Hungarian Turanism

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Hungarian Turanism

Hungarian Turanism (Hungarian: Turánizmus or

Tu-ranizmus) is a loosely defined and diverse phenomenon among the history of Hungarian ideas. It includes many different conceptions and served as a guiding principle for many political and scientific movements. It was most lively in the second half of the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century. HungarianTuranismis based on the idea the Hungarians’ ancestral homeland was in Asia.[1] _{It became an extremist political ideology after} World War One.

“Géza, the faithful king ofTourkia(i.e. Hungary)" on theHoly Crown of Hungary, from the 11th century.

Before theHungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin, theHungarianswere (semi-)nomads[2] _{and their culture} was similar to othersteppe peoples. Most scientists pre-sume aUralic homeland for the ancient Hungarian con-querors(mainly on linguistic grounds, and on the basis of limited genetic research carried out on a very limited number of ancient skeletons found in graves from the age of the conquest[3][4]_{). The proto-Hungarian tribes lived} in the Eurasianforest steppezone,[5]_{and so these}_ancient ancestors of Hungariansand their relationship with other equestrian nomadic peoples has been and still is a topic for research.[6]

As a scientiﬁc movement, Turanism was concerned with research into Asian cultures in the context of Hungarian history and culture. It was embodied and represented by many scholars who had shared premises (i.e. the Asian origin of the Hungarians, and their kinship with Asian

peoples), and who arrived at the same or very similar con-clusions. Turanism was a driving force in the develop-ment of Hungarian social sciences, especially linguistics, archaeology and Orientalism.

Political Turanism was born in the 19th century, in re-sponse to the growing inﬂuence ofPan-Germanismand Pan-Slavism, seen by Hungarians as very dangerous to the state and nation of Hungary, because the country had large ethnic German and Slavic populations.[1] _This po-litical ideology originated in the work of the Finnish na-tionalist and linguist Matthias Alexander Castrén, who championed the ideology ofPan-Turanism— the belief in the racial unity and future greatness of the Ural-Altaic peoples. He concluded that the Finns originated in Cen-tral Asia and far from being a small, isolated people, they were part of a larger community that included such peo-ples as the Magyars, theTurks, and theMongolsetc.[7] Political Turanism was a romantic nationalist movement, which stressed the importance of common ancestry and cultural aﬃnity between Hungarians and the peoples of the Caucasus and Inner and Central Asia, such as the Turks, Mongols, Parsi etc. It called for closer collabora-tion and political alliance between them and Hungary, as a means of securing and furthering shared interests and to counter the threats posed by the policies of the great pow-ers of Europe. The idea for a “Turanian brotherhood and collaboration” was borrowed from the Pan-Slavic concept of “Slavic brotherhood and collaboration”.[8]

After the First World War, political Turanism played a role in the formation of Hungarian far-right ideologies because of itsethnic nationalistnature.[9][10] _{It began to} carryanti-Jewish sentiments and tried to show the “ex-istence and superiority of a uniﬁed Hungarian race”.[10] Nonetheless, Andrew C. Janos asserts that Turanism’s role in the interwar development of far-right ideologies was negligible.[11]

In the communist era after the Second World War, Tu-ranism was portrayed and viliﬁed as an exclusively fascist ideology.[12]_{Since the fall of communism in 1989 there} has been a renewal of interest in Turanism.

1 Its roots, origins, and

develop-ment

1.1 The beginnings

Friedrich Max Müller, the German Orientalist and philol-1

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2 1 ITS ROOTS, ORIGINS, AND DEVELOPMENT

Friedrich Max Müller’s Northern Division of Turanian Lan-guages

ogist, published and proposed a new grouping of the non-Aryan and non-Semitic Asian languages in 1855. In his work “The languages of the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Ar-ian, and Turanian.” he called these languages “Turanian”. Müller divided this group into two subgroups, the South-ern Division, and the NorthSouth-ern Division. Hungarian lan-guage was classed by him as a member of this Northern Division, in the Finnic Class, in the Ugric Branch, with the Voguls and Ugro-Ostiakes as closest relatives.[14] _(In the long run, his theory proved unsound, but his Northern Division was renamed and re-classed as theUral-Altaic languages.) His theory was well known and widely dis-cussed in international scientific circles, and was known to Hungarian scientists as well. He was invited to Bu-dapest, the Hungarian capital, byÁrmin Vámbéry, the Orientalist and Turkologist, in 1874, and become an as-sociate member of the Hungarian Aceademy of Sciences. His public lectures received wide attention, and his terms (originally borrowed by him from Persian texts like the Shahnamehwhich used the term “Turan” to denote the territories of Turkestan, north ofAmu Daryariver, in-habited by nomadic warriors) “Turan” and “Turanian” become denizens in Hungarian language as “Turán” and “turáni”. The meaning of these terms was never defined officially. Vámbéry himself used “Turan” to denote the

areas of Eastern Balkan, Central and Inner Asia inhab-ited by Turkic peoples, and used “Turanian” to denote those Turkic peoples and languages (and he meant the Finno-Ugric peoples and languages as the members of this group), which lived in or originated from this “Tu-ran” area. Hungarian scientists shared his deﬁnition. But in common parlance these terms were used in many (and often diﬀerent) meanings and senses.

Hungarians have had a thousand year old, and still liv-ing tradition about the Asian origins of Magyars. This tradition was preserved in medieval chronicles (such as Gesta Hungarorum[15]_and_{Gesta Hunnorum et} Hungaro-rum[16]_{) as early as the 13th century. This tradition served} as starting point for the scientific research of the ethno-genesis of Hungarian people, which began in the 18th century, in Hungary and abroad. Sándor Kőrösi Csoma (the writer of the first Tibetan-English dictionary) trav-eled to Asia in the strong belief that he could find the kin-dred of Magyars in Turkestan, amongst theUyghurs.[17] "...when Kőrösi set off for the search of the ancient home-land of Magyars and the 'left behind Magyars’, he consid-ered that he might find those somewhere in Central Asia, respectively amongst the Uighurs...”[18]

Vámbéry Ármin had the same motivation for his travels to Asia and the Ottoman Empire.

"...from this came my hope, that with the help of com-parative linguistics I could ﬁnd a ray of light in Central Asia, which dispels the gloom over the dark corners of Hungarian prehistory...”

"...következett tehát ebből az a reménységem, hogy Középázsiában az összehasonlító nyelvtudomány segít-ségével világosságot vető sugarat lelhetek, mely eloszlatja a homályt a magyar őstörténelem sötét tájairól....” in: Vám-béry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch.IV. p. 62.[19]

The linguistic theories of the Dutch philosopherMarcus Zuerius van Boxhornand the German thinkerGottfried Wilhelm Leibnizgave the real basis of the modern sci-entiﬁc research of the origin of the Hungarian language and people. Boxhorn conjectured that the European and Indo-Iranian languages were all derived from a shared ancestor language, and he named this ancestor language “Scythian”, after the equestrian, nomadic warriors of the Asian steppes. But linguists theorizing about ancestor languages had to deal with the common belief of the era, that, according to the Bible, Hebrew was the original lan-guage of all humans. Leibniz published material counter-ing the Biblical theory, and supported Boxhorn’s notion of a Scythian ancestor language.

“Information about hither-to unknown peoples and lan-guages of Asia and the Americas came into the hands of scholars such as Gottfried Leibniz, who recognized that there was no better method “for specifying the relation-ship and origin of the various peoples of the earth, than the comparison of their languages”. In order to classify as many languages as possible in genealogical groupings,

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1.2 The role of the Habsburgs 3

Leibniz proposed that similar materials be collected from each newly described language. To this end he asked that explorers either obtain translations of well-known Christian prayers such as the Pater Noster, or, better yet, “words for common things” (vocabula rerum vulgarium), a sample list of which he appended to a letter to the Turkologist D. Podesta (Leibniz 1768/1989b).The word list included numerals, kinship terms, body parts, necessi-tates (food, drink, weapons,domestic animals), naturalia (God, celestial and weather phenomena, topographic fea-tures, wild animals) and a dozen verbs (eat, drink, speak, see …). Leibniz took a particular interest in the expan-sion of the Russian Empire southward and eastward, and lists based on his model were taken on expeditions sent by the tsars to study the territories recently brought un-der their control, as well as the peoples living on these and on nearby lands.” Kevin Tuite: The rise and fall and revival of the Ibero-Caucasian hypothesis. 2008. in: His-toriographia Linguistica, 35 #1; p. 23-82.

Leibniz recognized that the Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Arabic, and some European languages like Sami,Finnish, and Hungarian did not belong to the same language family as most of the languages of Europe. He recognized the connection between the Finnish languages and Hungarian. He placed the original homeland of the Hungarians to the Volga-Caspian Sea region.

These theories had a great impact on the research of the origins of the Hungarian language and the ethnogenesis of Hungarian nation. Both of the two main views/theories about the origin of the Hungarian people and language, the one about the Turkic origin, and the other about the Finno-Ugric origin had their scientiﬁc roots in them. In fact, the Turkic theory matched the tradition (the Ges-tas) and historical sources (like the works ofConstantine VII and Leo VI the Wise) better, but the accounts and works of travelers like Swedish Philip Johan von Strahlenberg (published in his work:" An historico-geographical description of the north and east parts of Europe and Asia ") turned the attention to the “Finnish-Hungarian connection”.[20]

The followers of the “Turkist” and “Ugrist” theories lived together peacefully, and the theories were reﬁned as sci-ence developed. (In fact the two theories converged, as linguists, like Rasmus Christian Rask, Wilhelm Schott (1802-1889) andMatthias Castrén recognized the sim-ilarities and connection between Finn-Ugric and Altaic languages. The German linguist and Orientalist Schott was a proponent of Finn-Turk-Hungarian kinship, and considered the Hungarians a mixture of Turks and Hyper-boreans / i.e. Saami, Samoyed etc. /.[21]_{) The discourse} remained fully scientiﬁc up until theHungarian Revolu-tion of 1848and the 1848-49 War of Independence but after the bitter experiences of the war and the defeat ev-erything got political overtones.

"... the Sun went down into a sea of blood. The night of immeasurable grief fell on Hungary; her noblest

pow-Philipp Johann von Strahlenberg about the kinship of Finnish and Hungarian language, in his book “An historico-geographical description of the north and east parts of Europe and Asia” 1738. London.

ers were broken. Even the gates of scientiﬁc institutions became closed...”

"...a Nap vértengerbe áldozott le. Magyarországra a mérhetetlen gyásznak éjszakája borult; legnemesebb erői törve voltak. Még a tudományos intézetek kapui is bezárul-tak...” in: Herman Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tu-dományos madártan megalapítója. p. 39.[22]

1.2 The role of the Habsburgs

Hungary’s constitution and her territorial integrity were abolished, and her territory was partitioned into crown lands. This signalled the start of a long era ofabsolutist rule. The Habsburgs introduced dictatorial rule, and ev-ery aspect of Hungarian life was put under close scrutiny and governmental control. Press and theatrical/public performances were censored.[23][24]

German became the oﬃcial language of public admin-istration. The edict issued on 1849.X.9. (Grundsätze für die provisorische Organisation des Unterrichtswesens in dem Kronlande Ungarn), placed education under state control, the curriculum was prescribed and controlled by the state, the education of national history was conﬁned, and history was educated from a Habsburg viewpoint.[25] Even the bastion of Hungarian culture, the Academy

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4 1 ITS ROOTS, ORIGINS, AND DEVELOPMENT

was kept under control: the institution was staffed with foreigners, mostly Germans and ethnic Germans, and the institution was practically defunct until the end of 1858.[26][27][28]_{Hungarians responded with passive} resis-tance. Questions of nation, language, national origin be-came politically sensitive matters. Anti-Habsburg and anti-German sentiments were strong. A large number of freedom fighters took refuge in theOttoman Empire. This resulted in renewed cultural exchange, and mutual sympathy. Turks were seen by many as good allies of the Hungarian cause. Such was the atmosphere, when Vámbéry traveled to Constantinople in 1857 for the first time.[17]

“It should happen and it will happen - I encouraged myself with this, and did not hurt me other problems, just this one: how could I get a passport from the strict and suspi-cious Austrian authorities, and exactly to Turkey, where the Hungarian emigration resided, and, as was believed in Vienna, made rebellious plans tirelessly.”

"Mennie kell és menni fog, - ezzel biztattam magam és nem bántott más gond, csak az az egy: hogy mi úton-módon kaphatok útlevelet a szigorú és gyanakvó osztrák hatóságtól; hozzá még épen Törökországba, hol akkor a magyar emigráczió tartotta székét és, mint Bécsben hitték, pártütő terveket sző fáradhatatlanúl." in: Vámbéry Ár-min: Küzdelmeim. Ch. IV. p. 42.[19]

And this atmosphere granted public interest for the then new theory of Max Müller. The Habsburg government saw this “Turkism” as dangerous to the empire, but had no means to suppress it. (The Habsburg Empire lost large territories in the early 19th century /Flanders and Luxembourg/, and lost most of its Italian holdings a lit-tle later, so many members of the Austrian political elite (Franz Joseph I of Austriahimself, Archduke Al-brecht, Duke of Teschen, major general Ferdinand Franz Xaver Johann Freiherr Mayerhofer von Grünbühel for example)[29]_{) dreamed about Eastern land grabs.}[30][31]₎ As a consequence of theFranco-Austrian Warand the Austro-Prussian War, the Habsburg Empire was on the verge of collapse in 1866, because these misfortunate military endeavours resulted in increased state spend-ing, speeding inﬂation, towering state debts and ﬁnancial crisis.[32]

The Habsburgs were forced to reconcile with Hungary, to save their empire and dynasty. The Habsburgs and part of the Hungarian political elite arranged the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, despite the fact that the overwhelming majority of the populace wanted full in-dependence. The Compromise was arranged and legiti-mated by a very small part of the Hungarian society (suf-frage was very limited: less than 8 percent of the pop-ulation had voting rights), and was seen by a very large part of the population as betrayal of the Hungarian cause and the heritage of the 1848-49 War of Independence. This caused deep and lasting cracks in Hungarian soci-ety. Academic science remained under state scrutiny and

Vámbéry Ármin about Turanian peoples in his “Vámbéry Ármin vázlatai Közép-Ázsiából. Ujabb adalékok az oxusmelléki orszá-gok népismereti, társadalmi és politikai viszonyaihoz.” 1868. Pest

pressure, and press remained under (albeit more permis-sive) censorship. Matters of nation, language, national origin remained politically sensitive themes, and Turkism remained popular.

“However, to get the Compromise accepted within the so-ciety posed serious diﬃculties. Many counties (for exam-ple Heves, Pest, Szatmár) rejected the Compromise and stood up for Kossuth, the opposition organized a network of Democratic circles, on theGreat Hungarian Plain anti-government and anti-Compromise demonstrations of sev-eral thousand men took place, etc. The government, sus-pending its liberal principles, decided to take ﬁrm counter moves: imprisoned László Böszörményi who published theKossuthletters, banned the Democratic circles, sent a royal commissioner to the most resistantHeves County. The stabilization of the system and the admittance of new political institutions, however, still dragged on for years.” "Viszont a kiegyezés elfogadtatása a társadalommal, komoly nehézségekbe ütközött. Több megye (például Heves, Pest, Szatmár) elutasította a kiegyezést és kiállt Kossuth mellett, az ellenzék megszervezte a demokrata körök hálózatát, az Alföldön többezres kormány- és kiegyezés-ellenes népgyűlésekre került sor stb. A ko-rmány, felfüggesztve liberális elveit, határozott ellen-lépésekre szánta el magát: bebörtönözte aKossuthleveleit

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1.4 The “Ugric-Turkic War” 5

közlő Böszörményi Lászlót, betiltotta a demokrata köröket, a leginkább ellenálló Heves megyébe pedig királyi biz-tost küldött. A rendszer stabilizálása és az új politikai in-tézmények elfogadása azonban még így is évekig elhúzó-dott." in: Cieger András: Kormány a mérlegen - a múlt században.[33]

1.3 Ármin Vámbéry’s work

Vámbéry started his second journey into Asia in July 1861 with the approval and monetary help of the Akadémia and its president, Emil Dessewﬀy. After a long and perilous journey he arrived at Pest in May 1864. He went to London to arrange the English language pub-lication of his book about the travels. “Travels in Cen-tral Asia” and its Hungarian counterpart “Közép-ázsiai utazás” were published in 1865. Thanks to his trav-els Vámbéry became an internationally renowned writer and celebrity. He became acquainted with members of British social elite. The Ambassador of Austria in Lon-don gave him a letter of recommendation to the Emperor, who received him in an audience and rewarded Vám-béry’s international success by granting him professorship in the Royal University of Pest.[19]

Vámbéry published his “Vámbéry Ármin vázlatai Közép-Ázsiából. Ujabb adalékok az oxusmelléki országok népis-mereti, társadalmi és politikai viszonyaihoz.” in 1868. Perhaps this was the ﬁrst instance of the use of the word “turáni” in a Hungarian language scientiﬁc text.

At the beginning of Hungarian Turanism, some of its notable promoters and researchers, like Ármin Vám-béry, Vilmos Hevesy,[34][35]_{(Also known as Wilhelm von} Hevesy(1877-1945) He was the older brother ofGyörgy Hevesy, and an electrical engineer by profession, although he was kind of a Finno-Ugrist publishing books and other writings about the Finno-Ugric-Munda kinship, like “Munda-Magyar-Maori, an Indian link between the an-tipodes new tracks of Hungarian origins” and “Finnisch-Ugrisches aus Indien” in the 1920s and 30’s.[36]_{) and}_Ignác Goldziher[37][38]_{were Jewish or of Jewish descent} (Vám-béry was neither proud nor ashamed of his Jewish ances-try, he became a member of the Reformed Church, and considered himself Hungarian).

Vámbéry was a key figure in the development of Tu-ranism, and in the development of the “scientific con-sciousness” of the general public. He was a talented writer: he presented serious scientific matters in an inter-esting, readable manner. His enjoyable books and other writings, presenting customs, traditions and culture of far-flung peoples and faraway places were key in raising wide public interest in ethnography, ethnology and his-tory. In fact, the power of his books, coupled with the widespread disillusionment about the political elite turned public attention to the lower classes and peasantry, as bet-ter heirs and keepers of real Hungarian legacy.(The ne-ologists of the first half of the 19th century had turned

towards folklore, myths, ballads and tales in their search of a new national literary style, but had not had interest in other aspects of rural peasant life.)

Vámbéry’s later work, entitled “Magyar és török-tatár szóegyezések.”[39]_{and published in 1869-70, was the} ca-sus belli of the “Ugor-török háború" (“Ugric-Turk War”), which started as a scientiﬁc dispute, but quickly turned into a long-lasting (it raged for two decades) bitter feud. In this work Vámbéry tried to prove with the help of word comparisons, that as a result of intermingling of the early Hungarians with Turkic peoples, the Hungarian language got a distinct dual (Ugric AND Turkic) character, albeit it is basically Ugric in origin, so he presented a variant of linguistic contact theory.

"...the Hungarian language is Ugric in its origin, but be-cause the nations later contact and historical transforma-tion it is equally Ugric and Turkic in character...” "...a magyar nyelv eredetében ugor, de a nemzet későbbi érintkezése és történeti átalakulásánál fogva egyformán ugor és török jellemű...” in: Vámbéry Ármin: Magyar és török-tatár szóegyezések. p. 120.

1.4 The “Ugric-Turkic War”

“The ﬁght, which my fanatical opponents, regrettably, brought over also to the ﬁeld of personal remarks, lasted quite a long time, but the old Latin proverb was proven once again: Philologi certant, tamen sub judice lis.” "A küzdelem, melyet fanatikus ellenfeleim, sajnos, átvittek a személyeskedés terére is, eltartott jó sokáig, de ezúttal is bevált a régi diák közmondás: Philologi certant, tamen sub judice lis." in: Vámbéry Ármin: Küzdelmeim. Ch. IX. p. 130.[19]

Vámbéry’s work was criticized by Finno-Ugrist József Budenz in “Jelentés Vámbéry Ármin magyar-török szóe-gyezéséről.”, published in 1871. Budenz criticised Vám-béry and his work in an aggressive, derogatory style, and questioned Vámbéry’s (scientific) honesty and credibility. (Budenz’s work was investigated and analysed by a group of modern linguists, and they found it neither as scien-tific nor as conclusive in the question of the affiliation of Hungarian language, as the author stated.)[40]

The historian Henrik Marczali, linguist Károly Pozder, linguist József Thúry, anthropologist Aurél Török, and others supported Vámbéry.[1][41][42][43]

The Finn-Ugrist Pál Hunfalvy widened the front of the “Ugric-Turk War” with his book “Magyarország ethnographiája.”,[44]_{published in 1876. In this book he} stresses the very strong connection between language and nation (p. 48.), tries to prove that the Huns were Finn-Ugric (p. 122.), questions the credibility and origin of the Gestas (p. 295.), concludes that the Huns, Bulgars and Avars were Ugric (p. 393.), mentions, that the Jews are more proliﬁc than other peoples, so the quickly

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grow-6 1 ITS ROOTS, ORIGINS, AND DEVELOPMENT

ing number of them presents a real menace for the nation (p. 420.), and stresses what an important and eminent role the Germans played in the development of Hungar-ian culture and economy (p. 424.).

In his work titled “Vámbéry Ármin: A magyarok ere-dete. Ethnologiai tanulmány.”,[45]_{and published in 1882,} Vámbéry went a step further, and presented a newer ver-sion of his theory, in which he claimed that Hungarian nation and language are basically Turkic in origin, and the Finn-Ugric element in them is a result of later contact and intermingling.

"...I see a compound people in Hungarians, in which not the Finn-Ugric, but the Turkic-Tatar component gives the true core...”

"...a magyarban vegyülék népet látok, a melyben nem ﬁnn-ugor, hanem török-tatár elem képezi a tulajdonképeni magvat...” in: Vámbéry Ármin: A magyarok eredete. Ethnologiai tanulmány. Preface. p. VI.

Vámbéry’s work was criticized heavily by his Finno-Ugrist opponents. This critique gave rise to the ever-circling myth of the “fish-smelling kinship” and its vari-ants. It should be noted, that no one of the authors has ever given the written source/base of this accusation against the Turanist scientists. In fact no Turanist scientist wrote such things about the Finn-Ugric peoples. In reality it was coined by the Finno-Ugrist Ferdinánd Barna, in his work “Vámbéry Ármin A magyarok eredete czímű műve néhány főbb állításának bírálata.” published in 1884. In this work Barna called the Finn-Ugric peoples “a petty, fish fat eating people spending their woeful lives with fish-and easel-catching”. Perhaps this was a Freudian slip. The “Ugric-Turkic War” was never closed properly. This forced scientists to try to harmonize and synthesize the differing theories somehow. This resulted in the devel-opment of a complex national mythology. This combined the Asian roots and origins of Magyars with their Euro-pean present. Turanism got a new meaning: it became the given name of a variant of Orientalism, which researched Asia and its culture in context of Hungarian history and culture.

Turanism was a driving force in the development of Hun-garian social sciences, especially linguistics, ethnogra-phy, history, archaeology, and Orientalism, and in the development of Hungarian arts, from architecture to ap-plied and decorative arts. Turanist scientists greatly con-tributed to the development of Hungarian and interna-tional science and arts.

This is a short list of Turkist/Turanist scientists and artists, who have left a lasting legacy in Hungarian cul-ture:

• Ármin Vámbéry(1832-1913) was the founding fa-ther of HungarianTurkology. He founded Europe’s ﬁrst Turcology department at the Royal University of Pest (present dayEötvös Loránd University). He

The origin of 'ﬁsh fat smelling kinship' in the work of the Finn-Ugrist Barna Ferdinánd, titled “Vámbéry Ármin A magyarok eredete czímű műve néhány főbb állításának bírálata.” published in 1884.

was a member of the MTA (Hungarian Academy of Sciences).

• János Arany (1817-1882), poet, writer of a large corpus of poems about Hungarian historical past. He supported Vámbéry in the “Ugric-Turkic War”. He was a member and secretary general of the MTA. • Ferenc Pulszky(1814-1897), archaeologist, art his-torian. He was a member of the MTA and the di-rector of Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum (Hungarian Na-tional Museum).[46] _{He supported Vámbéry in the} “Ugric-Turkic War”.

• Alajos Paikert (1866-1948) Was the founding father of the “Magyar Mezőgazdasági Múzeum” (Museum of Hungarian Agriculture), and one of the founders of the Turan Society.

• Béla Széchenyi (1837-1918), traveler and explorer of Asia.[47]_{He was a member of the MTA.}

• Jenő Zichy (1837-1906), traveler and explorer of Asia.[48]_{He was a member of the MTA.}

• Géza Nagy (1855-1915), archaeologist, ethnographer.[17][49] _{He was a member of the} MTA.

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1.4 The “Ugric-Turkic War” 7

• Henrik Marczali (1856-1940), historian.[17]_{He was} a member of the MTA.

• Sándor Márki (1853-1925), historian.[17] _{He was a} member of the MTA.

• Lajos Lóczy (1849-1920), geologist, geographer.[17] He was a member of the MTA.

• Jenő Cholnoky (1870-1950), geographer.[17] _He was a member of the MTA.

• Vilmos Pröhle (1871-1946), Orientalist, linguist, one of the ﬁrst researchers of Chinese and Japanese language and literature in Hungary.[17][50]

• Benedek Baráthosi Balogh (1870-1945), Oriental-ist, ethnographer, traveler.[51]

• Gyula Sebestyén (1864-1946), folklorist, ethnographer.[17] _{He was a member of the} MTA.

• Ferenc Zajti (1886-1961), Orientalist, painter. He was the warden/curator of the Oriental Collection of the Fővárosi Könyvtár (“Library of the Capital” in English, the present day Fővárosi Szabó Ervin Könyvtár). He was the founder of the Magyar In-diai Társaság ( Hungarian India Society). He ar-ranged Rabindranáth Tagore’s visit to Hungary in 1926.[52][53]

• József Huszka (1854-1934), art teacher, ethnographer.[17]

• Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch (1863-1920), painter, sculptor, artisan, art theorist, one of the founders of theGödöllőartists’ colony, a leading ﬁgure of the Hungarian Arts & Crafts movement.[17]

• Ödön Lechner(1845-1914), architect, who created a new national architectural style from the elements of Hungarian folk art, Persian, Sassanian and Indian art.[17]

• Károly Kós (1883-1977), architect, writer, graphic artist, a leading ﬁgure of the Hungarian Arts & Crafts movement.[17]

The idea of a Hungarian Oriental Institute originated from Jenő Zichy.[54]_{Unfortunately, this idea did not come} true. Instead, a kind of lyceum was formed in 1910, called “Turáni Társaság” (The Hungarian Turan Society (also called The Hungarian Asiatic Society)). The Tu-ran society concentrated on TuTu-ran as geographic location where the ancestors of Hungarians might had lived. “The goal of Turanian Society is the cultural and eco-nomic progress, confederation, ﬂourishment of all Tura-nians, i.e. the Hungarian nation and all kindred European and Asian nations, furthermore the geographical, ethno-graphical, economical etc. research of the Asian conti-nent, past and present. Political and religious issues are

Aladár Körösfői-Kriesch: “Circle Dance of Shamans” 1911. Marosvásárhely, Kulturpalota

excluded. It wishes to accomplish its objectives in agree-ment with non-Turanian nations.”

"Turáni Társaság célja az egész turánság, vagyis a magyar nemzet és a velünk rokon többi európai és ázsiai népek kul-turális és gazdasági előrehaladása, tömörülése, erősödése, úgymint az ázsiai kontinens földrajzi, néprajzi, gazdasági stb. kutatása múltban és jelenben. Politikai és felekezeti kérdések kizártak. Céljait a nem turáni népekkel egyetértve óhajtja elérni."[55]

The scholars of the Turan society interpreted the ethnic and linguistic kinship and relations between Hungarians and the so-called Turanian peoples on the basis of the then prevailing Ural-Altaic linguistic theory. The So-ciety arranged Turkish, Finnish and Japanese language courses. The Turan Society arranged and funded five peditions into Asia till 1914.(The Mészáros-Milleker ex-pedition, the Timkó exex-pedition, the Milleker exex-pedition, the Kovács-Holzwarth expedition, and the Sebők-Schutz expedition.) The Society held public lectures regularly. Lecturers includedÀbdu'l-Bahá[56]_{and Shuho Chiba.}[57] After the outbreak of First World War politics ensnarled the work of the Society. In 1916, the Turan Society was redressed into the “Magyar Keleti Kultúrközpont” (Hungarian Eastern Cultural Centre), and direct govern-mental influence over its operation grew.[1][58]_{The defeat} in the First World War, and the following revolutionary movements and Entente occupation of the country dis-rupted the operation of the Eastern Cultural Centre, so real work began only in 1920. But the organisation was split into three that year, because of pronounced internal ideological stresses. Those who wanted a more scincelike approach formed the “Kőrösi Csoma-Társaság” (Kőrösi Csoma Society). The more radical political turanists left the Turan Society, and formed the “Magyarországi Turán Szövetség” (Turan Federation of Hungary).

In 1920,Archduke Joseph Francis of Austria(Archduke Joseph Francis Habsburg) became the ﬁrst patron of the Hungarian Turan Society[59]

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8 2 POLITICAL TURANISM

Archduke Joseph Francis Habsburg, the ﬁrst patron of the Hun-garian Turan Society

2 Political Turanism

Hungarians and their ancestors lived amongst or in di-rect contact with Turanian/Turkic peoples from time im-memorial to 1908. (A common Hungarian-Turkish bor-der ceased to exist after 1908, in the wake of the annexa-tion ofBosnia and Herzegovinaand the evacuation of the Sanjak of Novibazar.) These peoples played an eminent role in the birth and formation of Hungarian people, lan-guage, culture, state and nation. During the ethnogenesis of Hungarian peopleKabar,Jász(Alan), Avar,Bulgar, Besenyő(Pecheneg),Kun(Cuman) tribes and population fragments merged and amalgamated into the Hungarian population.

Hungary warred with the Ottoman Empire for centuries. As a result of a discord of succession Hungary broke up into three parts in the 16th century: one was under Habsburg rule, one became part of the Ottoman Empire (1541.VIII.29.), and the third formed the“keleti Magyar Királyság” (Eastern Hungarian Kingdom)/“Erdélyi Fe-jedelemség” (Principality of Transylvania). Erdély be-came an ally of the Ottomans (1528.II. 29.).[61]_The in-tensive everyday contacts in the one and a half centuries that followed resulted in pronounced Ottoman Turkish in-ﬂuence on Hungarian art and culture from music to jew-ellery and clothing, from agriculture to warfare. In the last third of the 17th century strife intensiﬁed between the Ottomans and the Habsburgs. The main scene of

these power struggles was the territory of Hungary. The Ottoman attempts at further territorial expansion failed in the end and the Habsburgs reconquered the Hungar-ian territories. But there was a conﬂict in the circles of Hungarian political elite: many members of it were un-willing to swap the Ottoman alliance for direct Habsburg rule. A large group aspired for full independence, but felt Turkish dependence more amenable than Habsburg reign.Thököly’sliberation movement andRákóczi’s War of Independencemeant the climax of this Turkism. So, as one can see, Turkish orientation had a long tradition in Hungary.

Turkism was reborn in the wake of the 1848-49 War of Independence. During the war Hungary was attacked by the Habsburgs, and many of her ethnic minorities turned against the country. Serious clashes occurred between the Hungarians and the Vlachs of Eastern Hungary and the Serbs of the South. There were serious atrocities against ethnic Hungarians; these events are remembered as “oláhjárások” and “rácjárások” ("Vlachrampages” and "Rascianrampages”).[62]_{Hungary was defeated with the} help of Russian military intervention.

These painful events and experiences changed Hungari-ans’ attitudes profoundly: They began to feel themselves insecure and endangered in their own home. From this time on, Pan-Slavism and Pan-Germanism were seen as serious threats to the existence of Hungary and Hungar-ians. Hungarians looked for allies and friends to secure their position. They turned towards the rivals of the Hab-sburgs - to Turkey, to the Italians, even to the Prussians - for support and help. Hungarians were interested in a stable, strong and friendly Turkey, capable of preventing Russian and/or Habsburg expansion in the Balkans. Hungarian political movements and attempts to regain independence proved unfruitful. At the same time, the Habsburgs were unable to acquire the leading position of the German union, and Germany became united under Prussian rule. The Habsburgs took their empire to the verge of collapse with a series of miscalculated political and military moves. This led to the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Hungarian supporters of the Compromise have argued that the already weakened Aus-tria is no longer a threat to the Hungarians, but can help prevent Slavic expansion.

Despite the Compromise, the Hungarians were ambiva-lent towards these old-new Austrian allies.

“If the balance of opinion in Hungary were always deter-mined by sober political calculation, this brave and in-dependent people, isolated in the broad ocean of Slav populations, and comparatively insigniﬁcant in numbers, would remain constant to the conviction that its position can only be secured by the support of the German element in Austria and Germany. But the Kossuth episode, and the suppression in Hungary itself of the German elements that remained loyal to the Empire, with other symptoms showed that among Hungarian hussars and lawyers

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self-9

conﬁdence is apt in critical moments to get the better of political calculation and self-control. Even in quiet times many a Magyar will get the gypsies to play to him the song, 'Der Deutsche ist ein Hundsfott' ('The German is a blackguard').” Bismarck, Otto von: Bismarck, the man and the statesman: being the reﬂections and reminiscences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck. 1898. Vol. II. p. 255-256.[63]

In the half-century prior to the First World War, some Hungarians encouraged Turanism as a means of unit-ing Turks and Hungarians against the perils posed by the Slavs and Pan-Slavism. However Pan-Turanism was never more than an outrider to the more prevalent Pan-Turkistmovement.[64]_{Turanism helped in the creation of} the important Turkish-Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian-Austro-Hungarian military and strategic alliances. The movement received impetus after Hungary’s defeat in World War I. Under the terms of theTreaty of Trianon (1920.VI.4.), the new Hungarian state constituted only 32,7 percent of the territory of historic, pre-treaty Hun-gary, and lost 58,4 percent of its total population. More than 3,2 million ethnic Hungarians, one-third of all Hun-garians resided outside the new boundaries of Hungary, in the successor states, under oppressive conditions. Old Hungarian cities of great cultural importance like Poz-sony, Kassa, Kolozsvár were lost. Under these circum-stances no Hungarian government could survive without seeking justice for Magyars and Hungary. Reuniting the Magyars became a crucial point in public life and on the political agenda. Public sentiment became strongly anti-Western, anti-French, and anti-British. Outrage led many to reject Europe and turn towards the East in search of new friends and allies in a bid to revise the terms of the treaty and restore Hungarian power.

“Disappointment towards Europe caused by 'the betrayal of the West in Trianon', and the pessimistic feeling of loneliness, led diﬀerent strata in society towards Tu-ranism. They tried to look for friends, kindred peoples and allies in the East so that Hungary could break out of its isolation and regain its well deserved position among the nations. A more radical group of conservative, rightist people, sometimes even with an anti-Semitic hint propa-gated sharply anti-Western views and the superiority of Eastern culture, the necessity of a pro-Eastern policy, and development of the awareness of Turanicracialism among Hungarian people.” in: Uhalley, Stephen and Wu, Xiaoxin eds.: China and Christianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. 2001. p. 219.[65]

Turanism never became oﬃcial, because it was out of accord with the ideological background of the regime. But it was used by the government as an informal tool to break the country’s international isolation, and build alliances. Hungary signed treaties of friendship and col-laboration with theRepublic of Turkeyin 1923,[66]_with theRepublic of Estoniain 1937,[67]_{with the}_{Republic of} Finlandin 1937,[68]_with_Japan_{in 1938,}[69]_with_Bulgaria

in 1941.[70]

InTransylvania, “Turanist ethnographers and folklorists privileged the peasants’ cultural 'uniqueness’, locating a cultural essence ofMagyarnessin everything from ﬁsh-ing hooks and methods of animal husbandry to ritual folk songs, archaic, 'individualistic' dances, spicy dishes and superstitions.”[71] _{According to the historian} _Krisztián Ungváry“With the awakening of Hungarian nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century, the question became topical again. The elite wanted to see itself as a military nation.The claims of certain linguistic researchers regard-ing the Finno-Ugric relationship were therefore strongly rejected, because many found the idea that their nation was related to a peaceful farming people (the Finns) as insulting...The extremist Turanians insisted on “ties of an-cestry” with the Turkish peoples, Tibet, Japan and even the Sumerians, and held the view that Jesus was not a Jew but a Hungarian or a “noble of Parthia”.”[72]

3 Turanism and Hungarian

fas-cism

The leader of the Hungarian fascistArrow Cross Party, Ferenc Szálasi, believed in the existence of a dis-tinct Turanid Hungarian race (which included Jesus Christ). The idea was a key part of his ideology of “Hungarism”.[73]

In Hungary some fascists (and non-fascists) tried to link the ancestors of the Hungarians toTimur, theOttomans and Japan, which some Hungarians of the 1930s de-scribed as the 'other sword of Turan' (the ﬁrst sword being Hungary).

4 Turanist

belief-systems

after

1989

4.1 Christian Turanists

A Hungarian non-commissioned oﬃcer Ferenc Jós Badiny wrote his book ( Jézus Király, a pártus herceg) “King Jesus, the Parthian prince”, where he invented the theory of Jesus the Parthian warrior prince. Many ChristianHungarian Turanists held the view that Jesus Christ was not a Jew but a proto-Hungarian or a “no-ble of Parthia”.[72] _{The theory of “Jesus, the Parthian} prince” are such, or the reviviﬁcation of real or supposed elements of priest-magicians of ancient “magic” Middle-Eastern world, shamanism, and pagan ancient Hungarian religion. Also somemuslimTurkish Turanists held the view thatMuhammadwas not an Arab but aSumerian, and Sumerians are Turanid according to Turanist theses. It is an opportunity for the Christian Turanists to link Jesus Christ to the ancient middle-eastern mystery and

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10 6 REFERENCES

Jesus Christ as Parthian-Hungarian warrior prince

the ancient pagan Hungarian beliefs. Both Catholic and Protestant religious leaders of Hungary acted against this theory and beliefs.[75]

Theright-wing Jobbikparty and its presidentGábor Vona are uncompromising supporters of Turanism and Pan-Turkism(The ideology of Jobbik considers Hungarians as a Turkic nation.)[76]

4.2 The Habsburg conspiracy theory

The Habsburg conspiracy theory is very popular amongst political Turanists, which was invented only in the 1970s.[77] _{According to the myth, the Habsburgs envied} the glorius Turanian past and “ancestry” of the Hungar-ian nation, therefore Habsburgs created a plan to hide it from the Hungarian and European public opinion. In the reality, it was Emperor Francis Joseph who used his political prestige to give a university cathedra (as pro-fessor) for Ármin Vámbéry, the leaders of Hungarian turanists.[78][79]

4.3 Kurultáj

5 See also

• Curse of Turan

• Pál Teleki

• Turanism(similar Turkic ideology) • Hungarian neopaganism

• Ármin Vámbéry

• Ignác Goldziher

6 References

[1] “FARKAS Ildikó: A magyar turanizmus török kapcsolatai (“The Turkish connections of Hungarian Turanism”)". www.valosagonline.hu [Valóság (2013 I.-IV)]. 2013. Re-trieved 7 March 2014.

[2] GYÖRFFY György: István király és műve. 1983. Gon-dolat Könyvkiadó, Budapest, p. 252.

[3] KOVÁCSNÉ CSÁNYI Bernadett: Honfoglalás kori, valamint magyar és székely populációk apai ági genetikai kapcsolatrendszerének vizsgálata. http: //www2.sci.u-szeged.hu/fokozatok/PDF/Kovacsne_ Csanyi_Bernadett/tezisfuzet_magyar_csanyiB.pdf

[4] MENDE Balázs Gusztáv: Archeogenetika és a hon-foglalás kor népességtörténete: új módszer – régi prob-lémák.http://www.matud.iif.hu/08okt/03.html

[5] HAJDÚ Péter: Ancient culture of the Uralian peoples, Corvina, 1976, p. 134

[6] ZIMONYI István: A magyarság korai történetének sarokpontjai. Elméletek az újabb irodalom tükrében. 2012. http://real-d.mtak.hu/597/7/dc_500_12_doktori_ mu.pdf

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[7] EB on Matthias Alexander Castrén. http: //www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/98799/ Matthias-Alexander-Castren

[8] http://www.britannica.com/bps/search?query=turanism

[9] Traian Sandu,Vers un proﬁl convergent des fascismes ?: “Nouveau consensus” et religion politique en Europe cen-trale, Editions L'Harmattan,2010, p. 213

[10] "...In addition, as the cornerstone for racial nationalism, Hungarian “Turanism” came into being. This pseudo-scientiﬁc ideology strove to prove the existence and su-periority of a uniﬁed Hungarian “race” and therefore in-evitably incorporated an anti-Jewish aspect.” in: Zoltán VÁGI, László CSŐSZ, Gábor KÁDÁR:The Holocaust in Hungary: Evolution of a Genocide.p.XXXIV.

[11] “While Turanism was and remained little more than a fringe ideology of the Right, the second orientation of the national socialists, pan-Europaism, had a number of ad-herents, and was adopted as the platform of several na-tional socialist groups.” JANOS, Andrew C.: The Politics

of Backwardness in Hungary, 1825-1945. 1982. p.275.

[12] "Magyarországon az 1944-ben uralomra jutott

Nemzetszo-cialista Párt több tételt átvett a turanizmus eszmeköréből, aminek következtében a turanizmus népszerűsége erősen lecsökkent, majd a szocializmusban „fasisztává” minősült."/"In Hungary the Nationsocialist Party which

ascended to power in 1944, took over several theses from Turanism’s range of ideas, and as a result the popularity of Turanism strongly dwindled, and then in the socialist era it was labelled as “fascist”."/ in:

“turanizmus”. lexikon.katolikus.hu [Magyar Katolikus Lexikon (Hungarian Catholic Lexicon)]. Retrieved 7 March 2014.

[13] KATIČIĆ, Radoslav: A contribution to the general theory of comparative linguistics. 1970. p.10.

[14] MÜLLER, Friedrich Max: The languages of the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian and Turanian. 1855.https: //archive.org/details/languagesseatwa00mlgoog

[15] Anonymus: Gesta Hungarorum. http://mek.oszk.hu/ 02200/02245/02245.htm

[16] Kézai Simon mester Magyar krónikája. http://mek.oszk. hu/02200/02249/02249.htm

[17] Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon. http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/ 00355/html/index.html

[18] "...amikor Kőrösi elindult a magyarok őshazáját és a ‘hátramaradt magyarokat’ megkeresni, úgy vélte, azokra valahol Közép-Ázsiában, il-letve az ujgurok között bukkanhat rá...”http: //csoma.mtak.hu/hu/csoma-elete.htm

[19] VÁMBÉRY Ármin: Küzdelmeim. 1905. http://mek. oszk.hu/03900/03975/03975.pdf

[20] STRAHLENBERG, Philipp Johann von: An historico-geographical description of the north and east parts of Europe and Asiahttp://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/ 010825073

[21] " Die Stammväter der Magyaren in Ungarn waren, wie die Geschichte leise andeutet und der Ur-Kern ihrer Sprache zu bestätigen scheint, ein Gemisch von Türken und Hyper-boreern. Ihre häuﬁgen Wanderungen hatten noch fernere Amalgamation mit Indo-Germanischen Völkern zu Folge, und so entwickelte sich der heutige Ungar, aus mancher-lei Völker-Elementen eben so geläutert und männlich schön hervorgegangen, wie sein heutiger Nachbar und Ur-Verwandter, der Osmane. " SCHOTT, Wilhelm: Versuch

über die Tatarischen Sprachen. 1836. p.7.

[22] HERMAN Ottó: Petényi J. S. a magyar tudományos madártan megalapítója. http://mek.oszk.hu/12100/ 12102/12102.pdf

[23] BUZINKAY Géza: A magyar irodalom és sajtó irányítása a Bach-korszakban.http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/ 00021/00290/pdf/MKSZ_EPA00021_1974_90_03-04_ 269-293.pdf

[24] CSOHÁNY János: Leo Thun egyházpolitikája. In: Egyháztörténeti Szemle. 11/2. 2010. http://www. uni-miskolc.hu/~{}egyhtort/cikkek/csohany-thun.htm

[25] Az Entwurf hatása a történelemtanításra.

http://janus.ttk.pte.hu/tamop/tananyagok/tort_tan_ valt/az_entwurf_hatsa_a_trtnelemtantsra.html

[26] BOLVÁRI-TAKÁCS Gábor: Teleki József, Sárospatak és az Akadémia. http://www.zemplenimuzsa.hu/05_2/ btg.htm

[27] VEKERDI László: Egy könyvtár otthonai, eredményei és gondjai. http://tmt.omikk.bme.hu/show_news.html?id= 3135&issue_id=390

[28] Vasárnapi Ujság. 1858.XII.19. http://epa.oszk.hu/ 00000/00030/00251/pdf/VU-1858_05_51_12_19.pdf

[29] KOS, Franz Josef: Die Politik Österreich-Ungarns während der Okkupationskrise 1874/75-1879. Böhlau, Köln-Wien, 1984,p.42, p.51.

[30] PALOTÁS Emil: Okkupáció–annexió 1878–1908.

http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/historia/95-01/ ch08.html

[31] http://staff.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/lect10.htm

[32] GOOD, David F.: The Economic Rise of the Habsburg

Empire, 1750-1914. 1984. p.82.

[33] CIEGER András: Kormány a mérlegen - a múlt században.http://c3.hu/scripta/szazadveg/14/cieger.htm

[34] http://mtda.hu/books/zajti_ferenc_magyar_evezredek. pdf

[35] http://mek.oszk.hu/09300/09396/html/01.htm

[36] DRIEM, George van: Languages of the Himalayas: an ethnolinguistic handbook. 1997. p.161-162.

[37] HANEBRINK, Paul: Islam, Anti-Communism, and Christian Civilization: The Ottoman Menace in Interwar Hungary, Cambridge Journals

[38] Steven Totosy de Zepetnek, Louise O. Vasvari: Compar-ative Hungarian Cultural Studies (page:48)

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12 6 REFERENCES

[39] VÁMBÉRY Ármin: Magyar és török-tatár szóe-gyezések.” In Nyelvtudományi közlemények VIII. p. 109-189.http://www.nytud.hu/nyk/reg/008.pdf

[40] Angela MARCANTONIO, Pirjo NUMME-NAHO, Michela SALVAGNI: THE ”UGRIC-TURKIC BATTLE”: A CRITICAL REVIEW.

http://www.kirj.ee/public/va_lu/l37-2-1.pdf

[41] THÚRY József: Az ugor-magyar theoria. 1. rész. 1884.

http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00030/pdf/EPA02392_ egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_02_131-158.pdf

http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00031/pdf/EPA02392_ egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_03-04_295-311.pdf

http://epa.oszk.hu/02300/02392/00032/pdf/EPA02392_ egy_phil_kozl_08_1884_05_416-440.pdf

[44] HUNFALVY Pál: Magyarország ethnographiája.

http://www.fszek.hu/mtda/Hunfalvy-Magyarorszag_ ethnographiaja.pdf

[45] VÁMBÉRY Ármin: A magyarok eredete. Ethnologiai tanulmány.1882.http://digitalia.lib.pte.hu/?p=3265 [46] http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC11587/ 12489.htm [47] http://mek.oszk.hu/05300/05389/pdf/Loczy_ Szechenyi_emlekezete.pdf [48] http://mek.oszk.hu/00300/00355/html/ABC17155/ 17265.htm [49] http://epa.oszk.hu/01600/01614/00002/pdf/nyjame_02_ 1959_051-061.pdf [50] http://kcst.hu/keletkutatas/Keletkutatas_2012-tavasz. pdf [51] http://www.neprajz.hu/bbb/coll.htm

[52] SZABÓ Lilla: Zajti Ferenc festőművész és Medgyaszay István építész magyarságkutatásai. in: Kultúra, nemzet, identitás. A VI. Nemzetközi Hungarológiai Kongresszu-son (Debrecen, 2006. augusztus 23–26.) elhang-zott előadások. 2011.http://mek.oszk.hu/09300/09396/ 09396.pdf

[53] http://terebess.hu/keletkultinfo/lexikon/zajti.html

[54] VINCZE Zoltán: Létay Balázs, a magyar asszirológia legszebb reménye http://www.muvelodes.ro/index.php/ Cikk?id=155 [55] "http://mtdaportal.extra.hu/books/teleki_pal_a_turani_ tarsasag.pdf [56] http://www.bahai.hu/a-bahai-hit/ magyarorszagi-tortenet/abdul-baha-budapesten/#id% C3%81PRILIS_9_SZERDA

[57] Vasárnapi Ujság. 1913.III.16.http://epa.oszk.hu/00000/ 00030/03094/pdf/VU_EPA00030_1913_11.pdf

[58] http://www.muvelodes.ro/index.php/Cikk?id=155

[59] http://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tkt/ ostortenet-nemzettudat/ch07.html

[60] HUXLEY, Aldous: Writers and Readers. 1936. [61] MAKKAI László, MÓCSY András eds.: Erdély

története. Első kötet. 1986. p.409-421.

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[62] BOTLIK József: Magyarellenes atrocitások a Kárpát-medencében. http://adattar.vmmi.org/fejezetek/1896/ 07_magyarellenes_atrocitasok_a_karpat_medenceben. pdf

[63] BISMARCK, Otto von: Bismarck, the man and the states-man: being the reﬂections and reminiscences of Otto, Prince von Bismarck. 1898. Vol. II. p. 255-256. [64] EB on Pan-Turanianism. http://www.britannica.com/

EBchecked/topic/440695/Pan-Turanianism

[65] UHALLEY, Stephen and WU, Xiaoxin eds.: China and

Christianity. Burdened Past, Hopeful Future. 2001. p.

219.

[66] 1924. évi XVI. törvénycikk a Török Köztársasággal Kon-stantinápolyban 1923. évi december hó 18. napján kötött barátsági szerződés becikkelyezéséről.http://www. 1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=7599

[67] 1938. évi XXIII. törvénycikk a szellemi együttműködés tárgyában Budapesten, 1937. évi október hó 13. napján kelt magyar-észt egyezmény becikkelyezéséről. http:// www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8078

[68] 1938. évi XXIX. törvénycikk a szellemi együttműködés tárgyában Budapesten, 1937. évi október hó 22. napján kelt magyar-ﬁnn egyezmény becikkelyezéséről. http:// www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8084

[69] 1940. évi I. törvénycikk a Budapesten, 1938. évi november hó 15. napján kelt magyar-japán barátsági és szellemi együttműködési egyezmény becikkelyezéséről.

http://www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8115

[70] 1941. évi XVI. törvénycikk a szellemi együttműködés tár-gyában Szóﬁában az 1941. évi február hó 18. napján kelt magyar-bolgár egyezmény becikkelyezéséről. http: //www.1000ev.hu/index.php?a=3&param=8169

[71] László Kürti The Remote Borderland: Transylvania in the

Hungarian Imagination, SUNY Press, 2001, p.97

[72] See Ungváry

[73] Stanley PayneA History of Fascism, 1914-1945

(Univer-sity of Wisconsin Press, 1995) pp.272-274

[74] JÁNOS, Andrew C.: East Central Europe in the Modern

World Stanford University Press, 2002 pp.185-186

[75] http://hetivalasz.hu/english_periscope/ shamans-in-the-pantry-25940

[76] http://www.jobbik.com/jobbik_news/europe/3198.html

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13 [78] http://www.tenyleg.com/index.php?action= recordView&type=places&category_id=3115&id= 319584 [79] http://www.nyest.hu/renhirek/ akiknek-el-akarjak-venni-a-multjukat

[80] Kurultaj oﬃcial website

[81] http://www.politics.hu/20120810/

deputy-house-speaker-greets-asian-ethnic-groups-in-parliament/

[82] Barna Borbas (05.05.13). "Élet a szittya bizniszen túl – utak a magyar hagyományőrzésben”(in Hungarian). Heti Valasz. Retrieved 10.05.13. Check date values in: |date=, |accessdate= (help)

7

8 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

8.1 Text

• Hungarian Turanism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Turanism?oldid=628413847 Contributors: Janko, Kusunose,

QuartierLatin1968, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Sborsody, RussBot, SmackBot, Hmains, Hibernian, Voceditenore, Eastlaw, Moreschi, Themightyquill, Dougweller, DumbBOT, Folantin, Magioladitis, Norden1990, Keith D, CommonsDelinker, Nigej, Funandtrvl, Bear-ian, Kursan Kündü, Vanished user ojwejuerijaksk344d, ClueBot, RashersTierney, Niceguyedc, Solar-Wind, Sun Creator, Schreiber-Bike, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Cnwilliams, Böri, Vitaan26, John of Reading, Fakirbakir, Z10987, Nozdref, StasMa-lyga, Odysseus1479, RJFF, Omen1229, Lowercase sigmabot, Koertefa, BG19bot, Bornder, Maghasito, Mogism, Hto9950, Irji2012, ☼, Newnou, Jezebel1349, Su4kin, Agaceri, Drubtri, Friarjuli, Höccendwarf, Deklareson, Diversitirif, Avpop, Diverser, Dosemark, Wakllerse and Anonymous: 73

8.2 Images

• File:Ambox_content.png Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f4/Ambox_content.pngLicense: ? Contributors:

Derived fromImage:Information icon.svgOriginal artist:

El T(original icon);David Levy(modiﬁed design);Penubag(modiﬁed color)

• File:Edit-clear.svg Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svgLicense: ? Contributors: TheTango! Desktop Project. Original artist:

The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the ﬁle, speciﬁcally: “Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although minimally).”

• File:Géza_I.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/G%C3%A9za_I.jpgLicense: Public domain Contribu-tors: Own work, scanned by Szilas from A magyar Szent Korona by Tóth Endre, Szelényi Károly, Kossuth 2000, Budapest Original artist:

Unknown

• File:Jozsef_Ferenc_főherceg.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Jozsef_Ferenc_f%C5%91herceg.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Magyar Turáni társaság Original artist: Unknown

• File:Körösfői-Kriesch_Aladár_-_Sámánok_körtánca_1911_Marosvásárhely_Kulturpalota.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/K%C3%B6r%C3%B6sf%C5%91i-Kriesch_Alad%C3%A1r_-_S%C3%A1m%C3%A1nok_k%C3% B6rt%C3%A1nca_1911_Marosv%C3%A1s%C3%A1rhely_Kulturpalota.pngLicense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist:Maghasito

• File:Max_Müller’{}s_Northern_Division_of_Turanian_Languages.png Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ b5/Max_M%C3%BCller%27s_Northern_Division_of_Turanian_Languages.pngLicense: Public domain Contributors: The languages of

the seat of war in the East. With a survey of the three families of language, Semitic, Arian, and Turanian. 1855. London:Williams and Norgate. 2nd edition Original artist: Friedrich Max Müller

• File:Parthian_Jesus.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Parthian_Jesus.jpgLicense: Attribution Con-tributors: ezoterikustanokegyhaza.hu Original artist: ezoterikustanok egyhaza

• File:Philipp_Johann_von_Strahlberg_about_the_kinship_of_Finnish_and_Hungarian_language,_in_his_book_An_

historico-geographical_description_of_the_north_and_east_parts_of_Europe_and_Asia_1738._London.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Philipp_Johann_von_Strahlberg_about_the_kinship_of_Finnish_and_Hungarian_ language%2C_in_his_book_An_historico-geographical_description_of_the_north_and_east_parts_of_Europe_and_Asia_1738. _London.pngLicense: Public domain Contributors: Philip Johan von Strahlenberg: An historico-geographical description of the north and

east parts of Europe and Asia 1738. London Original artist: Philip Johan von Strahlenberg

• File:Question_book-new.svg Source:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svgLicense: ? Contributors:

Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based onImage:Question book.pngcreated byUser:EquazcionOriginal artist: Tkgd2007

• File:The_origin_of_'fish_fat_smelling_kinship'_in_the_work_of_the_Finn-Ugrist_Barna_Ferdinánd..png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/The_origin_of_%27fish_fat_smelling_kinship%27_in_the_work_of_the_ Finn-Ugrist_Barna_Ferdin%C3%A1nd..pngLicense: Public domain Contributors: Barna Ferdinánd: “Vámbéry Ármin A magyarok

eredete czímű műve néhány főbb állításának bírálata.” 1884. Original artist: Barna Ferdinánd

• File:Unbalanced_scales.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svgLicense: Public

do-main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Vámbéry_Ármin_about_Turanian_peoples_in_his_'Vámbéry_Ármin_vázlatai_Közép-Ázsiából._Ujabb_adalékok_az_ oxusmelléki_országok_népismereti,_társadalmi_és_politikai_viszonyaihoz.'_1868._Pest.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia. org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/V%C3%A1mb%C3%A9ry_%C3%81rmin_about_Turanian_peoples_in_his_%27V%C3%A1mb%C3% A9ry_%C3%81rmin_v%C3%A1zlatai_K%C3%B6z%C3%A9p-%C3%81zsi%C3%A1b%C3%B3l._Ujabb_adal%C3%A9kok_az_ oxusmell%C3%A9ki_orsz%C3%A1gok_n%C3%A9pismereti%2C_t%C3%A1rsadalmi_%C3%A9s_politikai_viszonyaihoz.%27_ 1868._Pest.pngLicense: Public domain Contributors: “Vámbéry Ármin vázlatai Közép-Ázsiából. Ujabb adalékok az oxusmelléki országok

népismereti, társadalmi és politikai viszonyaihoz.” Pest. 1868. Original artist: Vámbéry Ármin

Hungarian Turanism