1
UNIVERSITY OF ASIA PACIFIC
Report on
Emerging telecommunication technologies
Group Members:
1. Jan A Alam Riyadh (11108002)
2. Masuma Khan (11108017)
3. Md. Rakib Shikder (11108019)
4. Mojaffor Hossain (11108034)
2 Contents: Page No 1. What Is Telecommunications? 4 2. Historical Perspective. 5 3. Wired communication 8 4. Wireless communication 8
4.1 Wireless networks and Advantages 8
4.2 Applications of wireless technology 9
4.2.1. Mobile telephones 9
4.2.2. Wireless data communications 9
4.2.3. Wireless energy transfer 10
4.2.4. Wireless Medical Technologies 10
4.2.5. Computer interface devices 10
4.3. Categories of wireless implementations, devices and standards 11
5. Evolution of Telecommunication Technologies 12
5.1 Mobile radio telephone (also known as "0G") 13
5.1.1Mobile phone network 13
5.2. Mobile broadband 14 5.3. 1st generation or 1G 15 5.4. 2nd generation or 2G 15 5.4.1. 2G technologies 16 5.4.2. Capacity 16 5.4.3. Disadvantages 17 5.4.4. Advantage 17
3 Contents: Page No 5.4.5. Evolution of 2G 17 5.4.6. 2G Shut Down 18 5.5. 3rd generation or 3G 18 5.5.1. Standards of 3G technologies 19 5.5.2. Break-up of 3G systems 21 5.5.3. Features of 3G 22 5.5.3.1. Data rates 22 5.5.3.2. Security 22 5.5.4. Applications of 3G 22 5.5.5. Evolution of 3G 22 5.6. 4th generation or 4G 23 5.6.1. Technical Understanding 23 5.6.2. IMT-Advanced requirement 24 5.6.3. SystemStandard of 4G 25
5.6.3.1. IMT-2000 compliant 4G standards 25
5.6.3.2. Forerunner versions 26
5.6.3.3. Advanced antenna systems 27
5.6.3.4Open-wireless Architecture and Software-defined radio (SDR) 27
5.6.4. Beyond 4G research 27
5.7. 5G (or 5th generation) 28
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1. What Is Telecommunications?
Telecommunication is communication at a distance by technological means, particularly
through electrical signals or electromagnetic waves. [1][2][3][4][5][6] The word is often used in its plural form, telecommunications, because it involves many different technologies.
―Telecommunications is no longer about just the wires and devices, but the cumulative value of the things that the network delivers for customers. It is about making tremendous amount of data accessible and easy to use for billions of users. The best and leading products and services will be those that are completely transparent and offer the most value to the quality-of-life in real-time‖. ---David Belanger, Chief Scientist, AT & T Labs.[7]
Telecommunications has been defined as a technology concerned with Communicating from a distance, and we can categorize it in various ways.
Figure 1
Figure 1 shows one possible view of the different sections of telecommunications.
It includes mechanical communication and electrical communication because telecommunications has evolved from a mechanical to an electrical form using increasingly more sophisticated electrical systems. This is why many authorities such as the national post, telegraph, and telephone (PTT) companies are involved in telecommunications using both forms.[8]
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2. Historical Perspective
1800–1837 Preliminary developments: Volta discovers the primary battery; Fourier and Laplace present mathematical treatises; Ampere, Faraday, and Henry conduct experiments on electricity and magnetism; Ohm’s law (1826); Gauss, Weber, and Wheatstone develop early telegraph systems.
1838–1866 Telegraphies: Morse perfects his system; Steinhill finds that the earth can be used for a current path; commercial service is initiated
(1844); multiplexing techniques are devised; William Thomson calculates the pulse response of a telegraph line
(1855); transatlantic cables are installed. (1845); Kirchhoff’s circuit laws.
1864 Maxwell’s equations predict electromagnetic radiation.
1876–1899 Telephony: Alexander Graham Bell perfects acoustic transducer; first telephony exchange with eight lines; Edison’s carbon-button transducer; cable circuits are introduced; Strowger devises automatic step-by-step switching (1887); Pupin presents the theory of loading. 1887–1907 Wireless telegraphy: Heinrich Hertz verifies Maxwell’s theory; demonstrations by Marconi and Popov; Marconi patents complete wireless telegraph system (1897); commercial service begins, including ship-to-shore and transatlantic systems.
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1904–1920 Communication electronics: Lee De Forest invents the Audion
(triode) based on Fleming’s diode; basic filter types devised; experiments with AM radio broadcasting; the Bell System completes the transcontinental telephone line with electronic repeaters (1915); multiplexed carrier telephony is introduced: H. C. Armstrong perfects the super heterodyne radio receiver (1918); first commercial broadcasting station.
1920–1928 Carson, Nyquist, Johnson, and Hartley present their transmission theory.
1923–1938 Television: Mechanical image-formation system demonstrated; theoretical analysis of bandwidth requirements; DuMont and others perfect vacuum cathode-ray tubes; field tests and experimental broadcasting begin.
1931 Teletypewriter service initiated.
1934 H. S. Black develops the negative feedback amplifier.
1936 Armstrong’s paper states the case of frequency modulation (FM) radio.
1937 Alec Reeves conceives pulse code modulation (PCM).
1938–1945 Radar and microwave systems developed during World War II; FM used extensively for military communications; hardware, electronics, and theory are improved in all areas.
1944–1947 Mathematical representations of noise developed; statistical methods for signal detection developed.
1948–1950 C. E. Shannon publishes the founding papers on information theory. 1948–1951 Transistor devices are invented.
1950 Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is applied to telephony. Hamming presents the first error correction codes.
1953 Color TV standards are established in the United States. 1955 J. R. Pierce proposes satellite communication systems.
1958 Long-distance data transmission system is developed for military purposes. 1960 Maiman demonstrates the first laser.
1961 Integrated circuits are applied to commercial production.
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1962–1966 Data transmission service offered commercially; PCM proves feasible for voice and TV transmission; theory for digital transmission is developed; Viterbi presents new error correcting schemes; adaptive equalization is developed.
1964 Fully electronic telephone switching system is put into service. 1965 Mariner IV transmits pictures from Mars to Earth.
1966–1975 Commercial satellite relay becomes available; optical links using lasers and fiber optics are introduced; ARPANET is created (1969) followed by international computer networks.
1976 Ethernet LAN invented by Metcalfe and Broggs (Xerox) . 1968–1969 Digitalization of telephone network begins.
1970–1975 PCM standards developed by CCITT.
1975–1985 High-capacity optical systems developed; the breakthrough of optical technology and fully integrated switching systems; digital signal processing by microprocessors.
1980–1983 Start of global Internet based on TCP/IP protocol .
1980–1985 Modern cellular mobile networks put into service, NMT in Northern Europe, AMPS in the United States, OSI reference model is defined by International Standards Organization (ISO). Standardization for second generation digital cellular systems is initialized.
1985–1990 LAN breakthrough; Integrated Services Digital Network
(ISDN) standardization finalized; public data communications services become widely available; optical transmission systems replace copper systems in long-distance wideband transmission; SONET is developed. GSM and SDH standardization finalized.
1989; Initial proposal for a Web-linked document on the World Wide Web (WWW) by Tim Berners-Lee (CERN) [2].
1990–1997 The first digital cellular system, Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) is put into commercial use and its breakthrough is felt worldwide; deregulation of telecommunications in Europe proceeds and satellite TV systems become popular; Internet usage and services expand rapidly because of the WWW.
1997–2001 Telecommunications community is deregulated and business grows rapidly; digital cellular networks, especially GSM, expand worldwide; commercial applications of Internet expand and a share of conventional speech communications is transferred from public switched telephone network (PSTN) to Internet; performance of LANs improves with advance of gigabit-per-second Ethernet technologies.
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2001–2005 Digital TV starts to replace analog broadcast TV; broadband access systems make Internet multimedia services available to all; telephony service turns to personal communication service as penetration of cellular and PCS systems increases; second generation cellular systems are upgraded to provide higher rate packet-switched data service.
2005– Digital TV will replace analog service and start to provide interactive services in addition to broadcast service; third generation cellular systems and WLAN technologies will provide enhanced data services for mobile users; location-based mobile services will expand, applications for wireless short-haul technologies in homes and offices will increase; global telecommunications network will evolve toward a common packet-switched network platform for all types of services. [9]
3. Wired communication
Wired communications make use of underground communications cables (less often, overhead lines), electronic signal amplifiers (repeaters) inserted into connecting cables at specified points, and terminal apparatus of various types, depending on the type of wired communications used.[10]
4. Wireless communication
Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a distance without help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical conductors.[11] Wireless operations permit services, such as long-range communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g. radio waves, acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires.[12] Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances.[13]
4.1. Wireless networks and Advantages
Wireless networking is used to meet many needs. Perhaps the most common use is to connect laptop users who travel from location to location. Another common use is for mobile networks that connect via satellite. A wireless transmission method is a logical choice to network a LAN segment that must frequently change locations. The following situations justify the use of wireless technology:
To span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling,
To provide a backup communications link in case of normal network failure, To link portable or temporary workstations,
To overcome situations where normal cabling is difficult or financially impractical, or To remotely connect mobile users or networks.
Developers need to consider some parameters involving Wireless RF technology for better developing wireless networks:
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Sub-GHz versus 2.4 GHz frequency trends Operating range and battery life
Sensitivity and data rate
Network topology and node intelligence
4.2. Applications of wireless technology
4.2.1. Mobile telephones
One of the best-known examples of wireless technology is the mobile phone, also known as a cellular phone, with more than 4.6 billion mobile cellular subscriptions worldwide as of the end of 2010.[14] These wireless phones use radio waves to enable their users to make phone calls from many locations worldwide. They can be used within range of the mobile telephone site used to house the equipment required to transmit and receive the radio signals from these instruments.
4.2.2. Wireless data communications
Wireless data communications are an essential component of mobile computing.[15] The various available technologies differ in local availability, coverage range and performance,[12][16] and in some circumstances, users must be able to employ multiple connection types and switch between them. To simplify the experience for the user, connection manager software can be used,[17][18] or a mobile VPN deployed to handle the multiple connections as a secure, single virtual network.[19] Supporting technologies include:
Wi-Fi is a wireless local area network that enables portable computing devices to connect easily
to the Internet.[20] Standardized as IEEE 802.11 a,b,g,n, Wi-Fi approaches speeds of some types of wired Ethernet. Wi-Fi has become the de facto standard for access in private homes, within offices, and at public hotspots.[21] Some businesses charge customers a monthly fee for service, while others have begun offering it for free in an effort to increase the sales of their goods.[22]
Cellular data service offers coverage within a range of 10-15 miles from the nearest cell site.[16]
Speeds have increased as technologies have evolved, from earlier technologies such as GSM, CDMA and GPRS, to 3G networks such as W-CDMA, EDGE or CDMA2000.[23][24]
Mobile Satellite Communications may be used where other wireless connections are
unavailable, such as in largely rural areas or remote locations.[16] Satellite communications are especially important for transportation, aviation, maritime and military use.[25]
Wireless Sensor Networks are responsible for sensing noise, interference, and activity in data
collection networks. This allows us to detect relevant quantities, monitor and collect data, formulate meaningful user displays, and to perform decision-making functions[26]
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4.2.3. Wireless energy transfer
Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires. There are two different fundamental methods for wireless energy transfer. They can be transferred using either far-field methods that involve beam power/lasers, radio or microwave transmissions or near-field using induction. Both methods utilize electromagnetism and magnetic fields[27]
4.2.4. Wireless Medical Technologies
New technologies such as mobile body area networks (MBAN) the capability to monitor blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen level and body temperature, all with wireless technologies. The MBAN works by sending low powered wireless signals to receivers that feed into nursing stations or monitoring sites. This technology helps with the intentional and unintentional risk of infection or disconnection that arises from wired connections.[28]
4.2.5. Computer interface devices
Answering the call of customers frustrated with cord clutter, manymanufacturers of computer peripherals turned to wireless technology to satisfy their consumer base Originally these units used bulky, highly limited transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard and mouse; however, more recent generations have used small, high-quality devices, some even incorporating Bluetooth. These systems have become so ubiquitous that some users have begun complaining about a lack of wired peripherals Wireless devices tend to have a slightly slower response time than their wired counterparts; however, the gap is decreasing.
Computer interface devices such as a keyboard or mouse are powered by a battery and send signals to a receiver through a USB port by way of a radio frequency (RF) receiver. The RF design makes it possible for signals to be transmitted wirelessly and expands the range of effective use, usually up to 10 feet. Distance, physical obstacles, competing signals, and even human bodies can all degrade the signal quality. [29]
Concerns about the security of wireless keyboards arose at the end of 2007, when it was revealed that Microsoft's implementation of encryption in some of its 27 MHz models was highly insecure.[30]
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4.3. Categories of wireless implementations, devices and standards
Radio communication system
Broadcasting
Amateur radio
Land Mobile Radio or Professional Mobile Radio: TETRA, P25, OpenSky,
EDACS, DMR, dPMR
Cordless telephony: DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications)
Cellular networks: 0G, 1G, 2G, 3G, Beyond 3G (4G), Future wireless
List of emerging technologies
Short-range point-to-point communication : Wireless microphones, Remote
controls, IrDA, RFID (Radio Frequency Identification), TransferJet, Wireless USB, DSRC (Dedicated Short Range Communications), EnOcean, Near Field Communication
Wireless sensor networks: ZigBee, EnOcean; Personal area networks, Bluetooth, TransferJet, Ultra-wideband (UWB from WiMedia Alliance).
Wireless networks: Wireless LAN (WLAN), (IEEE 802.11 branded as Wi-Fi and
HiperLAN), Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN) and (LMDS, WiMAX, and HiperMAN)
Comparison of wireless data standards
Digital radio
Hotspot (Wi-Fi)
Li-Fi
List of emerging technologies
MiFi
Mobile (disambiguation)
Personal area network
Radio antenna
Radio resource management (RRM)
Terrestrial television
Timeline of radio
Tuner (radio)
Wireless access point
Wireless security
Wireless Wide Area Network (True wireless)
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5. Evolution of Telecommunication Technologies
These are emerging telecommunication technologies 1. Mobile radio telephone (also known as "0G") 2. Mobile broadband 3. 1G 4. 2G 5. 3G 6. 4G 7. 5G 8. LTE (telecommunication)
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5.1. Mobile radio telephone (also known as "0G")
Mobile radio telephone systems preceded modern cellular mobile telephony technology. Since
they were the predecessors of the first generation of cellular telephones, these systems are sometimes retroactively referred to as pre cellular (or sometimes zero generation) systems. Technologies used in pre cellular systems included the Push to Talk (PTT or manual), Mobile Telephone System (MTS),Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), and Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS) systems. These early mobile telephone systems can be distinguished from earlier closed radiotelephone systems in that they were available as a commercial service that was part of the public switched telephone network, with their own telephone numbers, rather than part of a closed network such as a police radio or taxi dispatch system.
These mobile telephones were usually mounted in cars or trucks, though briefcase models were also made. Typically, the transceiver (transmitter-receiver) was mounted in the vehicle trunk and attached to the "head" (dial, display, and handset) mounted near the driver seat.
They were sold through WCCs (Wire line Common Carriers, AKA telephone companies), RCCs (Radio Common Carriers), and two-way radio dealers. [31]
5.1.1. Mobile phone network:
GSM network architecture
The most common example of a cellular network is a mobile phone (cell phone) network. A mobile phone is a portable telephone which receives or makes calls through a cell site (base station), or transmitting tower. Radio waves are used to transfer signals to and from the cell phone.
Modern mobile phone networks use cells because radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. Cell-sites and handsets change frequency under computer control and use low power transmitters so that the usually limited number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously used by many callers with less interference.
A cellular network is used by the mobile phone operator to achieve both coverage and capacity for their subscribers. Large geographic areas are split into smaller cells to avoid line-of-sight signal loss and to support a large number of active phones in that area. All of the cell sites are connected to telephone exchanges (or switches), which in turn connect to the public telephone network.
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In cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately 1⁄2 mile (0.80 km), while in rural
areas; the range could be as much as 5 miles (8.0 km). It is possible that in clear open areas, a user may receive signals from a cell site 25 miles (40 km) away.
Since almost all mobile phones use cellular technology, including GSM, CDMA, and AMPS (analog), the term "cell phone" is in some regions, notably the US, used interchangeably with "mobile phone". However, satellite phones are mobile phones that do not communicate directly with a ground-based cellular tower, but may do so indirectly by way of a satellite.
There are a number of different digital cellular technologies, including: Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), General Packet Radio Service (GPRS), cdmaOne, CDMA2000, Evolution-Data Optimized (EV-DO), Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications (DECT), Digital AMPS (IS-136/TDMA), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (iDEN).[32]
5.2. Mobile broadband:
Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile phone towers to computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North America and South Africa), and other digital devices using portable modems. Although broadband has a technical meaning, wireless-carrier marketing uses the phrase "mobile broadband" as a synonym for mobile Internet access. Some mobile services allow more than one device to be connected to the Internet using a single cellular connection using a process called tethering.[33]
The bit rates available with Mobile broadband devices support voice and video as well as other data access. Devices that provide mobile broadband to mobile computers include:
PC cards, also known as PC data cards, and Express cards
USB and mobile broadband modems, also known as connect cards
portable devices with built-in support for mobile broadband, such as laptop computers, netbook computers, smartphones, iPads,PDAs, and other mobile Internet devices. Roughly every ten years new mobile phone technology and infrastructure involving a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency bands, and wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as generations. The first mobile data services became available during the second generation (2G).[34][35][36]
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5.3. 1
stgeneration or 1G:
refers to the first generation of wireless telephone technology (mobile telecommunications). These are the analog telecommunications standards that were introduced in the 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G digital telecommunications. The main difference between the two mobile telephone systems (1G and 2G), is that the radio signals used by 1G networks are analog, while 2G networks are digital.
Although both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system, the voice itself during a call is encoded to digital signals in 2G whereas 1G is only modulated to higher frequency, typically 150 MHz and up. The inherent advantages of digital technology over that of analog meant that 2G networks eventually replaced them almost everywhere .One such standard is NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone), used in Nordic countries, Switzerland, Netherlands, Eastern Europe and Russia. Others include AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) used in the North America and Australia,[37]
TACS (Total Access Communications System) in the United Kingdom, C-450 in West Germany, Portugal and South Africa, Radiocom 2000[38] in France, and RTMI in Italy. In Japan there were multiple systems. Three standards, TZ-801, TZ-802, and TZ-803 were developed by NTT
(Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation [39]), while a competing system operated by DDI (Daini Denden Planning, Inc.[40]) used the JTACS (Japan Total Access Communications System) standard.
Antecedent to 1G technology is the mobile radio telephone, or 0G.
5.4. 2
ndgeneration or 2G:
2G (or 2-G) is short for second-generation wireless telephone technology. Second generation 2G
cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM standard in Finland by Radiolinja (now part of Elisa Oyj) in 1991.[41] Three primary benefits of 2G networks over their predecessors were that phone conversations were digitally encrypted; 2G systems were significantly more efficient on the spectrum allowing for far greater mobile phone penetration levels; and 2G introduced data services for mobile, starting with SMS text messages. 2G technologies enabled the various mobile phone networks to provide the services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS (multi media messages). All text messages sent over 2G are digitally encrypted, allowing for the transfer of data in such a way that only the intended receiver can receive and read it.
After 2G was launched, the previous mobile telephone systems were retrospectively dubbed 1G. While radio signals on 1G networks are analog, radio signals on 2G networks are digital. Both systems use digital signaling to connect the radio towers (which listen to the handsets) to the rest of the telephone system.
2G has been superseded by newer technologies such as 2.5G, 2.75G, 3G, and 4G; however, 2G networks are still used in many parts of the world.
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5.4.1. 2G technologies:
2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)-based and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)-based standards depending on the type of multiplexing used. The main 2G standards are:
GSM (TDMA-based), originally from Europe but used in almost all countries on all six inhabited continents. Today accounts for over 80% of all subscribers around the world. Over 60 GSM operators are also using CDMA2000 in the 450 MHz frequency band (CDMA450).[42]
IS-95 aka cdmaOne (CDMA-based, commonly referred as simply CDMA in the US), used in the Americas and parts of Asia. Today accounts for about 17% of all subscribers globally. Over a dozen CDMA operators have migrated to GSM including operators in Mexico, India, Australia and South Korea.
PDC (TDMA-based), used exclusively in Japan
iDEN (TDMA-based), proprietary network used by Nextel in the United States and Telus Mobility in Canada
IS-136 a.k.a. D-AMPS (TDMA-based, commonly referred as simply 'TDMA' in the US), was once prevalent in the Americas but most have migrated to GSM.
2G services are frequently referred as Personal Communications Service, or PCS, in the United States.
5.4.2. Capacity:
Using digital signals between the handsets and the towers increases system capacity in two key ways:
Digital voice data can be compressed and multiplexed much more effectively than analog voice encodings through the use of various codecs, allowing more calls to be transmitted in same amount of radio bandwidth.
The digital systems were designed to emit less radio power from the handsets. This meant that cells had to be smaller, so more cells had to be placed in the same amount of space. This was possible because cell towers and related equipment had become less expensive. 2G Data Transmission Capacity:[43]
With GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), you have a theoretical transfer speed of max. 50 kbit/s (40 kbit/s in practice).
With EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution), you have a theoretical transfer speed of max. 1 mbit/s (500 kbit/s in practice).
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5.4.3. Disadvantages
In less populous areas, the weaker digital signal transmitted by a cellular phone may not be sufficient to reach a cell tower. This tends to be a particular problem on 2G systems deployed on higher frequencies, but is mostly not a problem on 2G systems deployed on lower frequencies. National regulations differ greatly among countries which dictate where 2G can be deployed.
Analog has a smooth decay curve, but digital has a jagged steppy one. This can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. Under good conditions, digital will sound better. Under slightly worse conditions, analog will experience static, while digital has occasional dropouts. As conditions worsen, though, digital will start to completely fail, by dropping calls or being unintelligible, while analog slowly gets worse, generally holding a call longer and allowing at least some of the audio transmitted to be understood.
5.4.4. Advantage
While digital calls tend to be free of static and background noise, the lossy compression they use reduces their quality, meaning that the range of sound that they convey is reduced. Talking on a digital cell phone, a caller hears less of the tonality of someone's voice.
5.4.5 Evolution of 2G
2G networks were built mainly for voice services and slow data transmission (defined in IMT-2000 specification documents), but are considered by the general public to be 2.5G or 2.75G services because they are several times slower than present-day 3G service.
2.5G ("second and a half generation") is used to describe 2G-systems that have implemented a
packet-switched domain in addition to the circuit-switched domain. It does not necessarily provide faster services because bundling of timeslots is used for circuit-switched data services (HSCSD) as well. The first major step in the evolution of GSM networks to 3G occurred with the introduction of General Packet Radio Service (GPRS). CDMA2000 networks similarly evolved through the introduction of 2.5G
2.75G (EDGE) GPRS1 networks evolved to EDGE networks with the introduction of 8PSK
encoding. Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE), Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), or IMT Single Carrier (IMT-SC) is a backward-compatible digital mobile phone technology that allows improved data transmission rates, as an extension on top of standard GSM. EDGE was deployed on GSM networks beginning in 2003—initially by AT&T in the United States.
EDGE is standardized by 3GPP as part of the GSM family and it is an upgrade that provides a potential three-fold increase in capacity of GSM/GPRS networks.The 2G digital service provided very useful feature like; expended capacity and unique service such as caller ID,call forwarding, and short messaging.
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5.4.6. 2G Shut Down:
Australia
Telstra announced that they will shut down their GSM network by the end of 2016.[44]
Canada[edit]
Sasktel announced that it would be shutting down its CDMA networks in 2015 or early 2016,[45] starting with its EV-DO network, which was shut down on September 30, 2014.[46]
United States
Various carriers such as AT&T have made announcements that 2G GSM technology in the United States is in the process of being shut down so that carriers can reclaim those radio bands and re-purpose them for future technology needs. The shut down will be complete by the end of 2016. [ All 2G GSM devices will lose service at some point between now and the end of 2016.[47] This shut down is having a notable impact on the electronic security industry where many 2G GSM radios are in use for alarm signal communication to Central Station dispatch centers. 2G GSM radios must be replaced by newer generation radios to avoid service outages.[48]
5.5 3
rdgeneration or 3G:
3G, short form of third generation, is the third generation of mobile telecommunications technology.[49] This is based on a set of standards used for mobile devices and mobile telecommunications use services and networks that comply with the International Mobile
Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication
Union. 3G finds application in wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video calls and mobile TV.
3G telecommunication networks support services that provide an information transfer rate of at least 200 kbit/s. Later 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s to smart phones and mobile modems in laptop computers. This ensures it can be applied to wireless voice telephony, mobile Internet access, fixed wireless Internet access, video call sand mobile TV technologies.
A new generation of cellular standards has appeared approximately every tenth year since 1G systems were introduced in 1981/1982. Each generation is characterized by new frequency bands, higher data rates and non–backward-compatible transmission technology. The first 3G networks were introduced in 1998 and fourth generation "4G" networks in 2008.
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5.5.1. Standards of 3G technology
Several telecommunications companies market wireless mobile Internet services as 3G, indicating that the advertised service is provided over a 3G wireless network. Services advertised as 3G are required to meet IMT-2000 technical standards, including standards for reliability and speed (data transfer rates). To meet the IMT-2000 standards, a system is required to provide peak data rates of at least 200kbit/s (about 0.2 Mbit/s). However, many services advertised as 3G provide higher speed than the minimum technical requirements for a 3G service. Recent 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s smart phones and mobile modems in to laptop computers.
the UMTS system, first offered in 2001, standardized by 3GPP, used primarily in Europe, Japan, China (however with a different radio interface) and other regions predominated by GSM 2G system infrastructure. The cell phones are typically UMTS and GSM hybrids. Several radio interfaces are offered, sharing the same infrastructure:
The original and most widespread radio interface is called W-CDMA.
The TD-SCDMA radio interface was commercialized in 2009 and is only offered in China.
The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s in the downlink in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink.
the CDMA2000 system, first offered in 2002, standardized by 3GPP2, used especially in North America and South Korea, sharing infrastructure with the IS-95 2G standard. The cell phones are typically CDMA2000 and IS-95 hybrids. The latest release EVDO Rev B offers peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s downstream.
The above systems and radio interfaces are based on spread spectrum radio transmission technology. While the GSM EDGE standard ("2.9G"), DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements and are approved as 3G standards by ITU, these are typically not branded 3G, and are based on completely different technologies.
The following common standards comply with the IMT2000/3G standard:
EDGE, a revision by the 3GPP organization to the older 2G GSM based transmission methods, utilizing the same switching nodes, base station sites and frequencies as GPRS, but new base station and cell phone RF circuits. It is based on the three times as efficient 8PSK modulation scheme as supplement to the original GMSK modulation scheme. EDGE is still used extensively due to its ease of upgrade from existing 2G GSM infrastructure and cell-phones.
EDGE combined with the GPRS 2.5G technology is called EGPRS, and allows peak data rates in the order of 200 kbit/s, just as the original UMTS WCDMA versions, and thus formally fulfills the IMT2000 requirements on 3G systems. However, in practice EDGE
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is seldom marketed as a 3G system, but a 2.9G system. EDGE shows slightly better system spectral efficiency than the original UMTS and CDMA2000 systems, but it is difficult to reach much higher peak data rates due to the limited GSM spectral bandwidth of 200 kHz and it is thus a dead end.
EDGE was also a mode in the IS-135 TDMA system, today ceased.
Evolved EDGE, the latest revision, has peaks of 1 Mbit/s downstream and 400 kbit/s upstream, but is not commercially used.
The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, created and revised by the 3GPP. The family is a full revision from GSM in terms of encoding methods and hardware, although some GSM sites can be retrofitted to broadcast in the UMTS/W-CDMA format.
W-CDMA is the most common deployment, commonly operated on the 2,100 MHz band. A few others use the 850, 900 and 1,900 MHz bands.
HSPA is an amalgamation of several upgrades to the original W-CDMA standard and offers speeds of 14.4 Mbit/s down and 5.76 MBit/s up. HSPA is backward-compatible with and uses the same frequencies as W-CDMA.
HSPA+, a further revision and upgrade of HSPA, can provide theoretical peak data rates up to 168 Mbit/s in the downlink and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink, using a combination of air interface improvements as well as multi-carrier HSPA and MIMO. Technically though, MIMO and DC-HSPA can be used without the "+" enhancements of HSPA+
The CDMA2000 system, or IS-2000, including CDMA2000 1x and CDMA2000 High Rate Packet Data (or EVDO), standardized by3GPP2 (differing from the 3GPP), evolving from the original IS-95 CDMA system, is used especially in North America, China, India, Pakistan, Japan, South Korea, Southeast Asia, Europe and Africa.
CDMA2000 1x Rev. E has an increased voice capacity (in excess of three times) compared to Rev. 0 EVDO Rev. B offers downstream peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s while Rev. C enhanced existing and new terminal user experience.
While DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements, they are not usually considered due to their rarity and unsuitability for usage with mobile phones. [50]
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5.5.2. Break-up of 3G systems
The 3G (UMTS and CDMA2000) research and development projects started in 1992. In 1999, ITU approved five radio interfaces for IMT-2000 as a part of the ITU-R M.1457 Recommendation; WiMAX was added in 2007.[51]
There are evolutionary standards (EDGE and CDMA) that are backward-compatible extensions to pre-existing 2G networks as well asrevolutionary standards that require all-new network hardware and frequency allocations. The cell phones utilise UMTS in combination with 2G GSM standards and bandwidths, but do not support EDGE. The latter group is the UMTS family, which consists of standards developed for IMT-2000, as well as the independently developed standards DECT and WiMAX, which were included because they fit the IMT-2000 definition. [50]
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5.5.3 Features of 3G
5.5.3.1 Data rates
ITU has not provided a cleardefinition of the data rate that users can expect from 3G equipment or providers. Thus users sold 3G service may not be able to point to a standard and say that the rates it specifies are not being met. While stating in commentary that "it is expected that IMT-2000 will provide higher transmission rates: a minimum data rate of 2 Mbit/s for stationary or walking users, and 384 Kbit/s in a moving vehicle," the ITU does not actually clearly specify minimum required rates, nor required average rates, nor what modesof the interfaces qualify as 3G, so variousdata rates are sold as '3G' in the market. Compare with 3.5G and 4G.
In India, 3G is defined by telecom service providers as minimum 2 Mbit/s to maximum 28 Mbit/s.
5.5.3.2 Security
3G networks offer greater security than their 2G predecessors. By allowing the UE (User Equipment) to authenticate the network it is attaching to, the user can be sure the network is the intended one and not an impersonator. 3G networks use the KASUMI block cipher instead of the older A5/1 stream cipher. However, a number of serious weaknesses in the KASUMI cipher have been identified.
In addition to the 3G network infrastructure security, end-to-end security is offered when application frameworks such as IMS are accessed, although this is not strictly a 3G property.[50]
5.5.4 Applications of 3G
The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices gives rise to applications not previously available to mobile phone users. Some of the applications are:
Global Positioning System (GPS) Location-based services Mobile TV Telemedicine Video Conferencing Video on demand
5.5.5 Evolution of 3G
Both 3GPP and 3GPP2 are working on extensions to 3G standard that are based on an all-IP network infrastructure and using advanced wireless technologies such as MIMO. These specifications already display features characteristic for IMT-Advanced (4G), the successor of 3G. However, falling short of the bandwidth requirements for 4G (which is 1 Gbit/s for stationary and 100 Mbit/s for mobile operation), these standards are classified as 3.9G or Pre-4G.
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3GPP plans to meet the 4G goals with LTE Advanced, whereas Qualcomm has halted development of UMB in favour of the LTE family.[50]
On 14 December 2009, Telia Sonera announced in an official press release that "We are very proud to be the first operator in the world to offer our customers 4G services."[52] With the launch of their LTE network, initially they are offering pre-4G (or beyond 3G) services in Stockholm, Sweden and Oslo, Norway.
5.6. 4
thgeneration or 4G:
4G, is the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications technology, succeeding 3G and
preceding 5G. A 4G system, in addition to the usual voice and other services of 3G, provides mobile broadband Internet access, for example to laptops with wireless modems, to smart phones, and to other mobile devices. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, 3D television, and cloud computing.
Two 4G candidate systems are commercially deployed: the Mobile WiMAX standard (first used in South Korea in 2007), and the first-release Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard (in Oslo, Norway and Stockholm, Sweden since 2009). It has however been debated if these first-release versions should be considered to be 4G or not, as discussed in the technical definition section below.
In the United States, Sprint (previously Clear wire) has deployed Mobile WiMAX networks since 2008, while MetroPCS became the first operator to offer LTE service in 2010. USB wireless modems were among the first devices able to access these networks, with WiMAX smart phones becoming available during 2010, and LTE smart phones arriving in 2011. 3G and 4G equipment made for other continents are not always compatible, because of different frequency bands. Mobile WiMAX is currently (April 2012) not available for the European market.
5.6.1. Technical Understanding
In March 2008, the International Telecommunications Union-Radio communications sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named the International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s) for high mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).
Since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak bit rate, they are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often branded 4G by service providers. According to operators, a generation of network refers to the deployment of a new non-backward-compatible technology. On December 6, 2010, ITU-R recognized that these two technologies, as well as other beyond-3G technologies that do not fulfill the IMT-Advanced requirements, could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to
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IMT-Advanced compliant versions and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed".[50]
Mobile WiMAX Release 2 (also known as WirelessMAN-Advanced or IEEE 802.16m') and LTE Advanced (LTE-A) are IMT-Advanced compliant backwards compatible versions of the above two systems, standardized during the spring 2011, and promising speeds in the order of 1 Gbit/s. Services were expected in 2013.
As opposed to earlier generations, a 4G system does not support traditional circuit-switched telephony service, but all-Internet Protocol (IP) based communication such as IP telephony. As seen below, the spread spectrum radio technology used in 3G systems, is abandoned in all 4G candidate systems and replaced by OFDMA multi-carrier transmission and other frequency-domain equalization(FDE) schemes, making it possible to transfer very high bit rates despite extensive multi-path radio propagation (echoes). The peak bit rate is further improved by smart antenna arrays for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) communications.
5.6.2 IMT-Advanced requirement
This article uses 4G to refer to IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced), as defined by ITU-R. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements. [50]
Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access.
Be able to dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell.
Using scalable channel bandwidths of 5–20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz.
Have peak link spectral efficiency of 15-bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and 6.75-bit/s/Hz in the uplink (meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the downlink should be possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth).
System spectral efficiency is, in indoor case, 3-bit/s/Hz/cell in downlink and 2.25-bit/s/Hz/cell in uplink.
Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.
The ability to offer high quality of service for next generation multimedia support.
In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as 4G candidates.[6]Basically all proposals are based on two technologies:
LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP
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Implementations of Mobile WiMAX and first-release LTE are largely considered a stopgap solution that will offer a considerable boost until WiMAX 2 (based on the 802.16m spec) and LTE Advanced are deployed. The latter's standard versions were ratified in spring 2011, but are still far from being implemented.
The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008.[53] LTE Advanced was to be standardized in 2010 as part of Release 10 of the 3GPP specification. LTE Advanced will be based on the existing LTE specification Release 10 and will not be defined as a new specification series. A summary of the technologies that have been studied as the basis for LTE Advanced is included in a technical report.
Some sources consider first-release LTE and Mobile WiMAX implementations as pre-4G or near-4G, as they do not fully comply with the planned requirements of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile.
Confusion has been caused by some mobile carriers who have launched products advertised as 4G but which according to some sources are pre-4G versions, commonly referred to as '3.9G', which do not follow the ITU-R defined principles for 4G standards, but today can be called 4G according to ITU-R. A common argument for branding 3.9G systems as new-generation is that they use different frequency bands from 3G technologies ;] that they are based on a new radio-interface paradigm ; and that the standards are not backwards compatible with 3G, whilst some of the standards are forwards compatible with IMT-2000 compliant versions of the same standards.[53]
5.6.3 System
Standard of 4G
5.6.3.1 IMT-2000 compliant 4G standards
As of October 2010, ITU-R Working Party 5D approved two industry-developed technologies (LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced) for inclusion in the ITU’s International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced program (IMT-Advanced program), which is focused on global communication systems that would be available several years from now.
LTE Advanced
LTE Advanced (Long Term Evolution Advanced) is a candidate for IMT-Advanced standard, formally submitted by the 3GPP organization to ITU-T in the fall 2009, and expected to be released in 2013. The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LTE. It is not a new technology, but rather an improvement on the existing LTE network. This upgrade path makes it more cost effective for vendors to offer LTE and then upgrade to LTE Advanced which is similar to the upgrade from WCDMA to HSPA. LTE and LTE Advanced will also make use of additional spectrums and multiplexing to allow it to achieve higher data speeds. Coordinated Multi-point Transmission will also allow more system capacity to help handle the enhanced dataspeeds. Release 10 of LTE is expected to achieve the IMT Advanced speeds. Release 8 currently supports up to 300 Mbit/s of download speeds which is still short of the IMT-Advanced standards.
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IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced
The IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced evolution of 802.16e is under development, with the objective to fulfill the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile reception.5.6.3.2 Forerunner versions
3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE)
The pre-4G 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) technology is often branded "4G-LTE", but the first LTE release does not fully comply with the IMT-Advanced requirements. LTE has a theoretical net bit rate capacity of up to 100 Mbit/s in the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink if a 20 MHz channel is used — and more if multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), i.e. antenna arrays, are used.
The physical radio interface was at an early stage named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA). The first LTE USB dongles do not support any other radio interface.
The world's first publicly available LTE service was opened in the two Scandinavian capitals, Stockholm (Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks systems) and Oslo (a Huawei system) on December 14, 2009, and branded 4G. The user terminals were manufactured by Samsung.[13] As of November 2012, the five publicly available LTE services in the United States are provided by MetroPCS,[53] Verizon Wireless, AT&T Mobility, U.S. Cellular, Sprint, and T-Mobile US. T-Mobile Hungary launched a public beta test (called friendly user test) on 7 October 2011, and has offered commercial 4G LTE services since 1 January 2012
In South Korea, SK Telecom and LG U+ have enabled access to LTE service since 1 July 2011 for data devices, slated to go nationwide by 2012. KT Telecom closed its 2G service by March 2012, and complete the nationwide LTE service in the same frequency around 1.8 GHz by June 2012.
In the United Kingdom, LTE services were launched by EE in October 2012, and by O2 and Vodafone in August 2013.
Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e)
The Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) mobile wireless broadband access (MWBA) standard (also known as WiBro in South Korea) is sometimes branded 4G, and offers peak data rates of 128 Mbit/s downlink and 56 Mbit/s uplink over 20 MHz wide channels.
In June 2006, the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service was opened by KT in Seoul, South Korea.
Sprint has begun using Mobile WiMAX, as of 29 September 2008, branding it as a "4G" network even though the current version does not fulfil the IMT Advanced requirements on 4G systems.
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In Russia, Belarus and Nicaragua WiMax broadband internet access is offered by a Russian company Scartel, and is also branded 4G, Yota.
5.6.3.3. Advanced antenna systems
The performance of radio communications depends on an antenna system, termed smart or intelligent antenna. Recently, multiple antenna technologies are emerging to achieve the goal of 4G systems such as high rate, high reliability, and long range communications. In the early 1990s, to cater for the growing data rate needs of data communication, many transmission schemes were proposed. One technology, spatial multiplexing, gained importance for its bandwidth conservation and power efficiency. Spatial multiplexing involves deploying multiple antennas at the transmitter and at the receiver. Independent streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from all the antennas. This technology, called MIMO (as a branch of intelligent antenna), multiplies the base data rate by (the smaller of) the number of transmit antennas or the number of receive antennas. Apart from this, the reliability in transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be improved by using more antennas at the transmitter or at the receiver. This is called transmit or receive diversity. Both transmit/receive diversity and transmit spatial multiplexing are categorized into the space-time coding techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at the transmitter. The other category is closed-loop multiple antenna technologies, which require channel knowledge at the transmitter.[50]
5.6.3.4 Open-wireless Architecture and Software-defined radio (SDR)
One of the key technologies for 4G and beyond is called Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), supporting multiple wireless air interfaces in an open architecture platform.
SDR is one form of open wireless architecture (OWA). Since 4G is a collection of wireless standards, the final form of a 4G device will constitute various standards. This can be efficiently realized using SDR technology, which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.
5.6.4. Beyond 4G research
A major issue in 4G systems is to make the high bit rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially to users in an exposed position in between several base stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by macro-diversity techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, and also by Beam-Division Multiple Access (BDMA).
Pervasive networks are an amorphous and at present entirely hypothetical concept where the user can be simultaneously connected to several wireless access technologies and can seamlessly move between them (See vertical handoff, IEEE 802.21). These access technologies can be Wi-Fi, UMTS, EDGE, or any other future access technology. Included in this concept is also smart-radio (also known as cognitive smart-radio) technology to efficiently manage spectrum use and transmission power as well as the use of mesh routing protocols to create a pervasive network.
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5.7. 5
thgeneration or 5G
5G (5th generation mobile networks or 5th generation wireless systems) also known as Tactile Internet [50] denotes the next major phase of mobile telecommunications standards beyond the current 4G/IMT-Advanced standards.
NGMN Alliance or Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance defined 5G network requirements as:
- Data rates of several tens of Mb/s should be supported for tens of thousands of users. - 1 GB/s to be offered, simultaneously to tens of workers on the same office floor. -Up to Several 100,000's simultaneous connections to be supported for massive sensor deployments.
- Spectral efficiency should be significantly enhanced compared to 4G. - Coverage should be improved
- Signaling efficiency enhanced.
Next Generation Mobile Networks Alliance feels that 5G should be rolled out by 2020 to meet business and consumer demands.
Although updated standards that define capabilities beyond those defined in the current 4G standards are under consideration, those new capabilities are still being grouped under the current ITU-T 4G standards.
GSMHistory.com has recorded three very distinct 5G network visions having emerged by 2014:
A super-efficient mobile network that delivers a better performing network for lower
investment cost. It addresses the mobile network operators pressing need to see the unit cost of data transport falling at roughly the same rate as the volume of data demand is rising. It would be a leap forward in efficiency based on the IET Demand Attentive Network (DAN) philosophy .
A super-fast mobile network comprising the next generation of small cells densely clustered
together to give a contiguous coverage over at least urban areas and gets the world to the final frontier for true ―wide area mobility‖. It would require access to spectrum under 4 GHz perhaps via the world's first global implementation of Dynamic Spectrum Access.
A converged fiber-wireless network that uses, for the first time for wireless Internet access, the
millimeter wave bands (20 – 60 GHz) so as to allow very wide bandwidth radio channels able to support data access speeds of up to 10 Gbit/s. The connection essentially comprises ―short‖ wireless links on the end of local fiber optic cable. It would be more a ―nomadic‖ service (like WiFi) rather than a wide area ―mobile‖ service.[50]
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6. Notes and Reference:
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2. "Telecommunication" Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved28 February 2013. 3. "Telecommunication‖ Vocabulary.com. Retrieved 28 February2013.
4. "Telecommunication" Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved28 February 2013. 5. "Telecommunication". Oxford Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 28
February 2013.
6. "Telecommunication". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 28 February2013.
7. ―Introduction to Telecommunications Network Engineering‖ Second Edition by Tarmo Anttalainen.
8. ―Introduction to Telecommunications Network Engineering‖ Second Edition by Tarmo Anttalainen
9. ―Introduction to Telecommunications Network Engineering‖ Second Edition by Tarmo Anttalainen
10. http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Wired+Communications.
11. http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/wireless_communicationhttp://www.engineers garage.com/articles/wireless_communication
12. "ATIS Telecom Glossary 2007". atis.org. Retrieved 2008-03-16. 13. Wireless.
14. Robust demand for mobile phone service will continue, UN agency predicts UN News
Centre February 15, 2010.TCO Insights on Rugged Mobile Computers, VDC Research, 2007.
15. High Speed Internet on the Road,
http://www.geeksontour.com/showme/wifi/wifi00_3ways.cfm 16. Mitchell, Bradley. Wireless Internet Service: An Introduction 17. What is Connection Manager? Microsoft Technet, March 28, 2003
18. Unwired Revolution http://www.gd-itronix.com/index.cfm?page=Products:MobilityXE 19. About.com
20. "Wi-Fi"
21. O'Brien, J. & Marakas, G.M.(2008) Management Information Systems (pp. 239). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Irwin
22. Lachu Aravamudhan, Stefano Faccin, Risto Mononen, Basavaraj Patil, Yousuf Saifullah, Sarvesh Sharma, Srinivas Sreemanthula. "Getting to Know Wireless Networks and Technology", InformIT
23. "What really is a Third Generation (3G) Mobile Technology", ITU
24. Geier, Jim. Wireless Network Industry Report 2007, Wireless-Nets, Ltd., 2008
25. Ilcev, Stojce Dimov, Global Mobile Satellite Communications for Maritime, Land and Aeronautical Applications, Springer, 2006
26. F.L. Lewis. ―Wireless Sensor Networks.‖ Smart Environments: Technologies, Protocols, and Applications, ed. D.J. Cook and S.K. Das, John Wiley, New York, 2004.
Automation and robotics research institute. 26 Oct. 2013
27. Jones, George. ―Future Proof. How Wireless Energy Transfer Will Kill the Power Cable.‖ MaximumPC. 14 Sept. 2010. Web. 26 Oct. 2013.
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28. Linebaugh, Kate. ―Medical Devices in Hospitals go wireless.‖ Online.wsj. The Wall Street Journal. 23 May 2010. Web. 27 Oct. 2013.
29. Paventi, jared. ―How does a Wireless Keyboard Work.‖ Ehow. Web. 26 Oct. 2013. 30. Moser, Max; Schrödel, Philipp (2007-12-05). "27Mhz Wireless Keyboard Analysis Report aka "We know what you typed last summer"". Retrieved 6 February 2012. 31. Mobile radio telephone (Wikipedia).
32. Mobile telephone network (Wikipedia).
33. Mustafa Ergen (2009). Mobile Broadband: including WiMAX and LTE. Springer Science+Business Media. ISBN 978-0-387-68189-4.
34. "Overview on mobile broadband technologies", EBU (European Broadcasting Union) workshop on mobile broadband technologies, Qualcomm, 12 May 2011
35. "Evolution of Mobile Wireless Communication Networks: 1G to 4G", Kumar, Liu, Sengupta, and Divya, Vol. 1, Issue 1 (December 2010), International Journal on Electronics & Communication Technology (IJECT), pp. 68-72, ISSN: 2230-7109 36. "About 3GPP: The Generations of 3GPP Systems", 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP), retrieved 27 February 2013
37. Ten years of GSM in Australia Australian Mobile Telecommunications Association, archived April 17, 2008 from the original
38. French Wikipedia: Radiocom 2000 39. http://www.answers.com/topic/ddi 40. http://www.answers.com/topic/ddi
41. "Radiolinja's History". April 20, 2004. Retrieved December 23, 2009. 42. "CDMA Worldwide". Archived from the original on 30 January 2010.
RetrievedDecember 23, 2009.
43. http://support.en.belgacom.be/app/answers/detail/a_id/13580
44. http://exchange.telstra.com.au/2014/07/23/its-time-to-say-goodbye-old-friend/ 45. Addressing the demand for faster data
46. beginning with its EV-DO network, which was shut down on September 30, 2014.SaskTel Turning Down EV-DO Data Service
47. http://www.marketwatch.com/story/att-to-shut-down-2g-network-by-2017-2012-08-03 48. http://www.telguard.com/2GSunset/Overview
49. ITU (4 July 2002). "IMT-2000 Project - ITU". Retrieved 8 April 2013. 50. Wikipedia.
51. ITU. "ITU Radiocommunication Assembly approves new developments for its 3G standards". press release. Archived from the original on 19 May 2009. Retrieved1 June 2009.
52. "first in the world with 4G services". TeliaSonera. 14 December 2009. Retrieved2010-09-06.
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