiren viaxar no seu propio país.)} which and that refer to objects / things Dark tourism is a phenomenon which / that is attracting many people. _{(O turismo escuro é un fenómeno que está a atraer a moita xente.)}

when and that refer to a moment in time It was in 1986 when / that the Chernobyl disaster took place. _{(Foi en 1986 cando ocorreu o desastre de Chernobil.)} where refers to a particular place Many people visit places where tragedies have happened. _{(Moitas persoas visitan lugares onde ocorreron traxedias.)}

whose refers to possession Dr Barrett is a researcher whose study of dark tourism has just been completed. _{(O dr. Barrett é un investigador cuxo estudo sobre o turismo escuro vén de se rematar.)} nOn-deFininG reLatiVe CLaUses

Uses examples

who, which, when, where, whose can all be used, but that cannot be used

In the past some people, who were rich, used to visit battlefields.

(No pasado algunha xente, que era rica, adoitaba visitar campos de batalla.)

This site, where a disaster occurred, has become popular with tourists.

(Este lugar, onde ocorreu un desastre, fíxose popular polos turistas.)

Unit 5

Tourism

Son oracións subordinadas adxectivas introducidas por un pronome ou un adverbio relativo. Poden ser de dous tipos: definning (especificativas) e non-defining (explicativas). Defining Relative Clauses

As especificativas achegan información tan esencial sobre o seu antecedente que sen elas a frase ficaría incompleta.

● As máis comúns comezan cos pronomes who, which e that, que se poden omitir sempre e cando non sexan o suxeito da oración subordinada.

The man who lives next door is an actor.

(O home que vive ao lado é actor.)

Who refírese a persoas e which a cousas, pero that pode referirse a persoas e a cousas.

That is the girl (who / that)I met yesterday.

(Ela é a rapaza que coñecín onte.)

We went to see the film (which / that) you recommended.

(Fomos ver a película que recomendaches.)

● Whose xamais se pode omitir nin substituír por that. This is the painter whose pictures are in the museum.

(Este é o pintor cuxos cadros están no museo.)

The book whose author died last year has become a bestseller. (O libro cuxo autor morreu o ano pasado

converteuse nun éxito de vendas.)

● Whom emprégase logo das preposicións, pero adoita omitirse e pasar a preposición logo do verbo.

Mrs Smith is the person to whom you have to talk.

Mrs Smith is the person you have to talk to.

(A Sra. Smith é a persoa con quen tes que falar.) ● What só se emprega cando o antecedente está omitido. I forgot what I wanted to tell you.

(Esquecín o que quería dicirche.) Os adverbios relativos son when e where. ● When pódese omitir ou substituír por that.

I don’t remember the year when / that you were born.

(Non lembro o ano en que naciches.)

● Where non se pode substituír por that e nalgúns casos omítese.

That’s the room where I slept last time.

(Ese é o cuarto onde durmín a última vez.)

➡

Adxectivos compostos

Son dúas palabras unidas cun guión ou sen el e que modifican a un substantivo. Algunhas combinacións son:

● adxectivo ou número + substantivo + ed broken-hearted (esnaquizado/a, desconsolado/a) ●_{adxectivo, adverbio ou substantivo + verbo con ing} hard-working (traballador/a) ● adxectivo ou adverbio + participio well-known (coñecido/a, famoso/a) ● adxectivo + substantivo last-minute (de última hora) ● substantivo + adxectivo world-famous (de sona no mundo enteiro) ● substantivo + participio air-conditioned (con ar acondicionado) Bridges 2 Galician©B Burlington Books

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Os mOdais

modal Uses examples

can _Ability You can swim very well.

(Sabes nadar moi ben.)

Request Can you help me wash the car? _{(Podes axudarme a lavar o coche?)} Possibility I can lend you my car. _{(Podo prestarche o meu coche.)}

Suggestion You _{(Podes traer algo para a miña festa de aniversario.)}can bring something for my birthday party. be able to Ability Don’t worry. I will be able to find the street. _{(Non te preocupes. Serei quen de atopar a rúa.)}

can’t _Inability He is very nervous. He can’t sleep.

(Está moi nervioso. Non pode durmir.) Prohibition You can’t eat sweets before dinner. _{(Non podes comer caramelos antes da cea.)}

Disbelief That can’t be your father. He looks very young. _{(Ese non pode ser teu pai. Parece moi novo.)}

Unit 6

Celebrations

Non-defining Relative Clauses

As explicativas engaden información extra sobre o seu antecedente. Adoitan ir entre vírgulas. Fórmanse con who, which, when, where e whose mais nunca con that, e ademais non se pode omitir o relativo.

Mary, who is my neighbour, has got two cats.

(Mary, que é a miña veciña, ten dous gatos.) He sent me flowers, which was very nice of him.

(Envioume flores, o cal foi moi amábel pola súa parte.) Son moi formais, así que non se empregan no inglés falado. Estruturas formal e informal

Cando o relativo vai acompañado dunha preposición segue a empregarse which se o antecedente é unha cousa; mais se é unha persoa, no canto de who emprégase whom, este é un emprego moi formal. O máis común en ambos os dous casos é pór a preposición ao final da oración de relativo e omitir o pronome.

This is the hotel in which we stayed. [Formal]

This is the hotel (which)we stayed in. [Informal]

(Este é o hotel no que nos aloxamos.)

➡

too / enough

Too precede un adxectivo ou adverbio para indicar que a calidade destes é excesiva. Significa “de máis”, “demasiado”. These shoes are too small for me.

(Estes zapatos son pequenos de máis para min.)

Enough, en troques, vai logo do adxectivo ou adverbio e expresa a idea de “abondo / bastante”.

She is good enough for that job.

(Ela é boa abondo para ese traballo.)

Para expresarmos o contrario, só cómpre pór o verbo to be en negativa. De feito, not + adxectivo ou adverbio + enough adoita empregarse bastante máis que a afirmativa.

My coffee is not hot enough.

(O meu café non está quente abondo.)

Un caso desemellante é cando empregamos enough + un susbtantivo, pois daquela funciona como un determinante e ponse diante del.

I had enough reasons to be suspicious of him.

(Tiña motivos abondo para sospeitar del.)

➡

Adxectivos seguidos de infinitivo

Moitos adxectivos en posición predicativa van seguidos dun infinitivo para expresaren sentimentos, actitudes ou reaccións diante de algo.

I’m pleased to see you. (Estou encantada de verte.)

It’s not easy to understand. (Non é doado de

entender.)

➡

A comparación dos adxectivos:

as ... as

Para compararmos dúas persoas ou cousas e dicirmos que son iguais en algo emprégase o comparativo de igualdade: as ... as “tan ... como/a”, “igual de ... ca/que” e en negativa, not as ... as. He is as tall as his father. (É tan alto coma seu pai.)

My marks are notas high as yours. (As miñas

cualificacións non son tan boas como as túas.)

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could _{Past ability} My mother could dance when she was a child.

(Miña nai sabía bailar cando era unha nena.) Polite request Could you pass me that book, please? _{(Poderías pasarme ese libro, por favor?)} Polite suggestion We could visit him next week. _{(Poderiamos visitalo a vindeira semana.)} Possibility My sister could come to the party. _{(Miña irmá podería vir á festa.)} may / might Possibility It may / might be a sunny weekend. _{(Poida que sexa unha fin de semana soleada.)} may Polite request May I borrow your dictionary, please? _{(Podo coller emprestado o teu dicionario, por favor?)}

would _{Formal request} Would you come with me to the wedding?

(Virías comigo á voda?)

Offer Would you like some coffee? _{(Gustaríache tomar café?)}

must _{Obligation, strong necessity} She must wear a uniform at her school.

(Debe levar uniforme na súa escola.)

Certainty that something is true My cousin has broken his leg. It must hurt him very much. _{(O meu curmán rompeu a perna. Debeu de doerlle moito.)} have to Obligation, necessity You have to study hard if you want to get good marks. _{(Tes que estudar arreo se queres obter boas cualificacións.)} need to Obligation, necessity I need to buy some meat for dinner. _{(Teño que mercar carne para a cea.)}

needn’t Lack of obligation / necessity You needn’t take me home today. _{(Non cómpre que me leves á casa hoxe.)} don’t have to Lack of obligation / necessity We don’t have to attend the conference. _{(Non temos que asistir á conferencia.)} mustn’t Prohibition You mustn’t step on the grass. _{(Non deben pisar a herba.)}

should / ought to Advice, opinion She should / ought to tell them the truth. _{(Debería dicirlles a verdade.)}

➡

Os modais

Os modais son verbos especiais que teñen estas características: son invariábeis, isto é, iguais en todas as persoas; non precisan do para formaren a negativa nin a interrogativa; sempre van seguidos dun verbo na forma base; e non teñen infinitivo, participio nin futuro, formas en ing, nin tempos compostos.

Be able to e have to to son semimodais, pois poden

conxugarse, e need to non é un modal, mais os tres se incluíron no cadro pois comparten algúns usos dos modais: habelencia, obriga e necesidade.

can / be able to / can’t Can ten os seguintes usos:

● Expresar habelencia ou capacidade (“saber” / “poder”). ● Facer peticións, dar e pedir permiso.

● Indicar posibilidade.

● Tamén se emprega para facer suxestións.

Be able to expresa habelencia, como can, e emprégase en todos os tempos verbais que can non ten.

Can’t, ademais de significar imposibilidade no presente, emprégase para expresar:

● Falta de habelencia (non saber) ou de capacidade (non poder).

● Prohibición.

● Dedución negativa ou certeza de que algo é imposíbel. could

É o pasado de can e emprégase para expresar: ● Habelencia ou capacidade no pasado. ● Peticións máis educadas ca con can. ● Suxestións menos directas ca con can. ● Posibilidade máis remota ca con can. may / might

Os dous expresan posibilidade, aínda que máis remota con might. En interrogativa, may é unha maneira educada de pedir algo; os pedimentos que comezan por May I have poden se traducir por “Dásme?” ou “Dáme vostede?”.

would

En interrogativa é unha maneira normal de pedirlle a alguén que faga algo; co verbo like emprégase para facer ofrecementos ou invitacións.

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must / have to

Os dous expresan obriga, pero must só se emprega en presente e have to nos demais tempos. As persoas de autoridade empregan must, mentres que have to o emprega todo o mundo para dicir o que ten que facer.

Must tamén se emprega para expresar unha dedución lóxica sobre un feito presente (“deber de”, “ter que”).

need to / needn’t

Need to non é un modal, pero emprégase en afirmativa, o mesmo que have to, para expresar obriga e necesidade.

Os mOdais perFeCtOs

modal perfect Uses examples

must have Certainty that something was true It must have been very hard for her to hear the truth. _{(Debe ter sido moi duro para ela escoitar a verdade.)} may / might have A guess about a past action She may have forgotten about our meeting. _{(Poida que teña esquecido a nosa cita.)}

could have Ability to do something in the past which

in the end was not done I could have gone with him, but I decided to stay home. (Puiden ter ido con el, pero decidín ficar na casa.) couldn’t have Certainty that something did not happen

They were really in love with each other. She couldn’t have broken up with him.

(Realmente estaban namorados o un do outro. Ela non puido ter roto con el.)

would have Desire to do something in the past which _{in fact could not be done}

We would have travelled to the USA, but we didn’t have enough money. (Quixemos ter viaxado aos EUA,

pero non tiñamos cartos abondo.)

should / ought to have Criticism or regret after an event You should / ought to have told them we aren’t friends any more.

(Deberías terlles dito que xa non somos amigos.) shouldn’t have Criticism or regret after an event We shouldn’t have left before the concert ended. (Non deberiamos ter marchado antes de que o concerto

rematase.)

needn’t have An unnecessary past action I was going to make dinner. You needn’t have made

it. (Eu ía preparar a cea. Non precisabas facelo ti.) must have + participio

Expresa unha conclusión lóxica sobre un feito pasado. may / might have + participio

Emprégase para facer unha suposición sobre algo pasado. could have + participio

Sinala que se puido ter feito algo no pasado mais que finalmente non se fixo.

couldn’t have + participio Expresa a certeza de que algo non ocorreu. would have + participio

Sinala que se quixo ter feito algo no pasado mais que non se puido debido a factores ou causas externas.

should / ought to have + participio

Con ambos os dous podémonos laiar do que ocorreu e de que non acontecera o que queriamos.

Needn’t en troques, si é un modal e sinala ausencia de obriga e necesidade, o mesmo que don’t have to.

mustn’t / don’t have to

Mustn’t indica prohibición. En troques, don’t have to significa “non ter que” ou “non ter por que”, isto é, ausencia de obriga e necesidade, como needn’t.

should / ought to

Os dous expresan consello ou opinión, mais should emprégase moito máis (ought to é moi raro en negativa e interrogativa).

shouldn’t have + participio

Expresa unha opinión crítica arredor dun feito pasado, sinalando que non debería ter ocorrido.

needn’t have + participio

Sinala que non había necesidade de facer o que se fixo.

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Verbos seguidos de adxectivos

Moitos verbos van acompañados de adverbios de modo que describen a acción.

Paul mustn’t sing at the party. He sings badly.

(Paul non debe cantar na festa. Canta mal.) Porén, os verbos que se refiren a estados ou percepcións van seguidos de adxectivos. Neste caso o adxectivo describe ao suxeito da frase, non se refire á acción do verbo.

smell + good / bad (adx.) taste + salty (adx.) seem + tired (adx.) feel + emotional (adx.)

Jane’s perfume smells nice.

(O perfume de Jane ole ben.)

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Repara en que algúns verbos poden sinalar tanto accións como estados, e por iso poden ir seguidos dun adverbio e dun adxectivo. You have to look quickly at the questions.

(Tes que mirar rapidamente as preguntas.) She looks happy. (Semella leda.)

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should / had better

Xa viches que should se emprega para dicir o que cremos que se debería facer, dar un consello ou unha opinión. Pois had better (ou a contracción ’d better) é outra forma moi coloquial de expresar o mesmo.

Afirmativa: logo do suxeito poñemos had better + un verbo na forma base. Significa “É mellor que” + un verbo en presente de subxuntivo.

You had better (You’d better) see the doctor.

(É mellor que vexas o médico.)

Negativa: só precisa not, é dicir, had better + not + verbo na forma base.

You’d betternot go out in the rain. (É mellor que non saias coa choiva.)

Nota: Non se adoita empregar had better en interrogativa. Por outra parte, ten un uso distinto de should pois tamén se emprega para expresarmos unha advertencia, como avisando ao ouvinte de que algo malo ou desagradábel lle pode ocorrer se non fai o que lle dicimos. Daquela vén significar algo como “Será mellor que…”, “Máis vale que…”.

You’d bettertidy your room now!

(Será mellor que arranxes o teu cuarto xa!) You’d betternot take my car!

(Máis vale que non collas o meu coche!)