Measurement and Control 1–11
Ó The Author(s) 2020 Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions DOI: 10.1177/0020294020915727 journals.sagepub.com/home/mac
Path planning of multiple UAVs using
MMACO and DE algorithm in dynamic
environment
Zain Anwar Ali , Han Zhangang and Di Zhengru
Abstract
Cooperative path planning of multiple unmanned aerial vehicles is a complex task. The collision avoidance and coordina-tion between multiple unmanned aerial vehicles is a global optimal issue. This research addresses the path planning of multi-colonies with multiple unmanned aerial vehicles in dynamic environment. To observe the model of whole scenario, we combine maximum–minimum ant colony optimization and differential evolution to make metaheuristic optimization algorithm. Our designed algorithm, controls the deficiencies of present classical ant colony optimization and maximum– minimum ant colony optimization, has the contradiction among the excessive information and global optimization. Moreover, in our proposed algorithm, maximum–minimum ant colony optimization is used to lemmatize the pheromone and only best ant of each colony is able to construct the path. However, the path escape by maximum–minimum ant col-ony optimization and it treated as the object for differential evolution constraints. Now, it is ensuring to find the best global colony, which provides optimal solution for the entire colony. Furthermore, the proposed approach has an ability to increase the robustness while preserving the global convergence speed. Finally, the simulation experiment results are performed under the rough dynamic environment containing some high peaks and mountains.
Keywords
Maximum–minimum ant colony optimization, ant colony optimization, unmanned aerial vehicle, differential evolution and path planning
Date received: 18 January 2020; accepted: 5 March 2020
Introduction
From the last few decades, the advancement in the field of aeronautics and astronautics has widely increased. The unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) is the best inven-tion of this domain.1–3 In this era, UAVs have been widely used for the military missions but it can widely use for the applications in rescue, surveillance and map-ping scenarios. Moreover, we can also use UAVs for long missions, such as in remote sensing and dangerous areas, where accurate and flexible maneuvering is required.4In order to enhance the performance of com-bat scenarios and reduce the overall mission accom-plishment time, a swarm of UAVs takes part.5 The path-planning process is an important area of interest in the usage of multiple UAVs (M-UAVs).6It requires an optimal path or route from the initial position (base station) to the targeted position while avoiding obsta-cles and consuming minimum fuel.7Optimization issues are encountered to real-world problems in different areas such as mathematics, engineering, science and economics. Scientific algorithms are used to resolve these optimizations issues; it may require more
extensive calculations as the problem size gets bigger. Thus, we need optimization techniques that require less memory and computational power but give better out-comes. From the last three decades, scientist made stochastic-based different bio-inspired optimization algorithms which are more accurate and efficient to compare with the analytical methods.8–12
The autonomous flight control is one of the most essential feature in modern control UAVs to adapt the dynamic environment and to find the most suitable and optimal route for the mission.13When using M-UAVs, we also have to deal with additional problems like simultaneous arrival and collision avoidance and so on. One way to solve these problems is to use classical algo-rithms because they are quite efficient, but they require a lot of time and calculations.14 On the other hand,
School of Systems Science, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China Corresponding author:
Zain Anwar Ali, School of Systems Science, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, China.
Email: [email protected]
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many scientists have made evolutionary bio-inspired algorithms such as ant colony optimization (ACO) by Colorni et al.,15particle swarm optimization (PSO) by Kennedy and Eberhart,16 differential evolution (DE) by Storn and Price17 and genetic algorithm (GA) by John Holland.18These algorithms are quite efficient as well as reliable and quicker in finding the optimal solu-tion to complete the mission requirement robustly. The combination of these methods has emerged to have quicker convergence speed and superior solutions. Examples of these hybrid algorithms include those between PSO and GA,19,20PSO and DE21–23and ACO and DE.24–26
However, in this research, our main concern is on ACO; it follows the hunting behavior of actual ant colonies to solve the optimization problems. It consists of synthetic ant colonies which work together to find the best possible solution. The ants convey the informa-tion to each other using virtual pheromones. While ACO is a very effective method, proven by its wide-spread usage, it has some disadvantages, too. Its con-vergence speed is slow, and it can fall into local optimum. Occasionally, it comes up with identical out-comes that lower the probability of getting the best result.
Cekmez et al.27present a multi-colony ACO to coun-ter the previous aforementioned issues of slow conver-gence speed and local optimum. In contrast to normal ACO, the authors suggest to use multiple ant colonies. They utilize different pheromone tables for every col-ony to explore the area completely. However, in every iteration, each colony provides varied outcomes. After that, all colonies interchange their optimal solution with the surrounding colonies. Then, every colony modifies their pheromone tables with the acquired data. Shao et al.28 also discuss a similar path-planning problem concerning M-UAVs. They explore a distributed coop-erative particle swarm optimization (DCPSO) method intended for secure navigation of each UAV.
Dewangan et al.29 used a grey wolf optimization (GWO) technique to resolve the three-dimensional (3D) path-planning problem of UAV. In addition, the major task is to search the most reasonable path and to avoid collision and other obstacles. In Gu et al.,30M-UAVs trajectory planning is done using PSO with (receding horizon) framework. Moreover, obstacle avoidance– based approach is developed to eliminate collision between UAVs. Furthermore, a decentralized control hierarchy for an individual UAV is proposed to control individual UAV. An intelligent Be´zier curve–based model for path planning is proposed in Tharwat et al.31 The main aim of the designed algorithm is to search the shortest and smooth path between the start point and the targeted point. Beside this, chaotic particle swarm optimization (CPSO) strategy has also been applied to enhance the control points of the Be´zier curve.
The inspiration of this research work has been taken from the work in the previous literature;26,27 the pre-sented study states the issues of UAV path planning by taking the benefit of smart bio-inspired optimization algorithms, in the presence of dynamic environment. In this research, we design a novel maximum–minimum ant colony optimization (MMACO) with DE to make a metaheuristic hybrid algorithm. Although combining these two algorithms increases the complexity of the system, but it will surely provide a globally optimal solution for the path planning of multi-colonies with M-UAVs.
The primary achievements of this research are as follows:
1. A multi-colonies optimization having different sub–ant colonies exists in the entire ant colony, where each sub-colony performed independently to explore the overall area.
2. Three different colonies have been made, and each colony is independent to find the optimal or shortest distance to reach the targeted area. 3. To enhance the performance of the entire
col-ony, each colony needs to share its knowledge with others.
4. To find the best and the shortest route from the initial point to the targeted area from a colony in which the upgradation of route and lemma-tized the number of participants are done by MMACO.
5. Finally, DE will globally determine which is the most suitable sub-colony to reach the targeted area in optimal time.
The reminder of this manuscript is structured as fol-lows. In section ‘‘Problem statement,’’ we define the problem statement and mission requirement. Cooperative path planning, collision avoidance and coordination between UAVs are discussed in section ‘‘Cooperative path planning.’’ It is followed by section ‘‘Hybrid MMACO-DE algorithm,’’ in which our designed hybrid MMACO-DE algorithm is discussed. Section ‘‘Simulation results and discussions’’ presents the simulation results and discussion. Finally, the over-all manuscript is concluded in section ‘‘Conclusion.’’
Problem statement
The M-UAVs path-planning problem is shown in Figure 1. To consider three UAVs take off from three different locations of an entire colony. The termed dif-ferent locations are called as sub-colonies, that is, 1, 2 and 3, target the designated area. Moreover, there are some obstacles in the form of mountains and high rocks in the route, due to these aforementioned threats in the fly zone need to escape from them robustly.
Furthermore, during the whole scenario, UAVs are required to maintain safe distance to avoid collision and arrive at their targeted area by time synchroniza-tion to adjust the length and the route of the complete tour.
Mission requirement
Our main concern is to find which colony is most suit-able to target the designated area optimally.
Cooperative path planning
To compare with the path planning of individual UAV, M-UAVs required perfect coordination between neigh-bor UAVs, to meet with the specific point or area with-out any collision. The requirements to achieve the mission and physical parameters are different from a single UAV. The cooperation and coordination between several UAVs bring different co-constraints, that is, timing coordination and avoidance to collide with each other. In this study, we mainly focus on colli-sion avoidance and coordination between UAVs.
Collision avoidance
An additional requirement of path planning is to avoid collision and to minimize the threat of collision, which is also termed as air coordination or formation. In our scenario, the 3D map is used and we must ensure that all UAVs’ altitude must change according to the given condition of the unavoidable mountain peaks in the route. Due to the above route, we must maintain safe distance between the UAVs and apply some proper coordination strategy.13 The path-planning constraints of M-UAVs also maintain the time and space correla-tion between all UAVs route. We consider short safe distance dss between UAVs in our scenario to avoid collision. The distance of flight between UAVs must satisfy the relationship
dssð Þ4 yt k 1ð Þ yt 2ð Þ yt 3ð Þt k ð1Þ where y1ðtÞ; y2ðtÞ and y3(t) are the positions of UAV1 to UAV3, respectively. As per the mission require-ments, when UAVs approach to the targeted area, they get closer and closer to each other. At that time, the safe distance will settle between different iterations at different stages, which is rewritten as
dssð Þ =t
D; t4Tl;m
d; t . Tl;m
ð2Þ
where Tl, mis about 85% of the full flight duration; D and d will adjust according to the specific planning area conditions.
Coordination between UAVs
To meet with the spatial and temporal requirements for the group of UAVs, we introduce two coordinate coef-ficients that must add in each UAV as a function of its path or route. It is expressed as
fco= fsft ð3Þ
Therefore, fsand ftare the coefficients of spatial and temporal coordinates. It is expressed as
fs=
d; meet spatial reqiurements 0; otherwise no ð4Þ ft= N ðT1 T2Þand so on . . .
; meet spatial reqiurements
0; otherwise no
8 < :
ð5Þ
where T1; T2 and T3 are the expected arrival time of all three UAVs to the destination and N is the constant. Now, in terms of the proposed hybrid control strategy based on path-planning algorithm, each sub-colony UAV is performed independently to explore the overall area.13At the same time, when we evaluate the fitness of each aircraft, the information between all UAVs must communicate with each other. In the M-UAVs evolution, DE will deal this and set the optimized path for an individual one. The path-planning coordination of complete scenario is presented in Figure 2.
For the path-planning scenario, each UAV commu-nicates with other UAV and calculates its spatial and temporal coordination coefficient. Finally, the pro-posed algorithm will select the most suitable path, which will not only meet the fitness but also our mis-sion requirements.
Hybrid MMACO-DE algorithm
In this section, we design an improved metaheuristic hybrid algorithm to resolve the path-planning issues in a 3D environment. The metaheuristic algorithm con-sists of MMACO and DE. The main aim is to design this algorithm and to apply it in the scenario of multi-colonies path planning of M-UAVs. In order to
enhance the effectiveness of path planning, UAVs must arrive at the targeted area using the shortest path, com-plete the mission and improve the reliability of the whole scenario. First, we apply the classical model of ACO and after that speed up the whole strategy by applying our hybrid metaheuristic algorithm. Finally, only the most optimal colony will be selected to com-plete the mission requirement.
As shown in Figure 3, the entire ant colony divided into three sub-colonies, where each sub-colony is restricted only best ant to construct and update the route. Moreover, each colony executes as an indepen-dent agent, to fulfill path-planning task more robustly. The main objective is to find the most optimal distance from the entire colony, that is, which sub-colony is most suitable to reach the targeted area. Figure 3
represents the block of MMACO-DE strategy; it also shows the knowledge sharing between multi-colonies path planning of M-UAVs.
Basic ACO algorithm
The natural representation of basic ACO algorithm depends on ant colonies. Real ants are proficient to find the shortest path from a food source to their colony. They hunt the food without any visual clues by manip-ulating and updating the pheromone data. Ants walk on the earth, deposit the pheromone and track in prob-ability the pheromone earlier dropped by the former ants.32The advantage of the algorithm is that in the end all ants follow the shortest path. A procedure where ants utilize their pheromones to search for a shortest path between colony and food source is presented in Figure 4 below.
The action of real ants is inspired by the ACO, where a set of virtual ants collaborate with each other. For the solu-tion of problem by interchanging the informasolu-tion through pheromones placed on the edges of the grid boundaries.
Improved ACO algorithm
The parallel process of ACO in general comprises two essential practices: adaptability and collaboration. In adaptability, the contender solutions are carried out to readapt their organizations on the source of collecting the information. On the other hand, in collaboration stage, the contender offer interchanges the information to offer the best possible solution. The first ACO strat-egy applied to the traveling salesperson problem (TSP) is to discover the minimum closed-loop path between two cities or node. Even though the UAV path
Figure 2. Path-planning coordination between UAVs.
planning is to discover the best optimistic flight path, UAV is able to complete the desired task and avoid the unwanted threats, that is, mountain peaks and different threats.33
ACO provides flexible route to solve M-UAVs path-planning issue under hazardous battlefield environ-ment. The scenario is designed for the nth UAV in the path planning of ith UAVs, let m ants participate from the initial position, the ants choose the next nodes in the grid according to the adaptability rule. Hence, addi-tional ants mean UAV route is tracked by the higher probability that a route chosen by the other ants. The above process of ACO assures that mostly all ants walk along the shortest UAV route in the end. The main fea-tures of ACO related to the ant characteristic are the heuristic function and pheromone denoted as h and t. In this research, we investigate the shortest path between the colonies and the targeted destination node between two cities termed as a and b, respectively. Now, define the transformation probability from node ato b from lth ant and e is the edge in the grid rewrit-ten as15 pn;abð Þ =t tn;abð Þt ð Þa habð Þt ð Þb P e2acceptl tn;abð Þt ð Þa haeð Þt ð Þb if b2 acceptl 0 otherwise 8 < : ð6Þ
where the term acceptlis the flexible domain of the lth ant. The parameters a and b control the comparative significance of the trail pheromone versus reflectivity.
The sum of pheromone by the nth UAVs ant between the node a to b is written as
tn, abð Þ = tt n, ab:
i 1 P
tpj, b ð7Þ
The sum of pheromone trail t provides the clue to the ants to select the upcoming node. In ACO, ants drop their pheromone on the edge of the boundaries they passed. Ants allocate for the nth UAV will able to select the node, which have relatively greater
pheromone than ith UAVs. The experimental desirabil-ity from node a to b is expressed as
hab= 1 db;da
ð8Þ
where db;da denotes the distance between node a, node band destination area, that may clue the ants situated at node a tend to select the nodes that are closest to the destination area. In addition, the ants in the procedure built their routes, the trail values of the route edges (a, b) and the pheromone updated using the following equation
tpn, bðt+ 1Þ = 1 rð Þ tpn, bð Þ + Dtt pn, b ð9Þ
where r (0, 1) is the local pheromone decline con-straint, it represents the rate of evaporation between time t and t + 1, respectively
tpn, bð Þ =t X
l= 1
Dtpn, b, l ð10Þ
Now, Dtpn, b, l is the amount of pheromone trail exist on the boundaries or edge of (a, b) and the node b by the lth ant of the nth UAV lie among t and t + 1. In the traditional ant hierarchy structure, it is expressed as
Dtpn;b;l= Q jn;l; if nth ant uses a; bð Þ 0; otherwise ð11Þ
where Q is the constant and jn, l denotes the route cost of the lth ant.
maximum–minimum ACO
To increase the performance of classical ant system, improve the issues related to the initial stagnation. In order to fasten the convergence speed, the following enhancement in the algorithm is established in the ACO strategy.32 Now, the m ants are allocated for the nth UAV, and a number of routes are created in individual iteration.13The mean cost mof the routes is calculated by jn, mð Þ =t 1 m Xm l= 1 jn, lð Þt ð12Þ
If and only if the route cost of the lth ant in the nth iteration fulfills jn, min(t)5jn, l(t), the lth ant updates the pheromone using equation (11). The separate solution among the best iteration and best global ant is to update the trail pheromone, and hunt stagnation could proceed further. This type of stagnation must escape the probability of choosing the upcoming resolution; it will directly depend upon the pheromone trails. Although by limiting, the effects of pheromone trails during it can easily reject the variance among the pher-omone trails at the implementation of this strategy. To accomplish this mission, ACO executes maximum and minimum pheromone trails for all the pheromone trails termed as tmax and tmin. Now, improving the trail
pheromones in the last of iteration, the following equa-tion is used to update or advance the pheromone points
ta;bð Þ =t
tmax; ta;bð Þ5tt max
ta;bð Þ; tt max5ta;bð Þ5tt min
tmin; tminð Þ . tt a;bð Þt
8 <
: ð13Þ
DE
DE is the best and versatile optimization method; it for-merly designed as an algorithm for the global continu-ous optimization. It consists of three basic constraints named as mutation, crossover and selection operator. Initially, it generates some random solution to search the target. After that, it enlarges the alteration vector concerning two population vectors. First, it generates the trail mutation and hereinafter it joins the trail muta-tion and the target ones to produce an updated individ-ual. If an updated individual has good fitness results, it will accept and replace it with the previous individual.33 In this research, we check the pheromone on the route that left by the ants in MMACO as the objective in DE. To solve the path-planning issues, the best ant of each colony represents the colony and only the best ant will be able to update the pheromone trails for the whole scenario. Some modifications are done in the model of MMACO strategy to divide the whole colony into three different colonies, and the colony number is termed as col that restricts the total number of ants m. The pheromone left between two nodes is denoted as t= (tn); n = 1, 2, 3 ... colonies, respectively. Now, the DE mutation method is applied on it and the upgraded trail spreading is created using the equation
t1n= t1r+ f tð 2r t3rÞ; n = 1, 2, 3 . . . colonies
ð14Þ
where r is the positive integer, by taking three-pheromone trails for three different colonies that is ran-domly chosen by the ant colonies, the real constant factor f. It helps to control the differential variation (t2r t3r). In order to increase the variation of phero-mone trail among two nodes, by initializing the benefit of DE crossover operator to make a new pheromone trail t1n that produced by the mutation, it joins with the present target pheromone trail tn.26,33 Now, the designed MMACO-DE strategy produces a new matrix to store the pheromone which is rewritten as
t2n= t1;12 n t 1;i 2n .. . . . . .. . ti;12 n t i;i 2n 0 B B B @ 1 C C C A; n= 1; . . . ; Colony that can be expressed as
tab2n= tabn ; if r and b4CR
tln; if r and b . CR
ð15Þ
where tab
n is the amount of pheromone between two nodes or cities a and b of the nth ant colonies. Afterward, the mutation tab2n is the nth AC pheromone trial between both the cities. Subsequent to this cross-over process to tab
n and tab1n and the positive integer number randb, cross over constant CR value lies in between 0 and 1. The greater the value of crossover the higher the possibility of crossover process. If the value of CR = 0, it means that no DE process will occur. Now, it is clear that the newly produced pheromone matrix t2n will confidently get at least one component from the mutation pheromone process t1n. On the other hand, the pheromone trail will not update at all, resulting in weakening pheromone exchange among all the ant colonies or entire ant colony.25,26,33
For the 3D path planning of UAVs, all the ants in each colony develop their own route using the transition prob-ability pa, bthat is calculated by the pheromone matrix tn. The term Lbest 1nis the shortest route between the entire routes find by the ants. After that, we will compare the original and the newly generated pheromone. Next to this in Duan et al.,26the author made a single solution for this and called the selection as ‘‘the greedy’’ model. It states that if the updated pheromone trail has the better value than the previous one, it will accept this and reverse into the matrix of pheromone trail for the next iterations. Else, the original pheromone will take place among both the cities of ant colonies. Now, the crossover process to the pheromone trail is rewritten as
t0n; tð Þ= t2n; tð Þ; if Lbest 2n\ Lbest1n tn; tð Þ; if Lbest2n\ Lbest1n
ð16Þ
where the original pheromone left by the nth ant colo-nies is termed as tn;ðtÞ, for the tth number of iteration. Now, the updated pheromone trails of the nth ant col-ony after DE mutation and crossover process. Now, the t0n;ðtÞis equivalent to the pheromone matrix; it has high value that lies in between tn;ðtÞand t2n;ðtÞ. The shortest route Lbest1n is found by the tn;ðtÞ original pheromone ant colony, whereas Lbest2n is length of optimal route found by the t2n;ðtÞ, that is, the updated value of the pheromone of the nth ant colony. After the selection process, the nth ant colony which create their routes using pheromone trails t0
n;ðtÞ or t2n;ðtÞ discharge their pheromone concern the route they already covered and update the selected pheromone trail t0
n;ðtÞ to become new trail pheromone as tn;ðt + 1Þ.26,33After that, pass the updated pheromone to each ant colony for the next iteration to search new and more feasible path explora-tion. The overall flow of the proposed hybrid algorithm is defined below in Figure 5.
Following are the steps of our proposed hybrid algorithm:
Step 1: Initiate all the constraints of ACO, that is, set the number of and maximum number of itera-tions along with the maximum number of ants uti-lize to explore the path-planning scenario.
Step 2: Divide the entire ant colony into three dif-ferent located ant colonies or sub-colonies. However, the number of ants in each colony logged col_m(n), for the ith colonies.
Step 3: Initialize the edge pheromone for every sub-colony path where ants are allowed to construct the route and to move to the next node.
Step 4: Check whether the ants reached at the tar-get node or not; if no, repeat step 3; if yes, proceed to the next step.
Step 5: Now calculate the route covered by the ants and making condition best ant update the route for
every colony. Also calculate the cost from city a to bof the lth ant that belongs to the nth UAV. Step 6: Mutation and crossover process is applied on the original trail pheromone tn and every ant colony best ant is passed from their past iteration and produced the new trial pheromone t2n.
Step 7: Set n = 1 for each ant colony of the nth ant colony; finally, it arrives the target point to con-struct the route as per trail pheromone tn. Calculate the distance of route travel by the each ant and select the best shortest path, and save it as Lbest 2n.
Step 8: Now, separate each ant of the nth ant col-ony that visits the entire nodes in 3D dimensional path to increase the trail pheromone t2n. Calculate the tour distance reach by each ant and select the shortest one and denote it with Lbest2n.
Step 9: Compare Lbest 1n and Lbest2n and start the DE selection operation, set as tn or t2n. If Lbest 1nis greater than Lbest 2n, select yes; otherwise, no for the next step.
Step 10: Two conditions are there; if in the previous step, condition is yes, it will allow to explore new path and update the pheromone; otherwise, do not need it. Selection process of DE will select the route.
Step 11: Return to Step 6 till Nc5Ncmax.
Step 12: The designed proposed algorithm gives the best optimal route in 3D environment.
Simulation results and discussions
The simulations of path planning via multi-colonies with M-UAVs using MMACO-DE algorithm are divided into two different scenarios. Now, complete the overall scenario constraints of each UAV including the length or distance of flight, attitude angle, altitude and 3D land environment. When UAV fly from one point to the nearest way point, it requires some time to fine tune its attitude and altitude to reach at the nearest node. The length between two nodes or way points are calculated using the formula
Li= ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi xi x1i ð Þ2+ yð i y1iÞ2+ðzi z1iÞ2 q Li5Lmax; ið = 1; 2; 3; . . .Þ ( ð17Þ
In equation (17), Li is the distance between two nearest nodes and Lmaxis the maximum flight distance. To escape from the threats, that is, high peaks and mountains, UAV needs to change its flight path. By adjusting the attitude angles of UAV, that limits its maneuverability and practically their real attitude angles are smaller than the maximum attitude angles. In terms of maneuverability, the roll angle is calculated by
cos umax4 að i ai+ 1= aj j aij i+ 1jÞ; i = 1; 2; 3; . . .ð Þ
ð18Þ
where ai; ai+ 1 is the trajectory between two nodes and umaxis the maximum roll angle of UAV. When UAV is flying in hilly areas, in order to avoid from collision from the high peaks, it needs to change its altitude. To consider the maximum allowed altitude of UAV Zmax and the real-time altitude Zi now, the real altitude should not greater than the maximum allowed altitude, that is, Zmax. Zi.
In order to find the possibility and efficiency of the designed hybrid algorithm for path planning of multi-colonies with M-UAVs, two different simulation scenarios were simulated. Both these simulations were performed in Simulink MATLAB 2016, along with the programming on an Intel Core i7 8th generation. The initial parameters for both scenarios are set to be a= 2, b = 3, r = 0:75, Ncmax= 25, Q = 10, tmin
= 0:1, tmax= 1, m = 10. In both the simulations sce-narios, the 3D land environment is about 20 km longi-tudinal, 20 km wider and about 2 km in altitude. The dynamic 3D environment constraints are defined in Table 1.
Scenario 1
In order to verify the effectiveness of our prosed algo-rithm first, we compare our proposed hybrid algoalgo-rithm with classical ACO. In this case, two different algo-rithms are initiated from the same base station and to reach at the designated area by applying cooperative path-planning methodology of UAV. The path-planning optimization results are shown in Figure 6(a) and (b), respectively, and it is clearly evident that our designed algorithm reaches at the destination using the optimal route. Figure 7 shows the estimation costs of both the algorithms, and Table 2 defines the overall comparison of these strategies.
Scenario 2
In this case, three best (ants) UAVs that belong to three different colonies for an aerial combat formation of path planning are assigned to reach at the targeted area simultaneously. All the initial parameters in this case are same except the number of colonies, that is, col = 3. Moreover, in this case, the air collision avoidance and coordination between all UAVs reflected robustly in order to escape from collision and to reach at the
Table 1. Constraints of dynamic environment.
No. of terrains Peak center (xo, yo) Highest altitude (Z) in km Declining scale at x axes (xs) Declining scale at y axes (ys) 1 (16, 4) 0.7098 1.5 2.5 2 (5, 4) 0.8009 2.5 1.5 3 (11.5, 9) 1.5 3 3 4 (15, 16) 0.7017 2 1.5 5 (5, 16) 1.2 2.5 1.5
destination node using cooperative path-planning con-straints. Figure 8 shows the simulated path-planning scenario of multi-colonies with M-UAVs achieved per-fectly. Figure 9 presents the estimation costs of different
colonies, and Table 3 presents the comparison of all colonies. Finally, Figure 10 presents the best-optimized route found by our designed algorithm. The simulation results show that the proposed MMACO-DE strategy can successfully find the global optimize route and ful-fill the mission requirement successfully.
Conclusion
This study uses hybrid metaheuristic algorithm obtained via MMACO in combination with DE strat-egy. The proposed algorithm provides optimal 3D route for the path planning of M-UAVs. As seen in the simulation, the ant colony is further divided into small
Table 2. Comparison of ACO and our proposed algorithm.
Algorithm Start point End point Length of distance in km ACO (0, 0, 0) (20, 20, 1) 29.121
MMACO-DE (0, 0, 0) (19.8, 19.8, 1) 25.122
ACO: ant colony optimization; MMACO-DE: maximum–minimum ant colony optimization and differential evolution.
Figure 6. (a and b) Different views of path-planning scenario by comparing ACO and MMACO-DE.
Figure 7. Estimation costs of ACO and MMACO-DE.
Figure 8. (a and b) Different views of path-planning scenario using multi-colonies with multiple UAVs.
colonies to explore optimal colony for mission comple-tion. The above designed hybrid algorithm offers a platform for multi-colonies path-planning concept that is implemented for the real-world scenario.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the reviewers and editors for giving valu-able comments, which are very helpful for improving this manuscript.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-port for the research, authorship and/or publication of this
article: This research is supported by China National Nature Science Foundation with grant number 61374165.
ORCID iD
Zain Anwar Ali https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2143-2879
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Entire colony divisions Start point End point Length of distance in km Colony 1 (UAV 1) (0, 0, 0) (20, 19.8, 1) 30.124
Colony 2 (UAV 2) (0, 5, 0) (19.8, 19.8, 1) 27.221 Colony 3 (UAV 3) (0, 10, 0) (19.8, 20, 1) 23.54
UAV: unmanned aerial vehicle.
Figure 9. Estimation costs of different colonies.
Figure 10. The best-optimized route determined by our designed algorithm.
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