Computer Supported Cooperative Work

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Computer Supported

Cooperative Work

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Outline

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Computer Supported Cooperative Work

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Supporting Communication

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Understanding Cooperative Work

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What is CSCW?

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Computer Supported Cooperative Work

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The field of CSCW focuses on the use of technology

to mediate interactions among people

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Use: Ethnography, design, …

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Technology: Devices, infrastructures, …

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Interactions: Text, audio, video, …

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People:

• Teams, organizations, communities, …

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More definitions

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Rodden:"CSCW is a fusion of the understanding of a

business organisation with the possibilities of modern

computer and communication technologies."

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Brinck:"CSCW is the study of how people work together

using computer technology. Typical topics include use of

email, hypertext that includes awareness of the activities

of other users, videoconferencing, chat systems, and

real-time shared applications, such as collaborative writing or

drawing."

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Digital Media Laboratory Cybrary: "CSCW is a

multidisciplinary research field including computer science,

economics, sociology, and psychology. CSCW research

focuses on developing new theories and technologies for

coordination of groups of people who work together."

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HCI vs. CSCW

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HCI: human-computer interaction

J Individuals’ interactions and relationships with information

technology

J May involve > 1 person, but not necessarily

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CSCW: human-computer-human interaction

J Individuals’ interactions and relationships through

information technology

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Human Interaction

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Simplest social unit: two people.

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Simplest social dynamic: face-to-face communication.

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Communication

J Verbal: What is said

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Effective communication

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Verbal aspects

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Non-verbal communication

J Gestures

J Body language

J Distance = Proxemics: the science of ‘personal space’

• How does the physical proximity between two people affect their interaction?

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Communication between

Group Members

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Communication channels

J Face to face J Telephone J Video conferencing J Chat J Email J Letter J Immersion systems

• Large video wall screen systems

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Face-to-Face Communication

Audio channels Visual channels

Language content Manifest Latent General appearance Facial expression Body movement Vocalisations Psycho-physiolog ical responses eg. nodding, pointing etc. eg. maintaining eye-contact physical characteristics eg. “um”, “you know” information conveyed ambiguities, slips etc. eg. blushing, yawning etc.

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Computer Mediated Communication

Includes often also audio channels

Computer-Mediated Communication Visual channels Language content Manifest Latent Presentation information conveyed ambiguities, slips etc. Layout Precision Capitalisation, Indentation, Structure etc. Accuracy, spelling etc.

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Computer mediated communication

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Voice based

J Telephone, VOIP J

Text based

J Email, chat, sms J

Video based

J Video conference, shared workspace

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Combinations

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Technology for human interaction

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Technology may increase or decrease the distance

between people, depending on the task at hand.

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Vantages and disadvantages over F2F

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Gaze awareness:

Know when someone is looking at you (mutual gaze) Know what someone is looking at (joint attention) Mutual gaze difficult in videoconferencing software:

Apple’s iChat

Why do people seem to be looking downward?

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Hiroshi Ishii developed ClearBoard, a solution to the mutual gaze problem: Concept: “Talking through and drawing on a transparent glass window.”

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Common ground

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Co-presence

J shared reference, shared context J access to same artifacts

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Visibility, Audibility

J ‘rich’ clues

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Co-temporality

J Shared temporal context (e.g. almost break, lunch time)

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Simultaneity, Sequentiality

J Order of utterances

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Reviewability, Revisability

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Functionalities of CSCW systems

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CSCW systems provide support for:

J Sharing of information

J Co-ordination and control of shared work objects J Sharing of workspace

J Organization and common understanding of the work process J Decision making

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Shared information

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Prevent duplication of effort

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Ensure use of same information

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E.g. user Databases, Web pages, news groups,

Multi-user hypertext (wikis)

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Coordination and Control of Shared

Objects

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Changes should be available immediately to all group

members

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support for version control

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Examples:

J Shared editors for synchronous group meetings J Co-authoring tools for asynchronous working J Shared diaries

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Sharing of Workspace

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Group members need to share workspace on which to

develop their ideas

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Similar to white board or flip chart or filing cabinet

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Examples:

J WYSIWIS,

J Electronic whiteboards,

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Organisation and Common

Understanding of the Work Process

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Group members need support

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Role assignment

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Objectives and deadlines

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Keeping informed

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Examples: Co-authoring tools, Agenda management tools,

shared Diary systems

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Decision Making

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Group need support to reach decisions objectives, roles,

method

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Examples:

J Tools to display available facts and options J Argumentation tools

J Naming tools to define terminology J Idea generation

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Besides communication, how, or why do

people cooperate?

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Why cooperate?

J Hypothesis: One good turn deserves another

J Donor expects to receive back some reward from recipient

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Swiss psychological experiments provide evidence against

this view:

J Group of volunteers passed money to one another.

J Volunteers could give any amount of money to any other

volunteer.

J If a volunteer received money, they could no longer give

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Besides communication, how, or why do

people cooperate?

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So… who got rich?

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Those who gave away the least money,

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Those who gave away the most money,

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Those who gave a lot of money to one or a few people, or

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Those who gave a little money to everyone?

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So… why cooperate?

J Hypothesis: People tend to like to reward generous people,

even if they weren’t directly generous to them. Æ J

Cooperation is a positive-feedback phenomenon

J The more cooperation there is in a group, the more

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Group

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To cooperate, people must form groups

"A group is a number of people

working together or sharing beliefs"

(Oxford Concise Dictionary)

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All groups have:

J Objectives/Purposes J Background/History

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Group dynamics

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How do groups form?

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Phases in the life of a group (Tuckerman, 1965)

J Forming: Anxiety about process, dependence on leader,

finding out the rules…

J Storming: Conflict between individuals, rebellion against

leader, resistance to rules…

J Norming: Stable, cohesive group forms, social norms

established, conflicts resolved…

J Performing: Constructive problem-solving, energy directed

toward task…

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Groups

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Groups are a dynamic process: they grow, shrink, change

shape, change leaders, etc.

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CSCW software cannot assume a group already exists, or

that it will stay in its current form.

J How can collaborative software support group formation (and

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Social Norms

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Compliance

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Conformance

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Change

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Grudin: Groupware and Social Dynamics

– Eight Challenges

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Upshot: Groupware is situated in between applications

aimed at individual users and mainframe systems targeting

entire organizations. Because of its peculiar spot,

groupware boasts an impressively high failure rate.

Eight design and evaluation challenges are discussed.

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Grudin: Eight Challenges

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What is groupware?

J Defining feature: software designed/used to support groups

-> social factors become an issue.

J Around since mid-1980s when standalone personal computers

connected to network architectures became pervasive.

J Examples: desktop and video conferencing, bulletin boards,

coauthoring, calendar scheduling, email.

J Market mostly driven by shrink-wrapped sales – isolated

development typical of off-the-shelf products is behind many of the challenges encountered. In contrast, IS software is

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Grudin: Challenge #1

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Work vs. Benefit disparity:

J Problem: Costs and benefits from using groupware are often

distributed unevenly. Principal beneficiaries are often the purchase decision makers/management; but others have to carry out bulk of work without clear motivation.

J Solution: create benefits for all group members during design

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Grudin: Challenge #2

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Critical Mass / Prisoner’s Dilemma

J Problem: Groupware is only useful if most group member

utilize it – more stringent requirement than for individual software. If individuals prefer lurking/freeloading, groupware the app will ultimately fail.

J Solution: Build in use incentives, emphasize individual/group

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Grudin: Challenge #3

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Disruption of social processes:

J Problem: Groupware has to fit into implicit framework of social

group interaction. Not all processes can be represented explicitly.

J Solution: Don’t assume a completely rational work

environment. Understand the subtleties of the target environment. Work with representative users.

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Grudin: Challenge #4

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Exception handling:

J Problem: Groupware has to adapt to/enable ad hoc problem

solving and improvisation; post hoc rule-based systems are too rigid and brittle. In reality, decoupling of rules and actual work patterns is pervasive - allows for flexibility and localized judgment

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Grudin: Challenge #5

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Infrequently used features

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Problem: “To a hammer, everything looks like a nail”:

group communication may be infrequent.

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Solution:

• Integrate group features w/ individual activity

• Design should be unobtrusive yet accessible

• Add groupware features to already existing applications (e.g., MS Office)

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Grudin: Challenge #6

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Difficulty of evaluation:

J Problem: Group context introduces social, motivational,

economic, political dynamics that are hard to measure. Lab situations and prototypes are often ineffective. Because of a lack of definitive studies, the same mistakes are repeated over and over again.

J Solution: (cf. chapter 22)

• Include stakeholders in design decisions

• Ensure multiple support levels

• Heuristics: communication means, individual’s embodiment, shared artifacts, protection, facilitate contact making, facilitation action coordination…

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Grudin: Challenge #7

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Decision making

J Problem: Developers cannot rely on their own individual

informed intuition when group processes are concerned. Group decisions follow complex processes.

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Grudin: Challenge #8

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Managing acceptance

J Problem: Developers are removed from system acceptance

issues. More relevant in groupware than single user systems

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Grudin: Wrap-up

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Take home messages from Grudin’s paper:

Groupware should :

J Directly benefit all users.

J Augment existing applications if possible.

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Developers must:

J Truly understand the working environment where the software

will be used.

J Interact directly with the users in an iterative process. J Question their own decision making processes during the

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Groupware

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"GroupWare is technology designed to facilitate the work

of groups" (Baurens, 2001)

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Main categories of Groupware are:

J Shared information systems J Communication systems

J Shared workspace systems J Group activity support systems J “Virtual spaces”

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Examples include:

J electronic diaries, electronic mail, electronic newsgroups,

hypertext systems, group workspaces, computer conferencing, group decision support systems, collaborative writing tools, …

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Groupware

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Software specifically designed

J to support group working

J with cooperative requirements in mind

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NOT just tools for communication

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Groupware can be classified by

J when and where the participants are working J the function it performs for cooperative work