SCIENTISTS & MATHEMATICIANS Aristotle
Who: Greek philosopher
What: His ideas shaped concept of science, nature, and the universe until the Scientific Revolution When: 384 BCE – 322 BCE
Where: Ancient Greece
Why (sig): His ideas were accepted as true for many years. No one questioned them, even though they were false. These ideas included: geocentric universe, the four basic elements (earth, water, wind, fire), and other
misconceptions about nature. The early scientists of the 16th century challenged these ideas, and were met with considerable opposition.
Ptolemy
Who: Roman astronomer
What: Responsible for the geocentric model of the universe believed to be true for over a thousand years When: 90-168 AD
Where: Roman
Why (sig): Earth was the center of the universe (geocentrism) and everything revolved around it on spheres. There were many problems with it, mainly the motion of planets. Sometimes planets were observed to move backwards across the sky. Ptolemy explained these motions through epicycles which were little circles within the orbits. Very complicated system.
Copernicus
Who: Polish priest and astronomer
What: Introduced new idea for how the universe was arranged When: 1473-1543
Where: Poland and later Italy
Why (sig): Rejected the idea of an earth centered universe and proposed his own idea in On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543) that the earth, planets and stars went around the sun instead. Was no more correct than Aristotle but was simpler. Meant to provide a way to fix some of the difficulties of the Ptolemaic system (complex epicycles, explain why some planets appeared to move backwards)
Tycho Brah(e)
Who: Danish astronomer
What: Took big step towards concept of heliocentric universe When: 1546-1601
Where: Denmark
Why (sig): Advocated a geocentric universe: Mercury and Venus revolves around sun, but sun goes around earth. He also made instruments to better see the heavens. although he supported a geocentric universe, his data was essential to proving a heliocentric universe.
Johannes Kepler
Who: German astronomer, Brahe’s assistant (“super genius” -Mr.Iannone) What: Took over Brahe’s work and data
When: (1571-1630) Where: Insignificant
Why (sig): Influenced by Neoplatonism of Renaissance: held sun in special honor. Advocated a heliocentric universe, and used Brahe’s extensive data to support it. Found mathematical patterns in Brahe’s data to support ideas. To make heliocentrism work, he had to get rid of epicycles. Published all of the new findings in The New Astronomy, 1609. Yet he still couldn't explain why planets moved in orbits. Enter: Isaac Newton.
Francis Bacon
Who: English lawyer and amature philosopher
When: 1561-1626 Where: England
Why (sig): One of the first major writers to encourage people to find their own knowledge rather than relying on ideas of the past. To do so, he introduced the empirical method for gathering information. This involved scientists making observations about the natural world then drawing hypothesis from those. Linked science and material progress, which influenced Western civilization by encouraging change and innovation through science. Believed pursuit of knowledge would strengthen governments which helped them accept rational thought and reason.
René Descartes
Who: Mathematician and philosopher
What: Contributed to science through development of scientific method known as deductive reasoning. When: Lived 1596-1650, published Discourse on Method in 1637.
Where: France
Why (sig): Introduced the deductive method of gathering scientific information. Takes a general statement or hypothesis and uses generalizations to prove true. ("All men are mortal. Harold is a man. Therefore, Harold is mortal.”) If something is true for a class of things in general, it is true for all things in that class. Divided the world into two categories: things occupying space and thinking things. Reason was only applied to the world with things occupying space.
Galileo Galilei
Who: Italian mathematician, philosopher, and astronomer
What: Challenged Aristotle’s ideas and the Roman Catholic Church’s doctrine on the geocentric universe When: Lived 1564-1642 / discussed ideas in Rome 1615-1616 / condemned by Church in 1633 /
Where: Italy (Florence; patronized by Medici’s)
Why (sig): Universe is one of mathematical laws, so it could be explained logically. Invented his own telescope and revolutionized astronomy: saw Saturn’s moons, the stars, and came to conclusion that universe = heliocentric. Supported Copernicus’ idea of a heliocentric universe and published Starry Messenger in 1610 and Letters on Sunspots in 1613. Popularized Copernican universe and concept of a mathematical universe, but not without a price.He was condemned by the Church for going against their doctrine and Copernicus’ book banned.
Isaac Newton
Who: English mathematician What: Discovered laws of physics
When: Lived 1642-1727, published Principia Mathematica in 1687. Where: England
Why (sig): Explained why the planets stayed in orbit through his works in Principia Mathematica which introduced the idea of gravity. Used Bacon’s empirical method of reason (observations before trying to explain them) and helped popularize that method of reason. Discovered many important physics laws that provided a base for further studies.
Blaise Pascal (420 blaise it) Who: French mathematician
What: Worked to reconcile the faith with the new science When: 1623-1662
Where: France
Why (sig): Worked to counteract the new rationalism and science because he believed that God improved psychological life. Said reason was too weak to answer problems of human nature but those who were capable of reason would find themselves directed to faith in God and divine GRACE.
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz What: Math
Why (sig): Discovered calculus independently of Newton.
Carl Linnaeus
Who: Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist What: Helped fuel the Sci Rev
When: 1707-1778 Where: Suh-vee-den
Why (sig): Created binomial nomenclature, the scientific way to name organisms. Father of modern taxonomy and ecology.
William Harvey Who: English physician
What: Made important medical discoveries When: 1578-1657
Where: England
Why (sig): Discovered the circulation of blood throughout the body. Hobbes took interest in his work and was influenced by it.
Emilie du Chatelet
Who: Voltaire’s mistress; lived with him in Cirey, France. What: Brilliant mathematician who guided Voltaire and aided him. When:1706-1749
Where: France
Why (sig): Helped Voltaire popularize Newton’s works in France:helped Voltaire publish Philosophy of Newton in 1738, translated Isaac’s Principia into French. Another example of women working alongside men in science and math.
Margaret Cavendish
Who: Noblewoman married to the duke of Newcastle What: Used social status to break into the scientific ring When: 1623-1673
Where: England
Why (sig): Only woman to be allowed to visit a meeting of the Royal Society of London, made important contributions to the scientific world. Defied gender ideas that kept many women out of the science/philosophy scene.
Maria Winkelmann
Who: Wife of Gottfried Kirch What: Astronomer
When: 1702 (comet discovery) Where: Germany
Why (sig): Example of women making discoveries and working alongside husbands. After her husband died, she applied for admission to the Berlin Academy and was denied because of her gender
PHILOSOPHERS, PHILOSOPHES, AND THINKERS Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Who:Genevan philosopher and writer
What: Source of very influential ideas and played a major role in the Enlightenment When: Lived 1712-1778
Where: Recognized and read all over Europe
but had been ruined by society over time. Virtue was present in state-of-nature, but lost as society was formed (Discourse… Inequality, 1755). Progress in science ≠ progress in morality. POLITICS→ Rational minds are free minds, and a correct government will have truly moral and free (rational) people. Rousseau had the idea of the “general will” in which the government was supposed to do what was best for its people. Now this was achieved by the people electing its representatives, who would voice their needs. Freedom was rationality, so some people had to be “forced” into freedom. They had to do things that they didn’t think was for their best interest, but it was for the people as a whole. Once the person understood this, he/she became “free”. Only the people who were rational would be able to recognize that what the government was doing was best for the people.
Adam Smith
Who: Professor at Glasgow University What: Economic reformer
When: Lived 1723-1790, published Wealth of Nations in 1776 Where: England
Why (sig): Proposed the laissez-faire economic method that suggested limited government involvement in economic affairs would actually help grow the economy. Argued against mercantilism because individuals couldn’t pursue their own selfish economic interests which would in turn expand the economy.
Voltaire(Francois-Marie Arouet) Who: French philosophe
What: Influenced French society though his ideas and principles When: Lived 1694-1778 / Exiled to England, 1726
Where: France, and Voltaire’s hideouts
Why (sig): He criticised French nobles through plays and poems and had to leave France. He loved England’s freedom and wanted France to do likewise. Had a pessimistic view on nature and humanity, and received some criticism for it. Advocated religious tolerance and wanted all nations to accept all religions. He was helped a lot by Chatelet in popularizing Newton’s works.
Hobbes
Who: Most original English political philosopher When: 1588-1679, published Leviathan in 1651 Where: England
Why (sig): Believed all people were in a constant war for power (“war of every man against every man”) and to protect themselves, they had to give up their right for power to one group (gov’t) in return for protection. (Sleep at night with only one person who could kill you rather than the entire society). Humans live in a state of nature filled with death and destruction and the only way to escape was to give up personal liberties in a social contract, because tyranny is better than anarchy.
John Locke
Who: English philosopher and physician
What: Devised a theory of government - Social contract theory (differs from Hobbes) When: 1632-1704
Where: England
Why (sig):Tabula Rasa: people are born with a “blank slate” that is filled up as they live. People’s character is made by their experiences and interactions. In natural state, humans are reasonable and tolerant, but each had a right to defend their “life, liberty, and property”. This is why politically, he favored the SCT, in which the people give consent to a ruler to rule over them. This is to preserve and protect their rights and freedom. If a ruler failed to do so, the people could overthrow him and appoint a new one.
Montesquieu (Charles Louis de Secondat)
Who: Lawyer and nobleman, member of Bordeaux Academy of Science
When: 1689-1755, Spirit of the Laws was published in 1748 Where: France
Why (sig): In Spirit of the Laws he argued that no one type of government would work for every nation at all times and instead should be based on a variety of political factors. One of his most influential ideas was the idea of division of power between branches of the government, a sort of checks-and-balances method where two branches would have power over the other one so no one branch had all the power.
Denis Diderot
Who: French philosopher and writer
What: Helped lead publication of Encyclopedia When: 1713-1784,
Where: France
Why (sig): The publication of Encyclopedia (1751) spread all of the new knowledge discovered by Enlightenment philosophers and scientists around Europe and helped popularize Enlightenment thought.
Immanuel Kant
Who: German philosopher
What: His views shaped modern philosophy and guided the In-lie-10-mint When: 1724-1804
Where: Germany, but his ideas spread across Europe
Why (sig):Critique of Pure Reason, 1781. Tried to combine reason and experience instead of using one or another. Wrote confusing books.
Baruch Spinoza (spiNOSEa)
Who: Jewish merchant who used reason to change traditional thoughts What: Set the example for a secularized version of Judaism When: 1632-1677
Where: Amsterdam
Why (sig): Closely identified spiritual and natural worlds, many condemned him for not leaving room for a God or other divine figure. Many pegged him as an atheist. He described the origin of religion in naturalistic terms and encouraged other Christians and Jews to use reason to read the Bible (which would prove much of it to be false). Believed to be leading people away from religion. Preached toleration and condemned traditional Judaism.
Moses Mendelssohn
Who: Leading Jewish philosopher
What: Wanted Jews to enter society but unlike Spinoza, believed they could keep Jewish faith. When: 1729-1786
Where: Germany
Why (sig): Mendelssohn wanted religious toleration for Jews but believed they should be able to keep their Jewish tradition along the way. Mixed loyalty to Judaism with rationality and Enlightenment values. Thought religious diversity within a nation would not hurt loyalty and thus governments should be religiously neutral. Also believed that within Judaism, there should be more toleration for different forms of Judaism and Jewish communities shouldn’t have the right to excommunicate members.
Marquis Cesare Beccaria
Who: Italian aristocrat and philosophe What: Called for reform of criminal law
When: Lived 1738-1794 / published On Crimes and Punishments in 1764 Where: Italia
Jean le Rond d’Alembert Who: French writer
What: Co-editor of Encyclopedia
When: Lived 1717-1783 / first volume of Encyclopedia published in 1751 Where: France
Why (sig): He helped publish the Encyclopedia, which captured all the ideas and theories of the Enlightenment. A project as monumental had never been done before this, and it was a huge step in progressing the Enlightenment. The ideas could now be read off of a page and widespread.
Robert Jacques Turgot
Who: Finance minister of France
What: Argued about peasants and land distribution in France When: 1721-1781
Where: France
Why (sig): Turgot was against the metayer system because it was inefficient. It depended too much on peasant farmers’ labor and didn’t bring in enough profit. It merely makes enough food to survive until the next year. This wouldn’t allow for economic growth, and therefore, Turgot didn;t approve.
David Hume
Who: Scottish philosopher
What: Used reason to disprove the Bible and much of religion altogether When: Lived 1711-1776 / Inquiry into Human Nature, 1748
Where: Scotland
Why (sig): Claimed there was no empirical evidence to support the belief of divine miracles that are central to Christianity. “Greatest miracle is that people believe in miracles.”
John Toland
Who: One of the earliest deists
What: Deism: accept that there is a God, but don’t practice religion. When: Lived 1670-1722 / published Christianity Not Mysterious in 1696 Where: Ireland
Why (sig): One of the first deists of the day. Religion is natural and rational, not a mystical phenomenon. He opposed prejudice against Jews and Muslims because he say them as Christians too. This was because they were derived from Christian writings. He offended many Christians and became known as a “Mohametan Christian.”
ENLIGHTENED ABSOLUTISM Joseph II
Who: Emperor of Austria, son of Maria Theresa
What: Helped implement Enlightenment reforms in Austria
When: Co-ruled with Maria Theresa from 1765-1780, then ruled by himself until he died in 1790 Where: Austria, Habsburg domains
Why (sig): Used Enlightenment ideas to reform Austria. Wanted to extend central authority over all Habsburg lands through political and social life. Reduced Hungarian autonomy and refused to crown himself king of Hungary so he wouldn’t have to be nice to them (lol). Favored toleration and worked to bring the Roman Catholic Church under state authority, gave worshipping rights to Lutherans, Calvinists, and the Greek Orthodox as well as relaxed restrictions on Jews. Reorganized the training of RC priests to gov’t supervised training, making them employees of the state.
Frederick the Great Who: King of Prussia What: ^yeah that
Why (sig): Allowed a more open discussion of Enlightenment ideas in Prussia which helped the citizens to support the states’ reforms. Promotion through merit required high appointed nobles to earn jobs through education and worthiness rather than birth. Helped eliminate conflicts between aristocracy and monarchy in Prussia. RELIGIOUS TOLERATION was big with Fred and he allowed Catholics and Jews to settle in his Lutheran domain. Brought in outside laborers to develop Prussian agriculture. Prussians did not prosper because heavy taxation still fell on peasants and he played favorites with nobles.
Catherine (II) the Great Who: Ruler of Russia
What: Reformed Russia based on Enlightenment ideas When: 1762-1796 (reign)
Where: Russia
Why (sig): Gave the nobles a lot of freedom through the Charter of Nobility (1785) worked closely with them to provide a strong enough base for her reforms. Didn’t create a royal bureaucracy because not enough people were educated. So she just put nobles in charge of local offices. Her quest for a warm water port for Russia led to war with the Ottoman Empire but ultimately secured access to the Black Sea, with the treaty of Kuchuk-Kainardji.
OTHER WOMEN OF THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION / ENLIGHTENMENT Salonists
Who: Marie-Therese Geoffrin (1699-1777), Julia de Lespinasse (1733-1776), Claudine de Tencin (1689-1749), marquise de Pompadour (1721-1764) (mistress of Louis XV),
What: Salonists (of France especially) who helped philosophes When: First half of 18th century
Where: Predominantly in France
Why (sig): They helped philosophes socially, politically, and in practical ways. They gave philosophes political connections and social respect due to high fashion. The salons also gave philosophes a place to circulate ideas, and salons were often the centers of attention, leading to ideas being widespread. Pompadour played a big role in publishing the Encyclopedia: got around censorship.
Mary Wortley Montagu
Who: British ambassador to Turkey
What: Brought Ottoman Empire into a new light When: Alive 1689-1762 / in Turkey 1716-1718 Where: Turkey and England
Why (sig): Wrote Turkish Embassy Letters. In these, she praised Turkey for many things and urged England to adopt many of the same policies. Appreciated the freedom that Turkish women had and the freedom that came with the anonymity of the hijabs. She also loved the architecture of the Ottoman Empire. She criticised misconceptions that Western Europeans had of Ottomans.
Mary Wollstonecraft
Who: Stood up for women during the Enlightenment What: Critique of traditional views on women When: 1759-1797
Where: England
