C on ten ts
Preface xv
List of Tables xix
List of Figures xxi
List of Plates xxxi
PA R T I. FO U N D A TIO N S 1. H istory and Scope o f Remote Sensing
1.1. Introduction 3 1.2. Definitions 4
1.3. M ilestones in the H istory of Remote Sensing 7 1.4. Overview of the Remote Sensing Process 18 1.5. Key Concepts of Remote Sensing 19
1.6. C areer P reparation and Professional Development 1.7. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 25
Review Q uestions 27 References 28
2. Electromagnetic Radiation 31
2.1. Introduction 31
2.2. The Electrom agnetic Spectrum 31
2.3. M ajor Divisions of the Electrom agnetic Spectrum 34 2.4. R adiation Laws 36
2.5. Interactions w ith the Atm osphere 38 2.6. Interactions w ith Surfaces 48
2.7. Summ ary: Three M odels for Remote Sensing 54 2.8. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 56
Review Q uestions 56 References 57
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21
PART II. IMAGE ACQUISITION
3. M apping Cameras 61
3.1. Introduction 61
3.2. Fundam entals of the Aerial Photograph 62
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3.3. G eom etry of the Vertical Aerial Photograph 66
3.4. Digital Aerial C am eras 72
3.5. Digital Scanning of A nalog Images 77
3.6. C om parative C haracteristics of Digital and Analog Imagery 3.7. Spectral Sensitivity 79
3.8. Band C om binations: O ptical Im agery 80 3.9. Coverage by M ultiple Photographs 84 3.10. P hotogram m etry 90
3.11. Sources of Aerial Photography 91 3.12. S um m ary 94
3.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 94 Review Q uestions 95
References 95
Your O w n Infrared Photographs 97 Your O w n 3D Photographs 98 Your O w n Kite Photography 99 4. D igital Imagery
4.1. Introduction 101
4.2. Electronic Im agery 101 4.3. Spectral Sensitivity 106 4.4. Digital D ata 109
4.5. D ata Form ats 111
4.6. Band C om binations: M ultispectral Im agery 115 4.7. Image Enhancem ent 117
4.8. Image Display 121
4.9. Image Processing Softw are 125 4.10. Sum m ary 128
4.11. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 128 Review Q uestions 128
References 129 5. Image Interpretation
5.1. Introduction 130
5.2. The C ontext for Image Interpretation 131 5.3. Image Interpretation Tasks 132
5.4. Elem ents of Image Interpretation 133 5.5. C ollateral Inform ation 138
5.6. Im agery Interpretability R ating Scales 138 5.7. Image Interpretation Keys 139
5.8. Interpretive Overlays 139 5.9. T he Significance of C ontext 140 5.10. Stereovision 143
5.11. D ata Transfer 147
5.12. Digital P hotointerpretation 147 5.13. Image Scale C alculations 148 5.14. Sum m ary 151
5.15. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 152 Review Q uestions 152
C o n ten ts ix
6. Land Observation Satellites 158
6.1. Satellite Remote Sensing 158 6.2. L andsat O rigins 159
6.3. Satellite O rbits 160 6.4. The L andsat System 162
6.5. M ultispectral Scanner Subsystem 167 6.6. L andsat Them atic M apper 172
6.7. A dm inistration of the L andsat Program 176 6.8. C urrent Satellite Systems 178
6.9. D ata Archives and Image Research 192 6.10. Sum m ary 194
6.11. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 195 Review Q uestions 195 References 196 CO R O N A 198 7. Active M icrowave 204 7.1. Introduction 204 7.2. Active M icrowave 204
7.3. G eom etry of the R adar Image 208 7.4. W avelength 212
7.5. Penetration of the R adar Signal 212 7.6. Polarization 214
7.7. Look D irection and Look Angle 215 7.8. Real A perture Systems 217
7.9. Synthetic A perture Systems 219 7.10. Interpreting Brightness Values 221 7.11. Satellite Im aging R adars 226 7.12. R ad ar Interferom etry 236 7.13. Sum m ary 239
7.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 239 Review Q uestions 240 References 241 Lidar 243 8.1. Introduction 243 8.2. Profiling Lasers 244 8.3. Im aging Lidars 245 8.4. Lidar Im agery 247
8.5. Types of Im aging Lidars 247 8.6. Processing Lidar Image D ata 249 8.7. Sum m ary 253
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9.3. T herm al R adiom etry 260 9.4. M icrow ave R adiom eters 263 9.5. T herm al Scanners 263
9.6. T herm al Properties of O bjects 265 9.7. G eom etry of T herm al Images 268
9.8. T he T herm al Image and Its In terpretation 269 9.9. H eat C apacity M apping M ission 277
9.10. L andsat M ultispectral Scanner and T hem atic M apper T herm al D ata 279
9.11. Sum m ary 280
9.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 281 Review Q uestions 282
References 283 10. Image Resolution
10.1. Introduction and Definitions 285 10.2. Target Variables 286
10.3. System Variables 287 10.4. O perating C onditions 287 10.5. M easurem ent of R esolution 288 10.6. M ixed Pixels 290
10.7. Spatial and R adiom etric Resolution: Simple Exam ples 294 10.8. Interactions w ith the Landscape 296
10.9. Sum m ary 298
Review Q uestions 298 References 299
PART III. ANALYSIS 11. Preprocessing
11.1. Introduction 305
11.2. R adiom etric Preprocessing 305
11.3. Some M ore Advanced A tm ospheric C orrection Tools 308 11.4. C alculating Radiances from D N s 311
11.5. E stim ation of Top of Atm osphere Reflectance 312 11.6. D estriping and Related Issues 313
11.7. Identification of Image Features 316 11.8. Subsets 320
11.9. G eom etric C orrection by Resam pling 321 11.10. D ata Fusion 326
11.11. Image D ata Processing S tandards 329 11.12. Sum m ary 330 Review Q uestions 330 References 331 285 305 12. Image Classification 12.1. Introduction 335
12.2. Inform ational Classes and Spectral Classes 337
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12.3. Unsupervised Classification 339 12.4. Supervised Classification 349 12.5. A ncillary D ata 364
12.6. Fuzzy Clustering 367
12.7. Artificial N eural N etw orks 368 12.8. C ontextual Classification 370 12.9. O bject-O riented Classification 371
12.10. Iterative Guided Spectral Class Rejection 373 12.11. Sum m ary 373
12.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 373 Review Q uestions 374
References 375 13. Field Data
13.1. Introduction 382 13.2. Kinds of Field D ata 382 13.3. N om inal D ata 383
13.4. D ocum entation of N om inal Data 384 13.5. Biophysical D ata 384
13.6. Field R adiom etry 387
13.7. U nm anned A irborne Vehicles 389 13.8. Locational Inform ation 392 13.9. Using Locational Inform ation 397 13.10. G round Photography 397
13.11. G eographic Sampling 397 13.12. Sum m ary 403
13.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources Review Q uestions 403
References 404
14. Accuracy Assessment 408
14.1. Definition and Significance 408 14.2. Sources of Classification E rror 410 14.3. E rror C haracteristics 411
14.4. M easurem ent of M ap Accuracy 412 14.5. Interpretation of the E rror M atrix 418 14.6. Sum m ary 424
Review Q uestions 425 References 426
15. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 429
15.1. Introduction 429 15.2. Spectroscopy 429
15.3. H yperspectral Rem ote Sensing 430
15.4. The A irborne V isible/Infrared Im aging Spectrom eter 430 15.5. The Image Cube 431
15.6. Spectral Libraries 432 15.7. Spectral M atching 433
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15.9. Spectral Angle M apping 437 15.10. Analyses 437
15.11. Wavelet Analysis for H yperspectral Im agery 438 15.12. Sum m ary 439
Review Q uestions 440 References 441 16. Change Detection
16.1. Introduction 445
16.2. Bitemporal Spectral Change D etection Techniques 446 16.3. M ultitem poral Spectral Change D etection 452
16.4. Sum m ary 460
Review Q uestions 460 References 461
PART IV. APPLICATIONS 17. Plant Sciences
17.1. Introduction 465
17.2. S tructure of the Leaf 470
17.3. Spectral Behavior of the Living Leaf 472 17.4. Forestry 476
17.5. A griculture 479 17.6. Vegetation Indices 483
17.7. Applications of Vegetation Indices 484 17.8. Phenology 485
17.9. Advanced V ery-H igh-Resolution R adiom eter 487 17.10. C onservation Tillage 489
17.11. Land Surface Phenology 491
17.12. Separating Soil Reflectance from V egetation Reflectance 17.13. Tasseled Cap T ransform ation 495
17.14. Foliar C hem istry 498
17.15. Lidar D ata for Forest Inventory and S tructure 500 17.16. Precision A griculture 501
17.17. Rem ote Sensing for Plant Pathology 502 17.18. Sum m ary 506
17.19. Some Teaching and L earning Resources 506 Review Q uestions 507 References 508 18. Earth Sciences 18.1. Introduction 517 18.2. Photogeology 518 18.3. D rainage Patterns 521 18.4. Lineam ents 523 18.5. G eobotany 527
18.8. Band Ratios 534
18.9. Soil and Landscape M apping 537 18.10. Integrated Terrain Units 540 18.11. W etlands Inventory 542
18.12. R adar Im agery for Exploration 542 18.13. Sum m ary 543
18.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 543 Review Questions 543
References 544 19. Hydrospheric Sciences
19.1. Introduction 549
19.2. Spectral C haracteristics of W ater Bodies 550 19.3. Spectral Changes as W ater D epth Increases 553 19.4. Location and E xtent of W ater Bodies 555 19.5. Roughness of the W ater Surface 557 19.6. Bathym etry 558
19.7. L andsat C hrom aticity Diagram 564 19.8. D rainage Basin Hydrology 567 19.9. Evapotranspiration 570 19.10. M anual Interpretation 571 19.11. Sea Surface Tem perature 575
19.12. Lidar Applications for H ydrospheric Studies 576 19.13. Sum m ary 577
19.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 578 Review Questions 579
References 580 20. Land Use and Land Cover
20.1. Introduction 585
20.2. Aerial Imagery for Land Use Inform ation 586 20.3. Land Use Classification 587
20.4. Visual Interpretation of Land Use and Land Cover 588 20.5. Land Use Change by Visual Interpretation 596
20.6. H istorical Land Cover Interpretation for Environm ental Analysis 597
20.7. O ther Land Use Classification Systems 599 20.8. Land Cover M apping by Image Classification 601 20.9. Broad-Scale Land Cover Studies 603
20.10. Sources of Compiled Land Use Data 604 20.11. Sum m ary 606
20.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 608 Review Q uestions 608
References 609 21. Global Remote Sensing
21.1. Introduction 614
21.2. Biogeochemical Cycles 614
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21.4. E arth O bserving System 622
21.5. E arth O bserving System Instrum ents 623 21.6. E arth O bserving System Bus 627
21.7. E arth O bserving System D ata and Inform ation System 629 21.8. Long-Term Environm ental Research Sites 630
21.9. E arth Explorer 631
21.10. G lobal M onitoring for Environm ent and Security 632 21.11. G ridded Global Population D ata 633
21.12. Sum m ary 634
21.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 634 Review Q uestions 635
References 635
Conclusion. T he O utlook for the Field o f Rem ote Sensing: T he View from 2011
Index
About the Authors
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