UNIT I
1.0 Energy Scenario:
About 70% of energy generation capacity is from fossil fuels in India. Coal consumption is 40% of India's total energy consumption which followed by crude oil and natural gas at 24% and 6% respectively. India is dependent on fossil fuel import to fulfill its energy demands. The energy imports are expected to exceed 53% of the India's total energy consumption. In 2009-10, 159.26 million tones of the crude oil is imported which amounts to 80% of its domestic crude oil consumption. The percentage of oil imports are 31% of the country's total imports. The demand of electricity has been hindered by domestic coal shortages. Cause of this, India's coal imports is increased by 18% for electricity generation in 2010.
India has one of the world's fastest growing energy markets due to rapid economic expansion. It is expected to be the second largest contributor to the increase in global energy demand by 2035. Energy demand of India is increasing and limited domestic fossil fuel reserves. The country has ambitious plans to expand its renewable energy resources and plans to install the nuclear power industries. India has the world's fifth largest wind power market and plans to add about 20GW of solar power capacity. India increases the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 4.2% to 9%. The country has five nuclear reactors under construction. Now, India became third highest in the world who is generating the electricity by nuclear and plans to construct 18 additional nuclear reactors by 2025, then India will become second highest in the world.
1.1 Energy
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them. Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria: • Primary and Secondary energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy 1.1.1 Primary and Secondary Energy
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances, thermal energy stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity. The major primary and secondary energy sources are shown in Figure below. Primary energy sources are mostly converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources; for example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity. Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-energy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertiliser plants.
1.1.2 Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for many household tasks of general population. Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
1.1.3 Non-Commercial Energy:
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting. Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.
1.1.4 Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to deplete with time.
1.2 Energy Conservation
Energy conservation is the strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy using systems and procedures to reduce energy requirements per unit of output without affecting socio-economic development. Energy conservation means going with what is available, while in developed countries 1% increase in G.N.P. needs barely 0.6% increase in energy consumption in whereas in India the corresponding increase in energy consumption is nearly 1.5%.
1. Transmission and Distribution Losses
India has a complex transmission and distribution network. The Transmission and distribution (T & D) losses in Indian Power Systems are rather high. According to Central Electricity Authority (CEA) statistics, on all India basis the losses are around 20 percent. According to the estimates of a few other independent agencies, the real T&D losses may be even higher than this figure power systems with those of more developed In order to estimate the cost effectiveness of the various modern techniques available for reduction of T&D losses in the context of Indian environment, it is essential to have an idea regarding the energy losses taking place at the various stages of transmission and distribution of power as well as a further break—up of the line losses and transformation losses. The T&D losses can be divided in to two parts, namely. Extra-high voltage (EHV) /High Voltage (HV) transmission and low voltage distribution. Out of total 15% T&D losses targeted to be achieved. 2. Long Term Objectives of Energy Conservation 1. To bring attitudinal changes in all energy users so that they strive for maximum energy efficiency in all products, projects, buildings, processes, domestic and commercial use, agricultural and transport use in consistent with economic considerations.
2. Take necessary steps to discipline those who fail to fall in line with the above changes. 3. To adopt policies which make energy conservation easy and attractive for being adopted by all energy users.
1.3 Areas of Energy Conservation
The main areas where conservation was possible are as
1. Improvement in power factor would result in reduction in actual maximum demand on the system.
2. Improvement in plant load factor results in optimum utilization of plant capacity and increasing production.
3.80% of the industrial electricity consumption is accounted for by induction motors which are mostly used for pumping and compressor application, etc.
4. Various furnaces, electrolysis baths and vessels operating at higher temperature are found to have inadequate insulation. Higher surface temperature means loss of electrical form of energy by radiation. This can easily be prevented by applying proper insulation to limit the surface temperature rise above ambient up to 200 C.
New Concepts in Energy Conservation offers a practical means of achieving development goals. It enhances the international competitiveness of industry in world markets by reducing the cost of production.
It optimizes the use of capital resources by diverting lesser amounts in conservation investments as against huge capital investment in power sector. It helps environment in the short run by reducing pollution and in the long run by reducing the scope of global climatic changes.
Energy conservation is a decentralized issue and largely depends on the individual unlike decisions of energy supply which are highly centralized. The housewife, the car driver, the boiler operator in industry and every other individual who consumes energy in some form or other is requiring participating in energy saving measures.
In order to have energy efficiency strategies really effective some conceptual changes are imperative.
• Conservation must be recognized as a new source of Energy- “a benign and clean source”.
• In the past the energy planning was based on continuous supply of fossil fuel. What matters to a consumer of energy is not energy per so but the services it provides cooking. Lighting, motive power etc. thus the true indicator of development is not the magnitude of per capita energy consumption, but the level of energy services provided. A stage has reached when developing countries need not to look at energy consumption per capita as a sign of development and growth.
• The economics of major power projects ignore the time value of money. The gestation period of the project is ignored. Thus the projects which yield physical benefits after many years are treated at par with projects that yield immediate benefits. Thus no attention is paid to when the returns are obtained.
1.4 Alternative Non conventional Energy Sources.
The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century ushered in new technologies. The spurt in inventions in that century was unprecedented in many ways. Some of these inventions involved use of natural resources like coal and oil. The thought of exhaustible nature of these resources and the environmental damage from the use of these resources never occurred either to the inventors or the subsequent generations. In the quest to sustain galloping economic activity, the dependence on coal and oil has soared at a phenomenal rate over the years. The burnt fuels result in the release of carbondioxide and other gases into the atmosphere causing environmental damage. It has become imperative to look at energy technology with a new perspective. There are abundant renewable sources of energy such as wind, sun, water, sea, biomass apart from even daily wastes. These sources are pollution free and hence clean energy apart from being unlimited/ inexhaustible.
1.4.1 Wind energy
wind energy. Many European countries started pursuing the development of wind turbine technology seriously and their development efforts are continuing even today. The technology involves generation of electricity using turbines, which converts mechanical energy created by the rotation of blades into electrical energy, some times the mechanical energy from the mills is directly used for pumping water from well also. The wind power programme in India was started during 1983-84 with the efforts of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources. In India the total installed capacity from wind mills is 1612 MW, of which, Tamilnadu has an installed capacity of 858 MW as on 31.03.2002. Tamil Nadu is endowed with lengthy mountain ranges on its Western side with three prominent passes in its length. These are with wind-potentials:
(1) Palghat Pass in Coimbatore District-1200 MW, (2) Shengottah Pass in Tirunelveli District-500MW and
(3) Aralvoymozhi Pass in Kanniyakumari District- 300 MW (Total potential-2000 MW). The mountainous areas close to Cumbum Valley are observed to be having high potential and, though coastal areas, central plains and hilly areas have been observed unsuitable for wind power projects, Rameshwaram is found suitable.
Wind Energy and Wind Power
Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetative cover. This wind flow, or motion energy, when "harvested" by modern wind turbines, can be used to generate electricity.
How Wind Power Is Generated
The terms "wind energy" or "wind power" describe the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity to power homes, businesses, schools, and the like. Wind Turbines
of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity.
Wind Turbine Types
Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups; the horizontal-axis variety, like the traditional farm windmills used for pumping water, and the vertical-axis design, like the eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. Most large modern wind turbines are horizontal-axis turbines.
Turbine Components
Horizontal turbine components include:
blade or rotor, which converts the energy in the wind to rotational shaft energy;
a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a generator;
a tower that supports the rotor and drive train; and
Turbine Configurations
Wind turbines are often grouped together into a single wind power plant, also known as a wind farm, and generate bulk electrical power. Electricity from these turbines is fed into a utility grid and distributed to customers, just as with conventional power plants. Wind Turbine Size and Power Ratings
Wind turbines are available in a variety of sizes, and therefore power ratings. The largest machine has blades that span more than the length of a football field, stands 20 building stories high, and produces enough electricity to power 1,400 homes. A small home-sized wind machine has rotors between 8 and 25 feet in diameter and stands upwards of 30 feet and can supply the power needs of an all-electric home or small business. Utility-scale turbines range in size from 50 to 750 kilowatts. Single small turbines, below 50 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or water pumping.
Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energy—called solar energy. It radiates more energy in one day than the world uses in one year. This energy comes from within the sun itself. Like most stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up mostly of hydrogen and helium gas. The sun makes energy in its inner core in a process called nuclear fusion. It takes the sun’s energy just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93 million miles to Earth. Solar energy travels at the speed of light, or 186,000 miles per second, or 3.0 x 108 meters per second. Only a small part of the visible radiant energy (light) that the sun emits into space ever reaches the Earth, but that is more than enough to supply all our energy needs. Every hour enough solar energy reaches the Earth to supply our nation’s energy needs for a year! Solar energy is considered a renewable energy source due to this fact. Today, people use solar energy to heat buildings and water and to generate electricity. Solar energy accounts for a very small percentage of U.S. energy. Solar energy is mostly used by residences and to generate electricity.
Solar Space Heating
Space heating means heating the space inside a building. Today, many homes use solar energy for space heating. A passive solar home is designed to let in as much sunlight as possible. It is like a big solar collector.
Sunlight passes through the windows and heats the walls and floor inside the house. The light can get in, but the heat is trapped inside.
A passive solar home does not depend on mechanical equipment, such as pumps and blowers, to heat the house, whereas active solar homes do.
Solar Water Heating
Solar Electricity
Solar energy can also be used to produce electricity. Two ways to make electricity from solar energy are photovoltaics and solar thermal systems.
Solar Thermal Electricity
Like solar cells, solar thermal systems, also called concentrated solar power (CSP), use solar energy to produce electricity, but in a different way. Most solar thermal systems use a solar collector with a mirrored surface to focus sunlight onto a receiver that heats a liquid. The super-heated liquid is used to make steam to produce electricity in the same way that coal plants do. There are CSP plants in California, Arizona, Nevada, Florida, Colorado, and Hawaii.
1.5 Energy Resources: 1.5.1 Fossil fuel
These are the proven energy reserves; real reserves may be up to a factor 4 larger. Significant uncertainty exists for these numbers. Estimating the remaining fossil fuels on the planet depends on a detailed understanding of the Earth's crust. While modern drilling technology makes it possible to drill wells in up to 3 km of water to verify the exact composition of the geology, one half of theocean is deeper than 3 km, leaving about a third of the planet beyond the reach of detailed analysis. In addition to uncertainty in real reserves, there is significant uncertainty in technological and economical factors that impact what percentage of reserves can be recovered gainfully. In general the easiest to reach deposits are the first extracted. Factors affecting the cost of exploiting the remaining reserves include the accessibility of fossil deposits, the level of sulfur and other pollutants in the oil and the coal, transportation costs, and societal instability in producing regions.
1.5.2 Coal
1.5.3 Oil
It is estimated that there may be 57 ZJ of oil reserves on Earth (although estimates vary from a low of 8 ZJ, consisting of currently proven and recoverable reserves, to a maximum of 110 ZJ) consisting of available, but not necessarily recoverable reserves, and including optimistic estimates for unconventional sources such as tar sands and oil shale. Current consensus among the 18 recognized estimates of supply profiles is that the peak of extraction will occur in 2020 at the rate of 93-million barrels per day (mbd). Current oil consumption is at the rate of 0.18 ZJ per year (31.1 billion barrels) or 85-mbd. There is growing concern that peak oil production may be reached in the near future, resulting in severe oil price increases. A 2005 French Economics, Industry and Finance Ministry report suggested a worst-case scenario that could occur as early as 2013. There are also theories that peak of the global oil production may occur in as little as 2–3 years. The ASPO predicts peak year to be in 2010. Some other theories present the view that it has already taken place in 2005. World crude oil production (including lease condensates) according to US EIA data decreased from a peak of 73.720 mbd in 2005 to 73.437 in 2006, 72.981 in 2007, and 73.697 in 2008. According to peak oil theory, increasing production will lead to a more rapid collapse of production in the future, while decreasing production will lead to a slower decrease, as the bell-shaped curve will be spread out over more years.
In a stated goal of increasing oil prices to $75/barrel, which had fallen from a high of $147 to a low of $40, OPEC announced decreasing production by 2.2 mbd beginning 1 January 2009.
1.5.4 Nuclear fuel
Resources and technology do not constrain the capacity of nuclear power to contribute to meeting the energy demand for the 21st century. However, political and environmental concerns about nuclear safety and radioactive waste started to limit the growth of this energy supply at the end of last century, particularly due to a number of nuclear accidents. Concerns about nuclear proliferation (especially with plutonium produced by breeder reactors) mean that the development of nuclear power by countries such as Iran and Syria is being actively discouraged by the international community.
Although at the beginning of the 21st century uranium is the primary nuclear fuel world-wide, others such as thorium and hydrogen had been under investigation since the middle of the 20th century.
Thorium reserves significantly exceed those of uranium, and of course hydrogen is abundant. It is also considered by many to be easier to obtain than uranium. While uranium mines are enclosed underground and thus very dangerous for the miners, thorium is taken from open pits, and is estimated to be roughly three times as abundant as uranium in the Earth's crust.[24]
Since the 1960s, numerous facilities throughout the world have burned Thorium.
Alternatives for energy production through fusion of hydrogen has been under investigation since the 1950s. No materials can withstand the temperatures required to ignite the fuel, so it must be confined by methods which use no materials. Magnetic and inertial confinement are the main alternatives (Cadarache, Inertial confinement fusion) both of which are hot research topics in the early years of the 21st century.
1.5.5 Nuclear fusion
Fusion power is the process driving the sun and other stars. It generates large quantities of heat by fusing the nuclei of hydrogen or helium isotopes, which may be derived from seawater. The heat can theoretically be harnessed to generate electricity. The temperatures and pressures needed to sustain fusion make it a very difficult process to control. Fusion is theoretically able to supply vast quantities of energy, with relatively little pollution.[25] Although both the United States and the European Union, along with
according to one report, inadequate research has stalled progress in fusion research for the past 20 years.
1.5.6 Renewable resource
Renewable resources are available each year, unlike non-renewable resources, which are eventually depleted. A simple comparison is a coal mine and a forest. While the forest could be depleted, if it is managed it represents a continuous supply of energy, vs. the coal mine, which once has been exhausted is gone. Most of earth's available energy resources are renewable resources. Renewable resources account for more than 93 percent of total U.S. energy reserves. Annual renewable resources were multiplied times thirty years for comparison with renewable resources. In other words, if all non-renewable resources were uniformly exhausted in 30 years, they would only account for 7 percent of available resources each year, if all available renewable resources were developed.
1.5.7 Solar energy
1.5.8 Wind power
The available wind energy estimates range from 300 TW to 870 TW. Using the lower estimate, just 5% of the available wind energy would supply the current worldwide energy needs. Most of this wind energy is available over the open ocean. The oceans cover 71% of the planet and wind tends to blow more strongly over open water because there are fewer obstructions.
1.5.9 Wave and tidal power[
At the end of 2005, 0.3 GW of electricity was produced by tidal power. Due to the tidal forces created by the Moon (68%) and the Sun (32%), and the Earth's relative rotation with respect to Moon and Sun, there are fluctuating tides. These tidal fluctuations result in dissipation at an average rate of about 3.7 TW.
Another physical limitation is the energy available in the tidal fluctuations of the oceans, which is about 0.6 EJ (exa joule ). Note this is only a tiny fraction of the total rotational energy of the Earth. Without forcing, this energy would be dissipated (at a dissipation rate of 3.7 TW) in about four semi-diurnal tide periods. So, dissipation plays a significant role in the tidal dynamics of the oceans. Therefore, this limits the available tidal energy to around 0.8 TW (20% of the dissipation rate) in order not to disturb the tidal dynamics too much.
Waves are derived from wind, which is in turn derived from solar energy, and at each conversion there is a drop of about two orders of magnitude in available energy. The total power of waves that wash against our shores add up to 3 TW.
1.5.10 Geothermal
Estimates of exploitable worldwide geothermal energy resources vary considerably, depending on assumed investements in technology and exploration and guesses about geological formations. According to a 1999 study, it was thought that this might amount to between 65 and 138 GW of electrical generation capacity 'using enhanced technology'. Other estimates range from 35 to 2000 GW of electrical generation capacity, with a further potential for 140 EJ/year of direct use.
Production of biomass and biofuels are growing industries as interest in sustainable fuel sources is growing. Utilizing waste products avoids a food vs fuel trade-off, and burning methane gas reduces greenhouse gas emissions, because even though it releases carbon dioxide, carbon dioxide is 23 times less of a greenhouse gas than is methane. Biofuels represent a sustainable partial replacement for fossil fuels, but their net impact on greenhouse gas emissions depends on the agricultural practices used to grow the plants used as feedstock to create the fuels. While it is widely believed that biofuels can be carbon-neutral, there is evidence that biofuels produced by current farming methods are substantial net carbon emitters. Geothermal and biomass are the only two renewable energy sources that require careful management to avoid local depletion.
1.5.12 Hydropower
In 2005, hydroelectric power supplied 16.4% of world electricity, down from 21.0% in 1973, but only 2.2% of the world's energy.
1.6 Role of Energy Managers:
Prepare an annual activity plan and present to management concerning financially attractive investments to reduce energy costs.
Establish an energy conservation cell within the firm with management’s consent about the mandate and task of the cell.
Initiate activities to improve monitoring and process control to reduce energy costs. Analyze equipment performance with respect to energy efficiency.
Ensure proper functioning and calibration of instrumentation required to assess level of energy consumption directly or indirectly.
Prepare information material and conduct internal workshops about the topic for other staff.
Establish a methodology how to accurately calculate the specific energy consumption of various products/services or activity of the firm.
Develop and manage training program for energy efficiency at operating levels. Co-ordinate nomination of management personnel to external programs.
Create knowledge bank on sectoral, national and international development on energy efficiency technology and management system and information denomination
Develop integrated system of energy efficiency and environmental up-gradation. Wide internal & external networking.
Co-ordinate implementation of energy audit/efficiency improvement projects through external agencies.
