Principles of Training

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Page 1 of 8 Focus Notes:

Principles of Training

Training is optimized via the use of the principles of training, which are

• Specificity (Specific Adaption to Imposed Demands, or SAID)

• Progressive overload

• Individuality

• Reversibility

Role of Stress

Question: What is physiological stress?

Response:

Question: How does stress improve performance?

Response:

Stress: Supercompensation Theory

Training stressors are based on the Supercompensation theory, which was initially developed by Hungarian scientist Nikolai Jakowlew in the 1970’s.

Fatigue

During the first phase of exercise, the acute responses include sweating, increased respiration and substrate utilization and tissue damage.

The extent of these changes is

a function of the training status of the individual and the characteristics of the stimulus, such as intensity, duration and novelty.

Recovery

The second phase is referred to as incomplete recovery. In this phase homeostasis is restored. ATP resynthesis, neurological recovery, delayed onset of muscle soreness, post exercise oxygen consumption and increased protein synthesis are all markers of this phase.

The length of the phase is a function of the recovery mechanisms in place and genetics.

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Stress: Supercompensation Theory

Supercompensation

The athlete surpasses the previous homeostatic position, thus strengthening whatever physiological machinery is or was responsible for performance. The amplitude of change is a function of the training stimulus, training age and genetics.

Involution

Adaptations are lost. It is important to note that this stage is only seen if the training stimulus is too infrequent.

Training Principle: Specificity (SAID Principle)

Based on the Supercompensation theory, the adaptations to the body are specific to the stimulus. This principle of specificity is commonly referred to as the SAID principle, or

"Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands."

• According to the SAID principle, the body will adapt to the specific demands placed upon it.

• To improve in a specific discipline, such as running, the training movements and exercises should resemble the movement patterns of running.

• Specificity also refers to the adaptations to the physiological systems arising from a training program. *

Training Principle: Progressive Overload

According to the Supercompensation theory, it takes a progressively stronger stimulus to evoke the same response. This is referred

to as progressive overload.

To create overload, the stress may increase in intensity, duration or frequency.

Examples: To increase muscular strength, an increasingly greater resistance is added to movement

by adding external weight. In triathlon, cardiovascular capacity is increased by forcing the body to swim, bike or run for progressively longer distances or at faster velocities.

Training plans progressively increase the workload, but should

allow for periods of recovery.

Instructor Note: Training plan development is based on the Supercompensation theory.

*Instructor Note: Think of it in terms of VO2 max. Running produces a higher VO2 max than cycling and swimming, so one cannot assume that the metabolic power used in running will be the same for cycling or swimming

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Training Principle: Individuality

Everyone responds differently to the stress of training. A coach must tailor a training plan to an individual athlete’s needs to produce a maximal response.

Coaches must also use caution when comparing one athlete to another in training.

Training Principle: Reversibility

If a stress is not elicited frequently enough, adaptations will be lost and the body may revert back to its previous condition.

After a week’s complete inactivity, changes begin to occur in the body that result in fitness losses. For the athlete and coach, this emphasizes the need for consistent training as even a short period of time away can lead to significant reductions in capacity.

Training Variables

The training principles are enacted via the manipulation of the three training variables:

intensity, duration and frequency. These variables are manipulated during each training session, and throughout a training plan to accomplish a specific goal.

Instructor Note: Intensity and duration have an inverse relationship—the higher the intensity for the activity, the shorter the duration must be.

The goal of this session is to improve the athlete’s lactate

threshold.

Frequency is related to the amount of time between training stimuli.

Intensity is the rate of energy expenditure and is most simply

expressed as the rate of ATP breakdown. A high-intensity activity will rely heavily upon the

ATP-PC or anaerobic glycolysis energy systems, while a moderate-

to-low intensity activity will be more reliant upon the oxidative

energy system.

Duration is the amount of work performed, typically expressed in time

(for example, running for 30 minutes) or distance (swimming 3,000 meters).

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Measuring Exercise Intensity

Exercise intensity is measured in a variety of ways. No single method of measurement provides a complete picture of the intensity experienced by the athlete.

You should use more than one measurement when planning training sessions or evaluating performance results.

Exercise Intensity: Rate of Perceived Exertion

• The rate of perceived exertion, or RPE, is a psycho-physical method of quantifying how an athlete experiences exercise intensity.

• It links physical signs, such as difficulty breathing, with a psychologically perceived scoring scale.

• The revised Borg Scale, which will be used in this course, more closely reflects the metabolic (lactate) and ventilator response during progressive training intensities.

• Beginner athletes may not be able to accurately estimate their RPE. Therefore, for beginner athletes, RPE may benefit from combining RPE with another intensity measure.

Exercise Intensity: Heart Rate

• Heart rate is one of the most common measures of cardiovascular fitness.

• Heart rate has a direct, linear relationship with the rate of energy expenditure. As one increases, so does the other.

• Absolute heart rate or a relative percentage of heart rate can be used as a measure of training intensity.

• Factors that affect heart rate: illness, emotional stress, medications, body temperature, sleep, dehydration, low glycogen levels, caffeine, heat and humidity.

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Exercise Intensity: Maximum Heart Rate Measures, Blood Lacate

There are two ways to measure heart rate intensity: heart rate reserve and maximum heart rate.

Complete the table with the definition and how to calculate it

Exercise Intensity: Blood Lactate Threshold

Blood lactate levels can be used to

establish training intensities. The result is a lactate index with associated heart rates.

These values are used to recommend training intensity based on heart rate zones.

To obtain the blood lactate levels, the athlete undergoes a graded exercise test. A blood sample (for analyzing blood lactate levels) and corresponding heart rate is obtained after each level of progression is

achieved. The result is a lactate index with associated heart rates. These values are used to recommend training intensity based on heart rate zones.

Heart Rate Measure Definition and How to Calculate Maximum Heart Rate

Heart Rate Reserve

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Exercise Intensity: Functional (Lactate) Threshold Heart Rate

• A field test can be performed to estimate the heart rate at which the athlete reaches a predicted lactate threshold, which we will refer to as functional threshold heart rate.

• The results of this test can be used to assign training intensities based on a percentage of heart rate at the predicted lactate threshold.

Exercise Intensity: Pace

• Pace is the time required to cover a particular distance and is therefore related to speed or velocity. For example, an athlete might run at a pace of 6 minutes per mile for 3.1 miles, or 5 kilometers.

• You can assign a specific pace or a relative percentage of race pace as a measure of training intensity.

Exercise Intensity: Power

• Power is defined as work (force multiplied by distance) performed per unit of time.

• A common method of measuring intensity for cyclists and is expressed in watts (force, or how hard the athlete pushes on the pedals) multiplied by angular velocity (cadence).

• Functional threshold power is the

exercise intensity at which the athlete reaches a predicted lactate threshold.

• A relative percentage of functional threshold power, or an absolute power value, can be used as a measure of training intensity for cycling.

Instructor Note: In the swim, bike, run modules you will learn how to conduct fitness tests to obtain common term for this measurement is lactate threshold heart rate.

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Exercise Intensity: Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET)

• METs is a measure of exercise intensity based on oxygen METs is a measure of exercise intensity based on oxygen consumption. It is typically expressed relative to rest (1MET).

• As a general rule, four to

six METs is considered moderate intensity and greater than 10 METs is considered vigorous activity.

• Some training technologies estimate METs as part of the quantitative data.

Exercise Intensity: Zones and Measures

(Download and Save the Intensity Zone Resource!)

When developing training plans, the coach should establish a targeted intensity for a training session based on a desired goal. The level of intensity is typically classified in

“zones” ranging from easy to very hard. There are many variations of training intensity zones; however, for simplicity, this course focuses on five intensity zones.

Zone 1 Use for warmup, cool down, recovery and technique. Main source of energy derived from aerobic energy metabolism.

Zone 2 Use as a basic component of all endurance training as part of long sessions. Promotes aerobic

capacity and endurance. Main source of energy derived from aerobic energy metabolism.

Zone 3 Use as a component of progressive training, especially time trials and repetitions. Source

of energy begins to shift from aerobic to anaerobic energy Zone 4 - Use for race pace training for middle distance (up to 2 hours)

in the form of time trials and repetitions. Small component for

training >2 hours. Promotes muscular endurance and lactate

threshold endurance.

Zone 5 - Use for speed training with short recovery and short repetitions at close to maximum pace. Promotes muscular endurance, speed endurance, anaerobic

capacity and power. Uses aerobic energy system with a larger dependence on anaerobic energy metabolism. Note: Exercise can be performed above this zone,

but only for extremely brief periods of time.

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Exercise Intensity: Zones and Measures

Determining Training Session Objectives

Each sport is characterized by a unique

combination of strength, speed and endurance. Tudor Bompa, considered by many to be the father of modern periodization, calls these sport specific

“biomotor abilities” and illustrated them on 3 continuums, linked to each other in a triangle.

Complete the chart with a definition of each “biomotor ability”

Biomotor Ability Definition Endurance

Strength Speed

Muscular Endurance Anaerobic Endurance Power

Instructor Note: the purpose of manipulating training variables, like intensity, is to achieve a certain goal or outcome in a training session. For endurance athletes, the training session goal will focus on improving performance in endurance, strength, speed or a combination of these abilities, as well as developing technical and tactical skills.

Instructor Note: Some coaches use more zones (1-6), some use fewer (1-3), but the general idea is the same: the higher the zone, the harder the athlete is working. Each zone derives its purpose from the unique physiology that it characterizes. When creating a training plan, it’s important to use more than one measure of intensity, as no single method provides a complete picture.