Did Any Body Feels, The Gravitational Force?

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IJSRR, 8(1) Jan. – Mar., 2019 Page 106

Research article

Available online www.ijsrr.org

ISSN: 2279–0543

International Journal of Scientific Research and Reviews

Applications of Nanotechnology in the world of biology - A Scientific

Review

Thiruvengadam S.

1

*, Mohan Kumar B. S.

1

and Yamini C.

1

Department of Biotechnology, Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Rajalakshmi Nagar, Thandalam, Chennai-602105, India, *E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Nano biotechnology is the engineering, construction and manipulation of Nano entities using

biological approaches or for the benefit of biological systems. The conflux of nanotechnology and

biology can address various biomedical problems, and can revolutionize the field of health and

medicine. They are currently utilized as a tool to explore the obscure areas of medical sciences in

various ways like imaging, sensing, targeted drug and gene delivery and artificial implants. The

technology is also researched to have a profound impact on food production and packaging. In

biosciences, organic dyes have been replaced with nanoparticles in the applications that require high

photo-stability as well as high multiplexing capabilities. Nanoparticles and Nano capsules have a

great potential to modify customary agricultural practices by providing a better way to distribute

pesticides and fertilizers in a controlled manner with high site specificity. This review provides a

broad perspective on the types of nanoparticles, their synthesis and application of nanoparticles in

the field of biotechnology.

KEYWORDS:

Nanotechnology, Imaging, Sensing, Drug Delivery, Biosensor, Pesticides

*Corresponding author

Thiruvengadam S.

Department of Biotechnology,

Rajalakshmi Engineering College,

Rajalakshmi Nagar,

Thandalam, Chennai-602105, India

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1. INTRODUCTION

A nanoparticle (Nan powder, Nan cluster and Nan crystal) is a microscopic particle with at

least one dimension less than 100 nm. Nanoparticle research is currently an area of intense scientific

research, due to a wide variety of potential applications in biomedical, optical, and electronic fields 1.

Nanoparticles are of great scientific interest as they are effectively a bridge between bulk materials

and atomic or molecular structures. A bulk material has constant physical properties regardless of its

size, but at the Nano-scale this is often not the case. Nanotechnology is the engineering of functional

systems at the molecular scale2.In its original sense, 'nanotechnology' refers to the projected ability to

construct items from the bottom up, using techniques and tools being developed today to make

complete, high performance products. Although major progress has been achieved in recent years,

modern medicine is limited by both its knowledge and its treatment tools. It is only in the last 50

years that medicine has started looking at diseases at the molecular level, and today’s drugs are thus

essentially single-effect molecules3. The potential impact of nanotechnology on medicine stems

directly from the dimension of the devices and materials that can interact directly with cells and

tissues at a molecular level. Applied nanobiotechnology in medicine is in its infancy. However, the

current nanomedicine research is extraordinary which includes three major research areas:

diagnostics, pharmaceuticals, prosthesis and implants. Today, nanomedicine is one of the dominant

and leading fields of nanobiotechnology. Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of

food science, from how food is grown to how it is packaged. Companies are gaining interest in

producing nanomaterials that brings a difference not only in the taste of food, health benefits and

also in food safety. Nanotechnology is being employed in water treatment plant which includes the

removal of industrial wastes from groundwater. NPs are used to convert the contaminating chemical

harmless. Studies have shown that this method is cost-efficient than the conventional procedures

followed to reach contaminates dispersed in underground water table. In textile industry, usage of

nano-sized particles or fibers to weave the fabric shows improvement in fabric properties without

any much significant physical changes than previously used techniques 4.

2. TYPES OF NANOPARTICLE

2.1 Liposomes

Liposome’s are lipid-based liquid crystals, extensively has its application in the field of

pharmaceutical and cosmetic. They are first developed NPs used for drug delivery but their

incompetent in aqueous environments have led to replacement, or stabilization with the help of

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2.2 Micellar Nanoparticles

MNP has a breakthrough in transdermal therapeutics and the formulation candeliver a range

of therapeutic compounds which vary broadly by physiochemical properties, one among them is

MNP based emulsions (lotions). A high concentration of drug depot is created in the stratum

corneum and epidermis. The patch technology also shows similar advantages that includes both

avoiding gastrointestinal passage and hepatic first-pass effects. MNP drug delivery is an inexpensive

and quick pharmaceutical development model.

2.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles

Magnetic NPs like Fe3O4 (magnetite) and Fe2O3 (maghemite) are biocompatible and has

diverse application (eg. targeted cancer treatment (magnetic hyperthermia), magnetic resonance

imaging (MRI)) etc.

2.4 Super paramagnetic nanoparticles

Super paramagnetic substances which are attracted in the magnetic field but do not retain

residual magnetism after the removal of the field. NPs of iron oxide which falls within 5-100 nm

range are selectively used in magnetic bio separations. Some typical techniques involve coating the

antibodies over the particles for cell-specific antigen separation from the matrix 5.

2.4 Gold Nanoparticles

Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs) are employed in immunochemical studies such as identifying

protein interactions, detection of amino glycoside antibiotics (eg. Streptomycin, Gentamycin) and as

tracer in DNA fingerprinting which track down the DNA presence in sample. Gold nanorods image

cancer stem cells, diagnosis and also identify different classes of bacteria 6.

2.5 Silver Nanoparticles

Silver Nan particles (AgNPs) have proved to be most effective because of its good

antimicrobial efficacy against bacteria, viruses and other eukaryotic micro-organisms. They are

undoubtedly the most widely used nanomaterials among all which majorly includes the use as

antimicrobial agents, in water treatment etc. Several studies have already reported the successful

biosynthesis of AgNPs from various plants extracts such as Azadirachtaindica, Capsicum annuum

and Carica papaya 6.

2.6 Dendrimers

The presence of multiple molecular "hooks" on the surfaces of molecules which called by the

name dendrimers which can be tagged (eg. fluorescent dyes, enzymes etc.). The dendritic molecules

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2.7 Solid lipid Nanoparticles

Solid lipid NPs are proposed alternative particulate drug carrier system for intravenous

applications. They are spherical particles ranges in nanoscale which is stabilized in water or with the

help of surfactant. A monolayer of phospholipids coating surrounds the hydrophobic core where the

drug is dispersed. They have ability to deliver lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs or diagnostics.

2.8 Chitosan Nanoparticles

N-deacetylation of chitin results in chitosan which has been widely used in food and

bioengineering industries, including the encapsulation of active food ingredients, in enzyme

immobilization, and as a carrier for controlled drug delivery due to significant properties such as

biodegradability, biocompatibility etc. Chitosan NPs are used to immobilize enzymes and

encapsulate bioactive substances.

2.9 Nan capsules

Nan capsules range from 10-1000 nm. They closely resemble solid lipid NPs where the core

is liquid/solid core in which the drug is dispersed and coated by polymer membrane which may be

natural or synthetic. The protective coating is easily oxidized due to pyrophoric in nature and thus

controls the release of active ingredients. Nan capsules are vesicular systems whereas nanospheres

are uniformly dispersed matrix systems.

2.10 Polymeric Nanoparticles

Polymeric Nanoparticles (PNPs) range from 10-1000nm that has application in the area of

drug delivery using particulate delivery systems. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties

can be improved by the use of NPs in various types of drug molecules. They show great promise in

drug delivery systems due to their controlled and sustained release properties, biocompatibility and

sub cellular size.

3. SYNTHESIS OF NANOPARTICLES

Bimetallic NPs are synthesized by reduction method7, co-reduction method8 and reverse

micelle synthesis method9. Three different methods such as wet impregnation,

deposition-precipitation, and reverse micelle impregnation were adopted in the preparation of Ni-Pt bimetallic

NPs10. Chau et al. (2013)11 have suggested the Laser irradiation method for Pt-Au bimetallic NPs.

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Table:1 Nanoparticles Companies and their Products

Field Company Products or Project

Nano Medicine

Cyt Immune Gold nanoparticles for targeted delivery of drugs to tumors

NanoBio Nan emulsions for nasal delivery to fight viruses (such as the flu and colds) or through the skin to fight bacteria

Food technology

Nancor Bottles, cartons and films containing clay nanocomposite that act as a barrier to the passage of gasses or odors

Nano science Diagnostics

Rapid testing for contaminates in food

Inmat Nan composite coatings for transparent plastic films used in food packaging that provides a barrier to oxygen or moisture

Water treatment

SiREM Iron nanoparticles to treat groundwater pollutants Campbell Applied

Physics

working on Capacitive Deionization using carbon aerogel

NanoH2O Nanotechnology enhanced membranes for water desalination

Fabrics

Nano-tex Fabric enhanced with nanowhiskers to resist water and stains BASF Fabric enhanced with nanoparticles to dirt rinses off in rain Aspen Aerogel Fabric enhanced with nonporous to insulates against heat or chill Nano Horizons Fabric enhanced with silver nanoparticles to reduces odors

Nan electronics

California Molecular Electronics

Molecule sized switches and other devices

Everspin Technologies

Magneto resistive Random Access Memory

IBM Nan photonics

Kodak Optoelectronics materials and devices

Ime Developing CMOS technology for IC's using sub-22nm geometry QD Vision Developing quantum dot based displays

Sports

InMat Nan composite barrier film in tennis ball and others Wilson Tennis racquet frames containing silicon dioxide nanoparticles Eston Cycling Bicycle parts made with carbon nanotubes

Dendrimers are generally synthesized by divergent13 and convergent method14. In divergent

the synthesis starts from the core of the dendrimer to which the arms are extended by adding building

blocks in step-wise manner whereas in convergent method it is from the periphery which also helps

in predicting the final generation number and requisite sizes beforehand for each generation.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are synthesized mostly by arc-discharge technique which uses

higher temperatures (above 1700 °C) for synthesis 15 with fewer structural defects due to expansion.

Whereas the laser ablation method yields around 70% primarily single-walled carbon nanotubes

(SWNT) whose diameter is determined by the reaction temperature 16. Single-walled carbon

nanotubes are also synthesized by a thermal plasma method. The fumes created by the flame which

occurs during the process are found to contain SWNT, metallic and carbon NPs and amorphous

carbon 17,18.

Biological synthesis of NPs evolved due to presence of toxic contaminants adsorbed on the

NPs surface which may cause toxic effects. Researchers have used biological extracts for the

synthesis of NPs, by adopting simple protocols, involved in the process of the reduction of metal ions

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4. APPLICATIONS OF NANOPARTICLES

4.1 Textile Industry

"Nano Textiles" has been a revolutionary due to its benefits and can be produced by a variety

of methods and the key difference among them is whether synthetic NPs are either integrated with

the fibers of the cloth or coated on the surface of finished goods and/or whether they are added to the

nanoscale fibers or coating (Fig 1).

4.1.1 Stain and Water repellent fabrics

One of the most common applications of nanotechnology in the textile industry is to create

stain and water-resistant fabrics. To achieve this, a billion of tiny fibers call themselves as

“nanowhiskers” are embedded which increase the density of the fabric and also make it water proof.

These Nan whiskers can repel stains because they form a cushion of air around each cotton fiber

which can cohesively prop up a water droplet. Hence when something gets spilled on the surface of

the fabric they roll off from the surface. This effectiveness of the fabric lasts for at least 50 home

wash cycles. A corollary finish is that of using NPs to provide a “lotus plant” effect which causes dirt

to rinse off easily, such as in the rain. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) NPs are used to induce super

hydrophobicity on the surface of the fabrics.

Fig 1. Different field of Nanotechnology Applications

Application of Nanotechnology

Environment

Medicine

Manufacturing

MEMS/ NEMS

Energy

Electronics

Defense

Products Sensors

Diagnosis Space

Fermentation Pharmaceutical

Food Agriculture

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4.1.2 Antimicrobial activity

Antibodies are considerably being replaced by NPs which seems to have a high potential in

solving the emergence of bacterial multidrug resistance 21. In particular, silver NPs have attracted

much attention in the scientific field 22. Silver in the past was used as an antiseptic and antimicrobial

against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria 23 due to its low cytotoxicity 24. They possess a

broad spectrum of antimicrobial activities 25. Silver ions effect the K+ ions concentration bacteria

thus, the bacterial plasma or cytoplasmic membrane, which is associated with its integrity 26. When

bacterial growth was inhibited, silver ions were deposited into the vacuole and cell walls as granules

27

. They inhibit cell division and damage the cell envelope and cellular contents of the bacteria 28. In

addition, silver ions can interact with nucleic acids 29 preferentially with the bases in the DNA rather

than with the phosphate groups, although the importance of this mechanism in terms of their lethal

action remains unclear 30. The involvement of free-radical also plays a vital role in the antibacterial

activity of silver NPs due to the interaction between reactive oxygen species (ROS) results in cell

death. Bacterial DNA or mitochondria can be affected by ROS such as superoxide anion (O2-),

hydroxyl radical (OH•) and singlet oxygen (1O2) with subsequent oxidative damage 31 showing good

antibacterial and antiviral effects.

4.1.3 Self – cleaning surfaces

Titanium dioxide (TiO2) NPs because of their hydrophilicity and photo-catalytic reactions

are used in the fabrication of self-cleaning surfaces i.e. can decompose organic structures (pollution).

Adding Nano silica to Titania, demonstrated higher photo catalytic and super hydrophilic activity in

comparison to pure TiO2. TiO2 is photo catalytic, in other words the oxygen radicals are produced

under UV light irradiation that decompose or degrade organic material such as, for example, fats,

oils, and soot or plant materials. TiO2 is especially reactive in Nano form and not spended during

catalysis, i.e. effect is long-term. On self-cleaning surfaces like this, the organic dirt is dissolved and

decomposed in the water film where the residue is removed by the next heavy shower of rain merely

reducing the need of repeated cleaning process 32.

4.2 UV Protection

There are both organic and inorganic UV blockers. The UV absorbers come under organic

blockers whereas the semiconductor oxides (TiO2, ZnO, SiO2, and Al2O3) come under inorganic

blockers. When compared with organic UV absorbers, the inorganic UV agents are more preferred

because of their unique features including, among others, non-toxicity and chemical stability under

both high temperature and UV-ray exposure. Some investigators believe that TiO2 provides good

UV protection by reﬂecting and/or scattering due to high refractive index 33,34, whereas others

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claim that only Nano size TiO2 absorb UV radiation, whereas the sub micrometer-size particles do

very little and in micro size they do not 38. The nanoscale TiO2 also presents good affinity to fabrics

because of its very large speciﬁc surface area and high surface energy and activity.

4.3 Fire retardant surfaces

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are commonly used as fillers to improve the mechanical, electrical,

and flame-retardancy properties of nanocomposites 39. CNT-containing nanocomposites absorb more

radiation than polymers with increase in temperature during fires. The incorporation CNTs reduces

polymer flammability by several mechanisms (limiting fuel transfer to the flame, formation of a

protective char layer, etc.). The incorporation of a small amount (5wt. %) of nanometric TiO2 or

Fe2O3 enhance the thermal stability of poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) nanocomposites 40. The

attributes of nanocomposites (PMMA- TiO2, PMMA- Fe2O3) improved the flame retardancy by

restricting the mobility of polymer chains.

4.4 Agriculture

The basic need of a human is food, clothes and shelter. Agriculture is one of the major sectors

that fulfill the need of food. The demand for the food increases as the population increases. This is

one of the concerning factors to accept the modern technique, the nanotechnology in particular. The

use of NPs increases the production rate and yield, the efficiency of resource utilization, minimize

waste production etc. Nanoparticles are used in:

 Cotton industry

 Honey bee culturing

 Silk worm industry

 Bio-fuel production.

4.4.1 The Detection of Plant Pathogens

To improve and protect the agricultural production, it is necessary to detect the pathogens in

the early stage of the host plan. This type of detection is possible through a micro biosensor process.

The biosensor is an analytical device that uses a biological recognition system to detect the

pathogens in the host, if any. It poses a physiochemical transducer that helps to isolate the infected

parts of the plants 41. These biosensors are small, portable, rapid, specific, quantitative, reliable,

accurate, reproducible, robust and stable. Thus, these sensors are good indicators at the agricultural

field by which farmer get the proper information of the soil and plants of agricultural domain 42.

4.4.2 Recycling of Agricultural Waste

Atanu Bhattacharya., et.al. (2014) mentioned that biodegradable cellulose mats can be used to

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4.4.3 Enhancing Agricultural Yield

Zeolites are naturally occurring crystalline aluminum silicates that can significantly improve

the water retention capacity of sandy soils and increase porosity in clay soils. The nano-porous

zeolites have the capacity to slow-release of water and fertilizers for plants to maintain the efficient

dosage, and also help to supply proper nutrients to the agricultural plants 42,43.

4.4.4 Nano-Pesticide

The NPs are used for controlling the micro-organism growth in agriculture. Chitosan, a linear

cationic biopolymer, which has filmogenic properties and capable of forming matrices for transport

of active substances. These are used to control the micro-organisms responsible for pre- and

post-harvest diseases of agricultural products 44.

4.5 Environment

Nanotechnology is an emerging field that covers a wide range of technologies 45.

Nanotechnology aims to reduces the harm to the environment as well as remediation of environment.

Nanotechnology in Environmental Engineering is to protect the environment from pollution control

treatment and as a remedial measure to a long-term problem such as contaminated waste sites. Many

Remediation Technologies have been developed to treat soil, wastewater and ground water

contaminants using In-situ and Ex-situ methods. Nano-remediation methods involves in the

application of reactive materials for the Transformation of pollutants and for detoxification. NPs are

used in waste water treatment and ground water remediation.

Various NPs used are Dendrimers, Metal NPs, Carbonaceous NPs, Zeolite, Zero valent Ion

and CNTs. NPs are highly reactive because of the high surface area. NPs are so tiny so their

Movement is largely governed by Brownian movement. Thus, NPs remain suspended in solution

longer to establish insitu treatment. NPs come in contact with the contaminant and NPs degrade the

Contaminant typically through redox reaction. The target contamination may be Organic molecules

such as pesticides and organic solvents such as Arsenic and /or lead.

4.5.1 Nanoparticles in Waste Water Treatment

Nano particles play an important role in the waste water treatment. Nanoparticles enhance the

efficient elimination of germs and pollutants in the area of water purification. For detection and

elimination of chemical and biological substances (metals and viruses, bacteria, parasites and

antibiotic) Nan membrane and nanopowder are used. Metal-containing NPs, carbonaceous

nanomaterials, zeolites and dendrimers are considered as functional materials for water purification

treatment.

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The affinity towards the target compound is increased by adding various chemical groups to

NPs. NPs have a unique property to develop high capacity and selective sorbents for metal ions and

anion 46. For coliform found in waste water silver compounds have been used as antimicrobial

compounds. In wound healing, Spherical or flake high surface area metal particles like silver (Ag)

Nanoparticles, nanodots or nanopowder are having high antibacterial activity are used. Silver

nanocrystals are incorporated in coatings, nanofiber, first aid bandages, plastics, soap and textiles, in

self-cleaning fabrics. For removing tri-chloroethane (TCE) from groundwater Nanoparticles of gold

coated with palladium act as effective catalysts 46. To remove arsenic from water, Zinc oxide NPs

has been used. A variety of irons containing minerals, such as akaganeite, feroxyhyte, magnetite etc.

46_{are used on adsorption processes for wastewater treatment. Magnetite Nano particles are}

covalently modified with PEG for the removal of lead from Waste water. The elimination of the

metal ions involves some general methods such as adsorption onto charcoal, chemical precipitation,

ligand precipitation etc. 47.

 Dendrimers

A highly branched polymers with controlled composition and an architecture that consists of

nanoscale features are Known as Dendrimers. A new class of nanoscale materials that can be carried

as water-soluble chelators is Poly amidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers usually by repeatedly

attaching amidoamine monomers in their radial branched layers PAMAM macromolecules are

synthesized. Different generations of PAMAM dendrimers are used for effective removal of copper

from water 45.

4.5.2 Nano particles in Ground water Remediation

Iron NPs and CNTs are an attractive component for nanoremediation. Iron NPs was

synthesized from Fe (II) and Fe (III) 48. For in situ remedial treatment, the use of zero-valent iron has

been expanded to include all different kinds of contaminants and by reductive dechlorination it

removes the aqueous contaminants with dissolved oxygen. Iron also undergoes “Redox” reactions.

For separation and immobilizations of Cr (VI) and Pb (II) from aqueous solution iron NPs are used.

One of the persistent organic pollutants in the drinking water is Lindane, which could be degraded

from water by FeS NPs. CNTs have cylindrical pores and carbon atoms on the surrounding walls

interact with the adsorbent molecules which maintains the quality of water. CNTs show adsorption

capability for removal of heavy metals such as lead oxidized CNTs and for the removal of organic

pollutants like dichlorobenzene, trihalomethanes, nonanne and CCL with different modification and

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4.6 Food

Food is the most important among the basic needs for human as it is the nutritious substances

that are needed in order to maintain life and growth. It is the source which can aid in developing and

replacing cells, to produce energy to keep the body active and protected from infection and recover

from sickness. NPs are used in the food to improve flavor, texture, enhance nutrient delivery,

packaging (antimicrobial and green) and for identification and elimination of bacteria. Nano-silver is

incorporated in food cutting boards, cleaning sprays, kitchenware, food storage containers and

refrigerator compartments for its antimicrobial properties. NPs such as nano-clays are incorporated

into plastic beer bottles to increase strength, make them more shatterproof, and extend shelf life by

acting as a barrier to keep oxygen outside the bottle and carbon dioxide inside. Nano-chips or

nano-sensors are commercially used to detect storage conditions conducive to spoilage (e.g., temperature

or moisture problems) For example; nano-sensors are used on food pallets during transport in

refrigerated trucks to detect temperature violations. Nano-encapsulating improves solubility of

vitamins, antioxidants, healthy omega oils and other nutraceuticals.

4.6.1 Nanoparticles in food packaging

NPs are employed in new food packaging materials which improve mechanical barrier and

antimicrobial properties to increase shelf life 49. Besides antimicrobial characteristics, NPs can also

help in extending shelf life even after opening by supporting antioxidants, enzymes, flavors,

anti-browning agents and other materials 50. Inorganic nano-materials of some metals and metal oxide

such as; silver, iron, titanium dioxide, Zinc oxides, magnesium oxide as well as silicon dioxide and

carbon NPs have been used as antimicrobial agents in food packaging and in some cases as food

supplements 51.

4.6.2 Nanoparticles in extending the shelf life of fresh strawberries

LDPE/ZnO nano-composites are used to extend the shelf life of fresh strawberries.

Strawberries have relatively high-water content, intense metabolic activity and susceptibility to

microbial rot 52. LDPE is widely used because of its properties such as acceptable flexibility,

transparency, low cost, easy process ability and thermal stability 53. ZnO NPs have several industrial

uses due to its strong antimicrobial effect against a broad spectrum of microorganisms 54. Since ZnO

NPs are thermally stable and thermal processing is used to produce the LDPE film, melt mixing can

improve the properties of nanocomposites 55.

4.6.3 Nano-Additives

Nano capsules such as liposomes, micelles etc., has better application as food additives,

nutritional supplements, to mask the undesirable taste, enhance bioavailability and allow for better

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calcium, magnesium, selenium and silica are used as additives to improve taste, flavor and for

preservation. The polylysine is a nano-particle used as antioxidant to protect oil from oxidation as

mentioned by Mahmound, et al. 57.

4.6.4 Nanoparticles in Sensory Food Analysis

Nano-sensors track down any physical, chemical or even biological changes during food

processing phase. Smart packaging with specialized nano-sensors and nano-devices have been

designed to detect toxins, food pathogens and chemicals 58. For example, Immunosensing of

staphylococcus sp. Enterotoxin B using poly (dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) chips with reinforced,

supported, fluid bilayer membranes(r-SBMs) and specific antibodies to the toxin 59.

4.7 Cosmetics

Cosmetics have become a part of basic needs in this virtual world. The formulation of

cosmetics is not simple and contains a high number of ingredients and manufactured by

time-consuming and tedious sample treatments 60,61 NPs have unique enhanced properties such as colour,

transparency, solubility etc., which cannot be achieved when working with the bulk form of the

material. Applications for these special properties have been suggested in many fields where the field

of cosmetics is one of those most eager to make the most of the opportunities presented by

nano-technology. Various types of NPs used in cosmetics are Nano emulsions, Liposomes, Nanocapsules,

Solid lipid NPs, Nanocrystals, Dendrimers, Cubosomes, Hydrogels, Bucky balls. Liposomes are

mainly composed of phospholipids, whereas niosomes use nonionic surfactants, such as

polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers or esters 62. Vesicle formulations are important in cosmetic applications

because they may improve the stability and skin tolerance of ingredients, such as unsaturated fatty

acids, vitamins or anti-oxidants and thereby contribute to the safety of cosmetics. Sunscreens contain

insoluble, mineral-based materials whose performance depends on their particle size. Mineral

particles, such as TiO2, reflect and scatter UV light most efficiently at a size of 60–120 nm. The

surface of these particles is frequently treated with inert coating materials, such as aluminium oxide

or silicon oils, in order to improve their dispersion in sunscreen formulations. Sunscreen products

containing mineral UV filters protect consumers from the harmful effects of UV exposure, including

skin ageing, herpes as well as skin and lip cancers. The transparency of titanium or zinc oxides

results in better consumer acceptance/compliance and thus improves the protection of human skin

against UV induced damage. Nano-emulsions have been considered as potential vehicles for the

controlled delivery of cosmetics and personal care products 63. Nano emulsions are oil-in-water

(O/W) or water-in-oil (W/O), transparent or translucent, colloidal dispersions, usually in the 20-500

nm size range 64,65. An advantage in using nano-emulsions compared to ordinary emulsion is their

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in their delivery 66. No textural changes as creaming, sedimentation or flocculation occurs during

storage and mostly homogenization appears to be the favored method of preparation of nano

cosmetics. Nano-emulsions provide different visual aspects, richness and skin feel in a great variety

of products.

4.8 Pharmaceuticals

‘Pharmaceutical nanotechnology’ combines the field of nano science with pharmacy which

aids in drug delivery, diagnostic and varies other application. ‘Nano medicine’ as submicron size

(<1um) modules which are used in treatment, diagnosis, monitoring, and control of biological system

67

. This field presents innovative revolutionary solutions against many diseases. Major limitations in

drugs existing for therapy are:

 Instability in the solid and suspension state

 An unfavorable ratio between the amount of drug administered and the concentration at the

target site is observed due to poor solubility, adsorption and low bioavailability.

Pharmaceutical nanotechnology has a vast scope in therapeutics and diagnosis. Current

nanoapplications in pharmacy includes therapeutic (nanomedicine, tissue engineering, nanorobots

etc.), advance diagnostic probes which provides accuracy (biosensor, biomarker, image enhancement

device, etc.). A large number of nanosystems are implemented in pharmacy to date which bags in

liposomes, dendrimers, metallic NPs, polymeric NPs, carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, nanofibres

etc.

4.8.1 Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology Based Systems

Basic nano tools i.e. nanomaterials and nanodevices 67 plays a major role in the world of

pharmaceutical nanotechnology. Nanomaterials are used in places such as dental implants, scaffolds

for tissue-engineered products. The biocompatibility is enhanced by surface a modification which

favours the interaction between the biomaterial and living cells. They are sub classified into two

types namely nano crystalline and nano structured materials. Nanocrystalline materials can

substitute bulk materials and easily manufactured. Raw nanomaterials have application in drug

encapsulation, bone replacements, prostheses (e.g. artificial limbs, facial prosthetics and

neuroprosthetics etc.) and implants. Nano structured materials provide special shapes or functionality

which are also processed forms of raw nanomaterials (eg.CNT). Nanodevices are nanoscale

miniature devices which include nano- and micro-electromechanical systems (NEMS/ MEMS),

microfluidics, and microarrays (eg. Biosensors and detectors).

4.8.2 Colloidal Nano Particles in Cream Formulation

In order to minimize the impact of systemic toxicity of drugs in the treatment of local acute

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in/through the skin is highly recommended, for which colloidal NPs was formulated and compared

with water-in-oil emulsion for topical administration and skin penetration routes. TEM results

provide evidence that the cream formulation of amphiplilic NPs (PMNP) allows efficient penetration

through the skin with a controllable kinetics on comparison to suspension formulation. PMNP

character combined with cream formulation improves the intradermal penetration of NPs.

Administration via aqueous solution favours in NPs capture by phagocytes, whereas cream

formulation shows better uptake by all dermis cell types, including hematopoietic and

non-hematopoietic cells. They also avoid their dispersion and migration to draining lymph nodes via

afferent lymphatics by capturing in the dermal architecture 68.

5. OTHER APPLICATIONS

5.1 In Fermentation technology and downstream processing

Various NPs such as Magnetite NPs and Silver NPs are used. Magnetite NPs have a

widespread biomedical application 69. By co-precipitation Method, Magnetite NPs was synthesized,

which is based on the precipitation of Fe3+, Fe2+ in basic aqueous Media. In aerobic bioprocess, the

rate of oxygen utilization is a limiting factor; hence the availability of oxygen for high microbial

activity in the medium is still crucial. Hence the effect of Magnetite examination on the oxygen

transfer in erythromycin culture plays a very important role 69. Using Magnetic solid phase

extraction, NPs of Magnetite have been developed as an extractive technique to preconcentrate

pollutants in sample. For the extraction and preconcentration of polychlorinated biphenyls from

water and soil leachates, Magnetic solid phase extraction Methods were developed 70. In Magnetic

solid phase extraction, Magnetic sorbent is added to the solution, and Magnetite NPs are attracted to

the Magnetic field created by a magnet on the wall of the flask, after the adsorption of the analytes or

to the sorbent. In these methods Magnetite NPs were grafted to graphene or multi walled Carbon

Nano tubes 71. Silver NPs that containing Agar films have been used as a support for liquid

membrane in Electro Membrane Extraction. For the determination of several analytes in a wide

range of matrices Electro Membrane Extraction preconcentration procedure are used as mentioned

by Cristina Roman Hidalgo., et.al. 71. Silver NPs have received considerable attention owing to their

attractive physical and chemical properties. The synthesis of NPs in colloidal solution requires

adequate methods to control their size and shape, chemical reduction being the most used synthesis

procedure. The insitu generated silver NPs in the synthesize film were characterized by means of

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5.2 Antimicrobial activity

The bimetallic (Ag, Au) nanocomposites has a great play in antimicrobial activity. In this

paper, the bimetallic nanocomposites obtained from the synthesis of acrylamide (AM) - and

2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid (AMPS)-based hydrogel for antimicrobial applications

were presented. The nanocomposite was confirmed by SEM, TGA/DSC, as well as XRD methods.

The bimetallic nanocomposite hydrogel has shown a significant antibacterial activity on Bacillus 72.

The magnetic Fe-Ag NPs acted as the antibacterial and antifungal agents against a variety of

microorganisms including disease-causing pathogens. The microscopic observations and phase

analyses of prepared BNPs, ranging between 10 and 30 nm depending on the initial concentration of

AgNO3, are firmly bound to Fe NPs, which prevent their release even during a long-term sonication

as mentioned by Markova, et.al. 73. In the Au-Ag core-shell NPs, the Au NPs act as the seeds for

continuous deposition of silver atoms on its surface. The core-shell structure and morphology were

characterized by UV-Vis spectroscopy, XRD, TEM, and EDX analyses. The core-shell BNPs

showed antibacterial activity against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria at low

concentration of silver present in the shell; TEM and flow cytometric studies showed that the

core-shell BNPs attached to the bacterial surface cause membrane damage which leads to cell death. The

enhanced antibacterial properties of Au-Ag core-shell BNPs were possibly due to the more active

silver atoms in the shell surrounding gold core due to high surface free energy of the Ag atoms,

owing to shell thinness in the bimetallic NP structure 74.

6. CONCLUSION

In summary, NPs have a wide range of applications and can be used in almost all the fields.

Functionalized NPs can satisfy the needs for specific purposes due to their improved bioavailability,

increased specificity and stability ensuring a long shelf life of the products. The vast benefits of NPs

have made them a vital ingredient in scientific and technological advancements. There are around 20

clinically approved drugs containing NPs as of today. It can be expected that very soon these NPs

will become the core of all materials and processes used in everyday life. From catering precise and

explicit diagnostic techniques to providing sustainable energy, thereby meeting the energy demand

crisis and improving the environment, NPs are the key to a better future.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors acknowledge the valuable support given by our institution-Rajalakshmi

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