School of Education, Social Work &
School of Education, Social Work & Community
Community
Education
Education
Master of Education
Master of Education
Assignment Front Cover
Assignment Front Cover
Name
Name Hina HashmiHina Hashmi Module
Module Research Methods for ProfessionalResearch Methods for Professional Inquiry
Inquiry Matriculation Number
Matriculation Number 130021949130021949 ate of Submission
ate of Submission 33rdrd February 201 February 201
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$ntroduction%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% $ntroduction%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
'he (uantitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%) 'he (uantitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%)
'he (ualitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%* 'he (ualitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%*
Advantages of the (uantitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%+ Advantages of the (uantitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%+
isadvantages of the (uantitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%+ isadvantages of the (uantitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%+
"ost#ositivism%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%-
"ost#ositivism%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%-
Advantages of the (ualitative methAdvantages of the (ualitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%.od%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%.
isadvantages of the (uisadvantages of the (ualitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%.alitative method%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%.
/rounded 'heory%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%. /rounded 'heory%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%.
'he mi0ed methods a##roach%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%% 'he mi0ed methods a##roach%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%
Advantages of the mi0ed methAdvantages of the mi0ed methods a##roach%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%*ods a##roach%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%*
isadvantages of the mi0ed isadvantages of the mi0ed methods a##roach%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%*methods a##roach%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%*
Conclusion%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%1 Conclusion%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%1 2eferences%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%3 2eferences%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%3 Matriculation number8 130021949 Matriculation number8 130021949 22
$ntroduction
/he %ur%ose of this research %a%er is to %ro$ide a theoretical understandin* of three distinct research methods quantitati$e) qualitati$e and mied methods- In order to do this) #e must first ta&e time to try and define the three &ey terms that #ill be used to build our &no#led*e and understandin* of
these research methods and their associated %aradi*ms- /he ma:ority of academic research studies use the three interrelated %rinci%les of ontolo*y) e%istemolo*y and methodolo*y in order to construct a research method in relation to a s%ecific
%aradi*m-/here are myriad e%lanations of these %rinci%les #ithin social research as they are usually
de%endent on the %articular %aradi*m bein* %ursued by the researcher at the time- ;lai&ie<s +as cited in =ri) 2004) %- 9, defines ontolo*y as the study of
“claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other.”
/herefore) if somebody in$esti*ates the ontolo*ical contet of a %articular situation) they are actually tryin* to understand #hat #e are referrin* to #hen ac&no#led*in* the eistence of somethin*- n e%istemolo*ist ho#e$er) is concerned #ith tryin* to deci%her the meanin* behind &no#in* somethin*-For the %ur%oses of this research %a%er) I #ill use 7rotty<s +199>) %-3, definition of e%istemolo*y)
#hich is defined as
“the theory of knowledge embedded in the theoretical perspective and thereby in the methodology”
and can be %ara%hrased by as&in* oursel$es #hat constitutes $alid &no#led*e and ho# can #e *o about obtainin* it- ?ntolo*ical and e%istemolo*ical assum%tions are %ut to*ether to build the notion of a %aradi*m- /he term %aradi*m refers to an o$erall theoretical research frame#or& #hich is neatly defined by ;od*an @ ;i&len<s +as cited in Mac&enAie and Bni%e) 2001) %- 2, as
“a loose collection of logically related assumptions, concepts or propositions that orient thinking and research.”
/he necessity of outlinin* these terms in the contet of educational research is %aramount for the %osition I #ill be ado%tin* for this research %a%er- I belie$e that one<s $ie# of &no#led*e and social reality are intimately ent#ined #ithin the outcomes of any %iece of educational research- /his is because the researchers themsel$es tend to relate their o#n intents) ob:ecti$es and %hiloso%hical assum%tions #ith the research they carry
out-/herefore) it is $ital that the researcher has a clear understandin* of their o#n %hiloso%hical
under%innin*s #hen choosin* their research question or e$aluatin* a %re$ious %iece of
/his is because the #ay each indi$idual constructs their social realit y is unique as it is com%letely defnied by their o#n %ers%ecti$e or #orld$ie#- /herefore) the &no#led*e they build from this social construct #ill affect the method in #hich they relate %henomena and social
beha$iour-/he definition I #ill be usin* for methodolo*y for the %ur%oses of this research %a%er is from 7rotty +2003, p3, as
“the strategy, plan of action, process or design lying behind the choice and use of particular methods and linking the choice and use of the methods to the desired
outcomes.”
Methodolo*y is often confused #ith method but is in fact) a com%letely se%arate entity- It is a
considered research strate*y that outlines ho# research is to be conducted #hilst ta&in* ontolo*ical and e%istemolo*ical %rinci%les into account- +6aranta&os) 200 , #hereas the method is
“the techni!ues or procedures used to gather and collect data related to some research !uestion or hypothesisC- +7rotty) 2003,
p3,-/he %ur%ose of discussin* methodolo*y is to ensure the researcher can :ustify and then e$aluate the use of the %articular method he has ado%ted for the %iece of research bein* underta&en- +.ellin*ton)
2000 ,-Research methods in social science +includin* education, can be di$ided into t#o main t y%es
quantitati$e and qualitati$e- ;efore I continue to e%lain #hat this means) it is im%ortant to note that all definitions and e%lanations bein* *i$en are my inter%retation of the information currently a$ailable on these %articular sub:ects- 7ountless elucidations seem to eist that all ha$e a sli*htly different slant de%endin* on the researcher or the contet of the #ritin*- /herefore I ha$e tried to distil the etensi$e research in these areas do#n to their core $alues and use those as the basis of my research %a%er- /he definitions that follo# are) in my o%inion) a *ood summary of the $arious
e%lanations a$ailable but #ith the understandin* that alternati$e theories or uses of the &ey terms do
eist-/he relati$e merits of quantitati$e $ersus qualitati$e research methods ha$e been ar*ued etensi$ely in the academic #orld +=ri) 200" Mac&enAie and Bni%e) 200# Dohnson and 7hristensen) 200$ Mertens) 200% 7res#ell) 20&3, so before I continue #ith my assessment of the stren*ths and limitations of qualitati$e research methods it is im%ortant to em%hasise that the t#o o%%osin*
%aradi*ms that under%in these methods are %olar o%%osites- Euantitati$e research methods aim to in$esti*ate the breadth of a question #hereas qualitati$e methods are more useful #hen loo&in* at a question in de%th- /herefore) it is im%ortant to remember that a com%etent researcher #ill %ic& the most a%%ro%riate method based on the nature of the study e$en ta&in* human bias into
/his main body of this research %a%er #ill be structured into four distinct sections- /he first t#o sections #ill discuss the definition) ontolo*y) e%istemolo*y and methodolo*y of quantitati$e and qualitati$e research methods- /he ad$anta*es and disad$anta*es of these t#o distinct research methods #ithin the contet of education #ill be discussed in the third section su%%orted throu*h literature that has been #ritten #ithin an educational contet- /he fourth section of the research %a%er #ill deal #ith the mied methods a%%roach- I #ill a*ain attem%t to define this a%%roach by discussin* the ontolo*y) e%istemolo*y and methodolo*y associated #ith it- I #ill also discuss the ad$anta*es and disad$anta*es of this method s%ecifically #ithin the contet of educational research-/he research %a%er #ill end #ith a conclusion that #ill attem%t to establish #hich methods could %otentially be more effecti$e #ithin the frame#or& of educational
research-'he (uantitative method
Euantitati$e research methods are usually based on em%iricism) collectin* data and then usin* statistics in order to ans#er a carefully formulated hy%othesis usually based on obser$ation of the natural #orld- /he definition I #ill be dra#in* on for this research %a%er for quantitati$e research is from lia*a and =underson +2000, p&3,
“'xplaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analysed using mathematically based methods”.
Euantitati$e research methods are normally associated #ith a %ositi$ist research %aradi*m- /he %ositi$ist %aradi*m is centred on usin* a systematic and scientific a%%roach to research and is based on the conce%t that the #orld is constructed around unchan*in*) uni$ersal la#s- Hu*hes +200&, e%lains that by in$esti*atin* and understandin* these ob:ecti$e) uni$ersal la#s #e can understand the %rinci%les that ha$e led to a s%ecific situation or beha$iour occurrin*- In order to truly understand the %rinci%les that under%in quantitati$e research methods) #e need to e%lore the ontolo*y)
e%istemolo*y and methodolo*y that define a %ositi$ist
a%%roach-/he ontolo*y associated #ith quantitati$e research is usually labelled as ob:ecti$ism- ?b:ecti$ism is characterised by the researcher<s belief that reality is inde%endent of our beha$iour and is not a %roduct of social construction +euman) 2003,- Positi$ist researchers belie$e that reality is sim%ly #aitin* to be disco$ered and defined throu*h con$entional scientific methods- +;assey) &%% ,- It is based on the assum%tions that the #ay #e cate*orise the social %henomena that #e use to define our eistence is com%letely inde%endent from the indi$idual %eo%le that are eistin* #ithin
it-?b:ecti$ists belie$e that there is no difference bet#een the social #orld and the natural #orld and as a result) e$eryone is %rone to be affected by it- /herefore) it is im%ortant to research the nature of the relationshi% amon*st the %rinci%les that form the basic elements of our social and natural #orld- s
the %rinci%les bein* in$esti*ated are concrete and unchan*in*) numbers can be used to measure and quantify the relationshi% bet#een them #ith the ultimate aim of determinin* the most li&ely reality in the most ob:ecti$e manner %ossible +a$id and 6uton) 200"(.
s stated by Dohnson +&%$) ) %- !2> cited in a$is et al-&%%3,
“the classical ob*ectivist view of knowledge assumes +science produces successive theories that progress ever and ever closer to the correct description of reality. -nd, even though we will never achieve the final, complete account, it is believed that genuine empirical knowledge involves universal logical structures of inferences in which results can be tested against theoryneutral +ob*ective data.”
m%iricism is e%istemolo*y deri$ed from the ontolo*ical assum%tion that reality eists inde%endently of our &no#led*e or understandin* of it- m%iricists belie$e that em%irical facts eist a%art from our efforts to study them- /hese em%irical facts can be translated into numbers #hich are *o$erned by natural la#s- /hey also ta&e the stance that %atterns of social reality are fied and &no#led*e of them is constantly bein* increased linearly +MarcyA& et al -) 200 ,- .ithin an em%iricist e%istemolo*y) social science is seen as a method that combines deducti$e lo*ic #ith em%irical data collection- /he resultin* statistical analysis of this data is then used to confirm %robabilistic causal la#s are used to %redict trends in human beha$iour +euman) 2003(- Researchers that #or& #ithin the %ositi$ist
%aradi*m are attem%tin* to use scientific %rinci%les to de$elo% the closest a%%roimation of the nature of our reality as ob:ecti$ely as %ossible +Glin et al.) 200",
n ob:ecti$e and detached research methodolo*y is normally associated #ith a %ositi$ist %aradi*m under%inned by ob:ecti$ist ontolo*y and em%irical e%istemolo*y- 7ausal e%lanations are *enerated throu*h re%etiti$e testin* of hy%othesis lin&ed to measurable $ariables +6aranta&os) 200 MarcAy& et al )200,- ccordin* to Dohnson and 7hristensen +200$() there are t#o distinct a%%roaches that can be ta&en #ithin an ob:ecti$e research
methodolo*y-/he first a%%roach is described as an e%loratory a%%roach and be*ins #ith a researcher searchin* for a %attern #ithin the collected data and then attem%tin* to e%lain this %attern by %ro%osin* a theory +also &no#n as the inducti$e method,- /he second a%%roach is more of a confirmatory a%%roach and is based around the %rinci%les of the scientific method- Here) the researcher is
attem%tin* to test a hy%othesis based on a theory- If the data collected su%%orts the hy%othesis then it also su%%orts and %ro$ides e$idence for the underlyin* theory- /he su%%ort is sho#n in the form of statistical si*nificance calculated throu*h $arious tests +Mu&her:i and lbon) 20&0(- Ho#e$er) it is im%ortant to note that in both a%%roaches) the %ractice is $ery structured #ith all as%ects of the
in$esti*ation %lanned in ad$ance #ith little fleibility or freedom #ithin the research frame#or& itself-/his is a &ey feature of quantitati$e methodolo*y- +Bumar) 20&&,
'he (ualitative method
Eualitati$e research methods ta&e a different a%%roach to in$esti*atin* the reality around us #hich contrasts the quantitati$e methods discussed earlier- Eualitati$e research methods are based around the idea that by eaminin* the social settin* and the indi$iduals that inhabit the settin*) a researcher can better understand #hy %eo%le or*anise) relate to and interact #ith the
#orld-Eualitati$e research is a tool for tryin* to understand the hows and whys of the #orld #ithout tryin* to quantify them- /he data collected #hen underta&in* this ty%e of research cannot be cate*orised and attributed to a %reeistin* %rinci%le that is understood to be %art of the natural order of
thin*s-Instead) the data can be used to try and deri$e meanin* from a $ery s%ecific social contet- /he definition I #ill be usin* for the %ur%oses of this research %a%er is from enAin and incoln
+200 ,-“/ualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. t
consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible1..4his means that !ualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.”5p3(
/he research %aradi*m that *o$erns qualitati$e research methods can be considered an inter%reti$ist %aradi*m- /his seems to be an umbrella term that also has stri&in* similarities to constructi$ism and a simile for anti%ositi$ism- Inter%reti$ism is underlined by the idea that the researcher is tryin* to ma&e meanin* of the natural #orld throu*h studyin* and e%lainin* human beha$iour and actions-7ohen et al- +2002 , ad$ocates the use of inter%reti$ism by usin* the idea that indi$iduals are unique and cannot therefore be *eneralised- Many inter%retations of a sin*le e$ent can eist as a
consequence of analysin* data collected throu*h the %ers%ecti$es of multi%le %artici%ants as #ell as the
researcher-Inter%reti$ists #ill esche# fied research frame#or&s that are t y%ically found in %ositi$ist research in fa$our of a more fleible structure- /his is because the lac& of ri*idity in the methods of data
collection ma&es it easier to ca%ture meanin*s found in human interactions +;lac&) 200#(- /his ensures that the researcher is also able to assimilate ne# &no#led*e throu*hout the study and
de$elo% it in tandem #ith the %artici%ants of the study- /his a%%roach) unli&e the %ositi$ist a%%roach) %laces em%hasis on the researcher bein* %art of the research %rocess alon*side the %artici%ants and stems from the inter%reti$ist belief that no one can %redict &no#led*e that is bound by the contet of social reality +Merriam)
Inter%reti$ism is usually associated #ith relati$ist ontolo*y- /his ontolo*ical a%%roach assumes that %eo%le construct their o#n reality throu*h the meanin*s and understandin*s de$elo%ed socially and throu*h %ersonal e%erience- s stated by Hu*ley and 6a y#ard +&%$) ,
4here is no ob*ective truth to be known.5 %"> (”
Ho#e$er) this %ers%ecti$e %ro%oses that multi%le meanin*s may be deri$ed from a sin*le timebased contet thereby continually holdin* the %ercei$ed notion of reality in a state of flu throu*hout the study- +Mutch) 200(. It is im%ortant to reco*niAe that a &ey feature of a relati$ist ontolo*ical
a%%roach is to understand the reasons #hy %eo%le beha$e a certain #ay #ithin their social systems as o%%osed to try and e%lain #hy they do so +7ohen et al, 200) ,- Inter%reti$ism therefore is tas&ed #ith e%lainin* hidden social constructs by brin*in* them into the
forefront-;y ha$in* a clearer understandin* of the ontolo*y that dri$es the qualitati$e a%%roach) #e can better understand the e%istemolo*ical $ie# ta&en by researchers- Researchers ado%tin* a qualitati$e
a%%roach tend to demonstrate a transactional or sub:ecti$ist e%istemolo*y- /his %ers%ecti$e is underlined by the acce%tance of multi%le realities that are symbolically constructed and *i$en
meanin* throu*h a relationshi% bet#een the obser$er and the contet under obser$ation- /herefore) a sub:ecti$ist researcher %roduces &no#led*e throu*h obser$ation- 7onsequently) the theory
*enerated is s%ecific situationally and historically to the social contet bein* in$esti*ated +Brauss) 200 ,- /his is summarised by 7harmaA +2014, as
“placing priority on the phenomena of study and seeing both data and analysis created from shared experiences and relationships with participants and other sources 5p2"0(”
/he methodolo*y ado%ted for qualitati$e research is distinct from that that of quantitati$e as it is attached to a sub:ecti$ist e%istemolo*y and inter%reti$ist ontolo*y- /his means that the researcher mediates the meanin* of %artici%ant e%eriences throu*h his o#n %erce%tions- +Merriam) &%$$ , s the techniques required are defined by the inquirers and the %artici%ants) the researcher must ensure they *et as close as %ossible to the %artici%ants bein* studied- Researchers #ill immerse themsel$es in a social *rou%in* in order to obser$e the interactions as closely as %ossible- Researchers #ill
usually become %art of the obser$ations as they %artici%ate in the acti$ities) inter$ie# members of the *rou% to collect life histories) use smaller scale case studies and analyse any documentation or
cultural artefacts associated #ith the *rou%- /hey #ill then assimilate this information in order to construct an understandin* of their obser$ations +=ri)
200",-ichelber*er +19>9, in Mertens +2009, describes the methodolo*y used by a qualitati$e researcher as follo#s8
“4hese researchers are much clearer about the fact that they are constructing the “reality” on the basis of the interpretations of data with the help of the participants who
provided the data in the study 4hey do a great deal of observation, read documents produced by members of the groups being studied, do extensive formal and informal
interviewing, and develop classifications and descriptions that represent the beliefs of the various groups. 5p. %(”
Advantages of the (uantitative method
/here are many ad$anta*es for a researcher to elect a fully quantitati$e a%%roach) es%ecially #ithin the s%here of education- ;y bein* deducti$e and %articularistic) quantitati$e research is built around in$esti*atin* distinct $ariables that could %otentially cause chan*e in a situation- s this method
deals #ith formulatin* a research hy%othesis and then su%%ortin* or r e:ectin* it usin* a s%ecific set of numerical $alues) the method is $aluefree- /his means that there is no o%%ortunity for the
researcher to a%%ly his o#n $alues) biases and sub:ecti$e %references- +Fran&fortachmias and achmias)
200$ ,-/he quantitati$e method has many %articular stren*ths #hich is #hy it #as the mainstay of
educational research for a lon* time +=ood#in and =ood#in) &%%#(. Firstly) it is %ossible to collect data that can assist in refinin* current theory and understandin* of a question- /his is because the methods and %rocedures used to collect and analyse the data are not only hi*hly controlled but also standardised- /his effect is au*mented by the fact that the $ariables that bein* defined) collected and sub:ected to statistical analysis are also themsel$es)
quantifiable-Findin*s from the %artici%ants in a study utiliAin* a #holly quantitati$e a%%roach can be a%%lied to a #ider %o%ulation- /his is because of the ri*id control of $ariables required necessary for this method +Robson) 20&&,- nother benefit of the quantitati$e a%%roach is that it is easily re%licable and
re%eatable- ;y %lacin* em%hasis on a $ery strict a%%lication of the scientific method) the findin*s are usually considered to be $alid by the lar*er research community- In education) this is im%ortant as it allo#s lar*e cohort studies of %u%ils #hen %ossible +Mu&her:i and llon)
20&0 ,-isadvantages of the (uantitative method
Ho#e$er) it is im%ortant to note that educational research in *eneral has been mo$in* a#ay from a #holly quantitati$e a%%roach in fa$our of a more qualitati$e or mied methods a%%roach- /his is reinforced by =orar et al. +200) , in a $ery thorou*h study that hi*hli*hted the ma:ority of research ta&in* %lace in education- /he Gnited Bin*dom sho#ed not only a decrease in quantitati$e studies as a #hole but also an increase in %oor quality qualitati$e research- It is interestin* to note that one of the main concerns is a lac& of hi*her education %rofessionals that are #ell $ersed #ith the
quantitati$e method of research and ha$e the ability to effecti$ely teach
It is clear that disad$anta*es to the quantitati$e method of research not only eist but also remain a continual concern for researchers- /here is a concern that the information %roduced #ill only be useful at a $ery su%erficial le$el due to the nature of data bein* collected from a hi*hly scientific method- scientific) em%irical a%%roach demands that the researcher remain distanced from the study- He cannot be sub:ecti$e and instead must al#ays stri$e to remain ob:ecti$e- Ho#e$er) this is difficult #hen researchin* human beha$iours in a real life contet as
one does not find out about other indi$iduals by remainin* distantC +Mu&her:i) P- and lbon) - 20&0, p2&(
For eam%le) if a researcher is underta&in* a study loo&in* into #hy children turn in home#or&) then the data is limited to a set of res%onses that ha$e already been determined by the researcher- It #ill not ta&e the com%leity of the child<s situation e-*- their home life) into account as these may not be $ariables that can be quantified- If the %u%ils #ere bein* in$esti*ated under laboratory conditions) this artificial settin* #ould ne*ate any normal beha$iour as a laboratory is $ery different from their naturalistic settin*- 7onsequently) a &ey criticism of quantitati$e beha$iour is that its %arameters are $ery narro# and the data collected #ill not lend itself to the researcher *ainin* a fuller and more de%th understandin* of the issue bein*
in$esti*ated- s stated %re$iously) quantitati$e research requires the researcher to remain ob:ecti$e- Ho#e$er) #hen dealin* #ith human beha$iours in social contets) this can become almost im%ossible- s ar*ued by inter%reti$ists) the researcher<s $ery %resence can influence and chan*e the beha$iour of the %artici%ants #hich is described as the Ha#thorne ffect- /he Ha#thorne ffect states that
indi$iduals #ill modify some as%ect of their beha$iour if they &no# they are bein* obser$ed
+7hristensen and Dames) 200$(- /his effect is further com%ounded by the fact that some scientific research entails %lacin* the researcher in a %osition of dominance abo$e the %artici%ants thereby *i$in* himself additional %o#er o$er them- 7oolican +20&3( states that as a result) %artici%ant beha$iour is more li&ely to mirror researcher beha$iour thereby influencin* any data collected-It is clear that the quantitati$e a%%roach is useful due to the ri*id frame#or&s %ut in %lace to collect and analyse the data) #hich ensures the results remains ob:ecti$e) fair and *eneraliAable- Ho#e$er) by a%%lyin* natural #orld research %rinci%les to the social #orld it is difficult for the researcher to remain detached from the %artici%ants- /he %urely quantitati$e a%%roach also i*nores the intricate com%leities of human interactions #hich are essential for fully understandin*
beha$iour-"ost#ositivism
res%onse to these limitations of %ositi$ism that under%in quantitati$e research has been the rise of %ost %ositi$ism- Post%ositi$ism can be described as a form of %ositi$ism that uses a scientific method but also reco*niAes the need for the researcher to interact more closely #ith the research %artici%ants
+.illis ) 200)(- It uses additional qualitati$e methods of data collection such as inter$ie#s and focus *rou%s in an effort to %roduce substantiated &no#led*e that can be used to su%%ort %otential
correlations #ithin %redefined $ariables- Post%ositi$ism is a %aradi*m that em%loys a modified
scientific method for use in social sciences) the results of #hich may be used to u%hold natural
la#s-/he %ost%ositi$ist %aradi*m has been constructed and %ro%osed as a critical res%onse to %ositi$ism in an attem%t to address some of the shortcomin*s of the latter- Post%ositi$ism reco*niAes that researchers need to carry out their research in the same #orld that the %artici%ants inhabit- /his a%%roach reco*nises the im%ortance of contet to studyin* human beha$iour- /his %aradi*m also reco*niAes that the researcher #ill ultimately influence the study therefore he should in*rain himself into the material of the study from the be*innin* +enAin and incoln)
20&&(- nother feature of research carried out #ithin this %aradi*m is that scientific reasonin* and common sense are not seen to be distinctly different- /hey are essentially t#o sides of the same
coin-Post%ositi$ism also reco*niAes the need for all theory to be re$isable- /his is due to the inherent error caused by usin* humans to obser$e other humans #hen humans themsel$es) are com%licated and fallible +7res#ell) 20&3(
Advantages of the (ualitative method
Eualitati$e research methods seem to be more %o%ular #ith educational researchers +=odard et al., 200"( due to the fact that they are more fleible and consider the human factor- /his is im%ortant #hen tryin* to determine the holistic nature of the educational %henomena under in$esti*ation-Indeed) qualitati$e methods ha$e an ad$anta*e o$er quantitati$e in this re*ard as it allo#s the researcher to *ain a more realistic #orld$ie# #hich cannot be adequately articulated throu*h numerical data and statistical analysis +(auch and 6teudal)
2003,- qualitati$e researcher doesn<t need a ri*idly structured frame#or&- s qualitati$e a%%roaches are usually used to in$esti*ate social interactions in an effort to describe them) the inquiry can be broad and o%enended- /his) in turn) allo#s the researcher more fleibility to react to issues raised by %artici%ants and can subsequently in$esti*ate them further- 7onsequently) researchers can then un%ac& different %ers%ecti$es of a s%ecific social contet from #ithin one di$erse community- /his allo#s a *reater yield of more subtly nuanced data than :ust a collection of ordinal $ariables due to the descri%ti$e nature of the data bein* collected- +7hoy) 20&",
isadvantages of the (ualitative method
/he main concern is that the data collected is not ob:ecti$ely quantifiable and therefore cannot be used to address correlation and causation bet#een different obser$ed natural %henomena- /he
methods of data collection and analysis associated #ith qualitati$e methods tend to be $ery labour intensi$e and e%ensi$e as they are so time consumin*- /hey require a hi*h de*ree of com%etence from the researcher in order to isolate the im%ortant information from the lar*e $olume that #ill be ine$itably collected +Patton)
2002 ,-ue to the o%enended nature of this ty%e of research) it is easy to de%art from the ori*inal ob:ecti$es of the study- /he nature of the data collected #ill also de%end *reatly on the %artici%ants #ho may choose not to %artici%ate fully and control #hat information they share- In turn) this data #ill be further influenced by the researchers o#n %articular #orld$ie# and o%inions- /his o$erall
combination of factors #ill result in data that lac&s consistency and reliability +Mutch) 200(. It is therefore easy for researchers to arri$e at different conclusions based on indi$idualiAed
inter%retations of the same data- ny conclusions that are reached #ill be $ery s%ecific to the
%articular community and social contet bein* researched- It cannot be a%%lied as a
*eneraliAation-/he abundance of qualitati$e research in education is tem%ered by the quality of the research a$ailable- re%ort %ublished by /ooley and arby +199>, states ho# educational research is
cluttered #ith %oorly eecuted) secondJrate qualitati$e research- reason for this could be because ne# researchers are encoura*ed to#ards qualitati$e methods as they are *i$en a false im%ression of it bein* less ri*orous than quantitati$e methods- It could also stem from a lac& of robust teachin* of quantitati$e methods in hi*her education as mentioned before) meanin* that researchers #ill %refer to continue #ith a method they are familiar #ith re*ardless of its rele$ancy +=orard et al,
200"(-/rounded theory
=rounded theory #as first %ro%osed by =laser and 6truass in 19!" +=laser and 6trauss) 20&2( as a method of *eneratin* a theory of #hy a %articular social %henomenon occurs- .hat is interestin* about *rounded theory is the quantitati$e as%ects of the methods used for analysin* qualitati$e data-7res#ell 5200%( defines *rounded theory as)
- !ualitative strategy of in!uiry in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of process, action or interaction grounded in the views of participants in a study.” 5p&3(
/he %rocess of constructin* a *rounded theory uses multi%le sta*es of data collection and then interrelatin* the different cate*ories to disco$er %atterns and trends #hich could then be used in order to %roduce a theory +7harmaA) 20&"(.
=rounded theory seems to be a method for addressin* some of the limitations offered by %urely qualitati$e methodolo*y- /he em%hasis here is to com%are the data collected from the social situation under in$esti*ation and com%are it #ith no %reconcei$ed ideas or hy%otheses- Instead)
throu*h constant com%arison of the data bein* collected) a theory that is grounded in the data) so to s%ea& #ill emer*e inducti$ely +7heesebro and ;orisoff , 200)(- /his eliminates the issue of the
research strayin* from its ori*inal ob:ecti$es #hich is an difficulty #hen carryin* out o%enended qualitati$e research- lso) by ha$in* no %reconcei$ed idea of the ty%e of data to e%ect from %artici%ants) the %rocess of analysis is more
*enuine-=rounded theory uses a $ery systematic a%%roach #hich is more con$ersant #ith a quantitati$e frame#or& in order to ma&e sense of the lar*e $olume of data *enerated from a qualitati$e re%ort- It is im%ortant to remember ho#e$er) as Holton +200%( states,
“4his is not to suggest that classic grounded theory is free of any theoretical lens but rather that it should not be confined to any one lens6 that as a general methodology, classic grounded theory can adopt any epistemological perspective appropriate to the data and the ontological stance of the researcher”5p3%(
=rounded theory has %ro*ressed quic&ly since it #as first theoriAed in 19!"- 7harmaA +2003, offered an u%dated $ersion of *rounded theory as constructi$ist *rounded theory #hich
“takes a middle ground between postmodernism and positivism, and offers accessible methods for taking !ualitative research into the 2&st century” 5p. 20(
/his re#or&ed %ers%ecti$e ta&es into account some of the stren*ths of quantitati$e research a%%roaches and tries to imbue them into a decidedly qualitati$e one in an effort to im%ro$e
it-'he mi0ed methods a##roach
Mied methods research is a solution for counterin* the limitations of #holly quantitati$e or qualitati$e research described in the %re$ious section- /here has a been a shift to#ards mied method research in the last in t#enty fi$e years +;ryman) 200)( in most of the social sciences althou*h it seems that education still needs to %ro*ress at the same rate +=orard and /aylor) 200"(- /he mied methods a%%roach can be defined as8
“7ixed methods is the type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of !ualitative and !uantitative research approaches 5e.g. use of
!ualitative and !uantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techni!ues( for the purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration” 58ohnson et al, 200) p&23(
s before) in order to *ain a dee%er understandin* of the mied methods a%%roach) I #ill try and determine the %hiloso%hy that under%ins it- Ho#e$er) this is an area frau*ht #ith difficulties as the mied methods a%%roach has only been seen as a third m ethodolo*ical alternati$e fairly recently +/asha&&ori and /eddlie) 2003) /eddlie and /asha&&ori) 200%, and ta&in* into account the combined
nature of mied methods) it is difficult to absolutely define the %hiloso%hical under%innin*s that su%%ort this research
method-/he ma:ority of mied method #riters ha$e %ut for#ard the case for %ra*matism as the main
%hiloso%hy to under%in this %articular research a%%roach +Rescher) 2000 May) 20036 Dohnson et al, 200)6 /eddlie and /asha&&ori, 200%(- &ey feature of %ra*matist ontolo*y is the understandin* that the #orld is chan*ed throu*h the beha$iour and actions of human bein*s- /herefore) to ma&e sure that the desired chan*es occur) the action must come from a %lace of &no#led*e and be *uided by %ur%ose- For that reason) there must be an inse%arable lin& bet#een #hat a human &no#s and #hat a human does- 7o*nition for conce%tual de$elo%ment are the &eys to e%lainin* ho# #e ma&e
meanin* in life throu*h our actions based on the consequences of belief in a s%ecific conce%t +Rallis and Rossman)
2003(-It may be clearer if #e eamine the e%istemolo*y that dictates the %ra*matic %aradi*m- /he
e%istemolo*y that dictates the %ra*matic %aradi*m %uts for#ard the conce%t of &no#led*e as models-/hese models attem%t to recreate an en$ironment or social contet in order to sim%lify %roblem
sol$in*- /he assum%tion here is that models #ill al#ays be too sim%listic to ca%ture all the
information required from the contet) as there are too many $ariables- /herefore) it is im%erati$e to acce%t the eistence of different models for the same question +e$en thou*h they may seem
contradictory, as lon* as they are ca%able of %roducin* correct %redictions #hen tested +FeilAer)
20&0(-.e can therefore distin*uish %ra*matism from quantitati$e a%%roaches based on %ositi$ism or %ost %ositi$ism or qualitati$e a%%roaches based on inter%reti$ism as the assum%tions required for the &no#led*e and understandin* are si*nificantly different +Dohnson and ?n#ue*buAie) 200" Macy) 2003- /his is because %ra*matism) if #e re*ard it as a third alternati$e %aradi*m) %hiloso%hically acce%ts that both sin*ular and multi%le realities are o%en to em%irical enquiry #hich sidelines any contentious issues that a researcher mi*ht hold a*ainst the nature of truth or reality +7res#ell @ Plano 7lar&)
200) ,-/he most endurin* feature of %ra*matism is that it com%letely re:ects the realism5antirealism debates that fuelled the %aradi*m #ars of the 19>0s bet#een %ositi$ists and inter%reti$ists- Pra*matists
acce%t the notion of reality but belie$e it is constantly e$ol$in* as a result of our actions- %ra*matic a%%roach is more concerned #ith ensurin* that the best combination of a%%roaches is used to tac&le the research question bein* %osed thereby *i$in* the researcher freedom to use an y %rocedures or techniques ty%ically associated #ith a certain ty%e of research
bonus of this a%%roach is that one can select the model that has *reatest success of sol$in* a
%articular %roblem *i$en the social and en$ironmental contets at that moment- shortcomin* of this e%istemolo*ical $ie# is that no clear e%lanation for the eistence of the models and the &no#led*e associated #ith them is %ro$ided- It is usually assumed that the models are built from a miture of em%irical data and %re$iously %ro%osed models #ith a certain amount of intuition also %layin* a %art-/he model is continuously tested usin* trial and error to ensure that it %ro$ides realistic %redictions +FeilAer)
20&0(-/he methodolo*y associated #ith %ra*matism %oses some issues for researchers- /his is due to the nature of the %henomena bein* multilayered #hich ma&es it difficult to ascertain the best tools and techniques for measurin* them- It is clear that many researchers stru**le #ith truly inte*ratin* quantitati$e and qualitati$e a%%roaches in order to $ie# a %henomenon from different %ers%ecti$es-+7res#ell and /asha&&ori) 200) ,- /he &ey criticism that is *i$en to mied methods research
methodolo*y is that any data collected is done so side by side #ith the analysis ta&in* %lace se%arately #hich defeats the %ur%ose of inte*ratin* the t#o a%%roaches +;ryman) 200)(.
;oth qualitati$e and quantitati$e methods ha$e a %lace #ithin the %ra*matic %aradi*m- /he methods utilised should be decided solely on the basis of the research that is required as o%%osed to the
researchers %ersonal %references +Patton) 2002(. Mor*an +200", describes ho# the research
question itself is not necessarily the most im%ortant %art of the methodolo*y- /herefore) the methods chosen as %art of the methodolo*y are not automatically correct- Rather) it is a choice based on the contet of the research ta&in* %lace #ith the fleibility for chance as
required- common method of inte*ratin* both quantitati$e and qualitati$e methods is to use trian*ulation-/rian*ulation is one of the rationales for a mied methods a%%roach and com%rises of usin* se$eral methods to a%%roach in$esti*ation of a s%ecific research question +7res#ell) 2003(- /he definition of trian*ulation could be the act of combinin* t#o or more a%%ro%riate research %ers%ecti$es #ith their associated methods in order to *ain breadth and de%th of understandin* of the research %henomena +Flic&) 2002(. /he conce%t behind trian*ulation is that by a%%roachin* the question from se$eral directions) a researcher can enhance the confidence in his findin*s as he remo$es the limitations associated #ith usin* only one method +;ryman) 200"(.
Advantages of the mi0ed methods a##roach
?ne of the ma:or benefits of the mied methods a%%roach is that it is able to offset the limitations of both the quantitati$e and qualitati$e a%%roaches- Euantitati$e research does not demand the
inclusion of %artici%ant or researcher $oice- /herefore the contet of the research is usually
o$erloo&ed #hen collectin* data- Furthermore) as the researcher is not an acti$e %art of the data collection) their o#n %ersonal o%inions and biases can affect not only the data collection but the analysis as #ell- ?n the other hand) qualitati$e research ma&es u% for these #ea&nesses but alternati$ely) carries its o#n inherent
limitations-Eualitati$e a%%roaches based solely on the %ersonal inter%retations of the researcher ensures that any data #ill be fundamentally biased- Gnli&e quantitati$e a%%roaches) #hich usually in$ol$e lar*e sam%les of the %o%ulation) qualitati$e research al#ays has a limited number of %artici%ants bein* studied- /his means that qualitati$e findin*s #ill al#ays be time and contet s%ecific and cannot be a%%lied to a #ider community or *eneralised +?n#ue*buAie et al, 200%(. ;earin* these factors in mind) it is easy to see the relati$e merits of a mied methods a%%roach #hich doubles the
ad$anta*es for the researcher #hilst simultaneously di$idin* the limitations throu*h trian*ulation of
a%%roaches-Gsin* mied methods) numerical data can be au*mented #ith #ords) %ictures and numbers +and $ice $ersa,- /he researcher is able to ans#er a #ider and more com%le ran*e of research questions because he isn<t limited to one a%%roach- dditionally) a researcher can %ro$ide stron*er and more enhanced e$idence for a conclusion throu*h usin* trian*ulation to stren*then the corroborations of his findin*s- Mied methods encoura*es researchers to collaborate across the schisms that eist #ithin the #orlds of quantitati$e and qualitati$e r esearch thereby o%enin* u% a%%roaches to
collaboration and enquiry- Finally) mied methods research encoura*es the a%%lication of a
%ra*matic %aradi*m or a combination of %ositi$ist and inter%reti$ist %aradi*ms thereby remo$in* any ty%ified associations #ith one ty%e of #orld$ie# +7res#ell)
200)(-isadvantages of the mi0ed methods a##roach
/here are multi%le reasons #hy mied methods research isn<t as common as it could be) es%ecially in the s%here of educational research- /he ma:ority of educational research seems to be qualitati$e- In fact) a study of the submissions of one educational :ournal sho#ed that the qualitati$e %ieces #ere at a ratio of t#o to one #hen com%ared #ith the number of quantitati$e studies that had been submitted for %ublication +/aylor) 200&,- /he main issue seems to be that in order to use this method
successfully) a researcher has to be hi*hly s&illed in both quantitati$e and qualitati$e methods-Ho#e$er) studies seem to sho# that there is a lar*e imbalance #ithin the ne# researchers enterin* the field #ith the 7ommission on the 6ocial 6ciences +2003, describin*)
“a deeply worrying lack of !uantitative skills” +%- >,
nother im%ortant limitation of the mied methods a%%roach to ta&e into consideration is the lac& of consistency definin* the %aradi*ms #ith the related e%istemolo*y and methodolo*y #ithin the
research community- lthou*h most researchers are ha%%y to ado%t some of the %ra*matic
%aradi*m) there still isn<t consensus on the s%ecific e%istemolo*y or methodolo*y that under%ins this %articular a%%roach- /his also means that some of the %ractical details still need to be #or&ed out by the methodolo*ists s%ecialisin* in this area For eam%le) ho# can quantitati$e data be qualitati$ely analysed' .hat measures should be ta&en to a$oid conflictin* results' Ho# to inte*rate the
qualitati$e and quantitati$e sta*es of the %rocess effecti$ely'
nother concern is) as of yet) there are no standards for ensurin* reliability and $alidity of the mied methods used and the data collected and analysed by this a%%roach althou*h some researchers are ma&in* %ro*ress in this area +;ur&e et al, 200)(.
Conclusion
/o conclude this research %a%er) I #ill try and summarise #hich of the methods detailed by this
research %a%er #ould be the most effecti$e #ithin the s%here of educational research- It is clear that both quantitati$e and qualitati$e research methods) des%ite their limitations) ha$e their %lace in the researcher<s toolbo- Ho#e$er) it is also clear that an a%%roach that com%letely attributes its
ontolo*y) e%istemolo*y and methodolo*y to one method has clear
shortcomin*s-$en thou*h it is not yet the au fait methodolo*y #ithin educational research) the literature leads me to belie$e that the mied methods a%%roach has a lot to offer in terms of %ro*ression #ithin the field-?dom et al. +200, state that
“'ducational researchers have acknowledged the value of mixing methodologies to provide a complementary set of information that would more effectively 5than a single
method( inform practice” 5p&"#(
/he benefits of bein* able to access a #ide $ariety of a%%roaches seems to su**est that researchers #ould not be constrained by historical con$ention and instead could in$esti*ate issues #ith education in both de%th and breadth- Euantitati$e methodolo*y is useful for determinin* %articular %henomena throu*h the use of numerical data- Eualitati$e a%%roaches #ould *o some #ay to try and e%lain situations or contets #ithin education that cannot be e%lained by collectin* numerical data- In each case) it is im%ortant to acce%t that educational researchers need to o$ercome the idea that each
indi$idual must be associated #ith a s%ecific style off r esearch and rather %ic& the most effecti$e tools for the tas&- Ho#e$er) it is also #orth notin* that by follo#in* a mied methods a%%roach)
researchers need to multidisci%lined or there #ill a ris& of %oor quality research bein*
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