DRAFT
An Analysis of the Situation with Respect to Natural Resources State, Use and Management in the Caribbean for the Purpose of Identifying Priority Areas of Action for
IICA in the Caribbean.
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction………. 3
Chapter 2: Policy responses - Agreements, Programmes, Policies & Strategies……… 25
Chapter 3: Freshwater ………. 43
Chapter 4: Coastal and marine resources ……… 49
Chapter 5: Land Use, Soils and Land Degradation ………. 56
Chapter 6: Forests ……… 68
Chapter 7: Biodiversity ……… 70
Chapter 8: Pollution and Waste……….. 73
Chapter 9: Natural Disasters and Global Climate Change………. 76
Chapter 10: Trade, the Environment and Agriculture……….. 86
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Geophysical Setting
The Sixteen Caribbean countries that are the subject of this report belong to the political grouping known as the Caribbean Community or CARICOM.1. CARICOM comprises a geographic and political group of islands and mainland countries which all share a common resource, the Caribbean Sea. The Caribbean Sea is bounded by Central America to the west, South America to the south, and the islands of the Caribbean archipelago to the north and east. Covering an area of approximately 2,515,900 km2 the Caribbean Sea is designated as the second largest sea. The Caribbean comprises a chain of islands extending for over 400 km from the Bahamas archipelago in the north, through the Greater and Lesser Antilles to Trinidad and Tobago, and the low-lying coastal states of Suriname and Guyana on the northern coast of the South American continent. Historically, Belize, as a former British colony, is included in the geographic designation “Caribbean”.
All of the countries in question have a common history in which they functioned as colonial agricultural export economies supplying the demand of the governing metropolitan countries for tropical agricultural products. With the exceptions of Haiti and Suriname which were French and Dutch colonies up until 1766 and 1984 respectively, the CARICOM countries have a common history as British colonies. Each Country gained Independence at different time, with Haiti’s independence preceding the post-World War II independence movement by almost two Centuries. The flurry of independence in the early 1960s was followed by isolated alter agreements, delayed by capacity, and or geopolitical considerations.
There are more similarities in history and social characteristics of the Member States, which range in size from 103 km2 (Montserrat) to 214,970 km2 (Guyana). They have varied
1
CARICOM consists of the following Member States: Antigua & Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Montserrat, St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Suriname and Trinidad & Tobago. Associate Members of CARICOM include Anguilla, The British Virgin Islands and Turks & Caicos Islands.
topographies, geological features and high population densities, particularly in their coastal areas. They also have similar narrow natural resource bases. The small size of the islands, in particular, provides a number of disadvantages including the following:
• A narrow range of resources that forces undue specialization, excessive dependence on international trade and hence vulnerability to global developments;
• High population densities which increase the pressure on already limited resources;
• costly public administration and infrastructure, including transportation and communication;
• Limited institutional capacities;
• Limited domestic markets, which are too small to provide significant scale economies.
Topography
Igneous and metamorphic rocks, limestone hills or karst, and coastal, sedimentary plains of varying depths are the principal geological formations found throughout the Caribbean. The general topography include rugged, steep mountains reaching greater than 1200 metres, covered with dense, evergreen rain forests and cut by swiftly flowing rivers. The second consists of hilly countryside, seldom rising above 600 metres and is usually more gently sloped. Finally, the coastal plains skirt the hills usually on the southern or western sides of the mountains.
Active volcanoes exist in Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines, and off the coast of Grenada. Grenada also has some older crater lakes formed by earlier volcanic activity. All the islands have rugged coastlines with innumerable inlets fringed by white or dark sands (depending on the rock substratum) of varying texture.
Climate
The Caribbean climate is tropical, moderated to some extent by the prevailing northeast trade winds. Individual climatic conditions are strongly dependent on elevation. At sea level there is little variation in temperature, regardless of the time of the day or the season of the year. Temperatures range between 24 and 32 degrees Celsius. These countries experience two predominant seasons: a long rainy season, which in most countries runs from May through October, and a dry season. During the rainy season, precipitation may fluctuate. The windward sides of the islands receive much rain, whereas leeward sides can have very dry conditions. Flat islands tend to receive slightly less rainfall, but its pattern is more consistent. Most of the rainfall occurs during short heavy outbursts during daylight hours. The period of heaviest rainfall usually occurs after the sun has passed directly overhead, which in these islands would usually be in the middle of May and again in early August. The rainy season also coincides with the summer hurricane season.
Hurricanes are constant features of the Caribbean, with a season that lasts from June to November. Hurricanes develop over the ocean during the summer months when the sea surface temperature is high (over 27 degrees Celsius), and the air pressure falls below 950 millibars. These conditions create an "eye" about 20 kilometres wide, around which a steep pressure
gradient forms that generates wind speeds of 110 to 280 kilometres per hour. The diameter of hurricanes can extend as far as 500 to 800 kilometres and, in addition to strong storm winds, they can produce extremely heavy rainfall which often result in considerable destruction of property. The geophysical characteristics may influence the environment by functioning in a number of ways; by, constraining (e.g. isolation as a factor in genetic exchange, space limitation, endogenous and or exogenous sources of water), modifying or regulating (e.g. orographicly influenced precipitation and floral zoneation, water availability and drainage patterns), supporting (e.g. soil type and futility).
Demographics
The populations and population densities of the Caribbean states vary significantly under the influence of land area, topography, geomorphology, and settlement patterns. With a population density of 628 residents per km2, Barbados, the 9th country in terms of size is the most densely populated of the Caribbean islands.
In contrast, the population of Guyana is approximately 764 000 people, is the largest in the English-speaking Caribbean. But, with a total land area of approximately 214 970 km², the country has one of the lowest population densities in the world. However, average national population density can be misleading. Despite the Guyana’s large land area and comparatively small population, there is considerable pressure from human settlement. Approximately 80% of Guyana's population lives on or near the coast drawn from the interior by the prospects of employment and improved living conditions.
Antigua, with a land area of 440 km2 and a population of approximately 73,000 has a population density of approximately 166 people per km2. The port city of St. John's, capital of Antigua and Barbuda, contains approximately 25 percent of Antigua's population. With a land area of approximately 7.4 km2 St. John’s has a population density of approximately 3000 persons per km2.
-0.78 reflected a net out-migration rate of -15.5 migrants/1000 population (FAO, 2002). Over 60% of Guyana’s population is located in rural areas. This figure is projected to fall to approximately 55% by 2015 (UNDP, 2005).
The population of the Bahamas has been largely urban, with the percentage of the population in 1975 73.4% to 90.4% between 1975 and 2003. It is anticipated that this figure will rise to 91.6% by 2015 (UNDP, 2005)
Trinidad’s pop growth is projected to level off between 2003 and 2015, accompanied by a decline in annual pop growth. Over this period the population is projected to remain substantially urban with the percent population in urban settlement increasing from 75.4% to79.7%.
Antigua and Barbuda and Grenada share similar demographic trends of minimal change in population. Both are projected to continue as marginally rural populations.
Though demonstrating similar population growth trends of minimal population growth, Dominica’s annual population growth is projected to triple from the 1975 to 2003 average of 0.3%. However, unlike Antigua and Barbuda and Grenada, Dominica is projected to maintain a substantially urban population.
St. Lucia, despite and upward trending urban population projection is anticipated to experience a decline in annual average growth rate and to remain substantially rural population with a projected 2015 urban population of 36.8%. The average annual population growth rate is anticipated to fall from 1.3% (1975-2003) to 0.8% (2003-2015)
Surinam is projected to experience an upward population trend despite declining annual average growth, but is anticipated to become a substantially urban population.
St. Vincent and the Grenadines, like Trinidad and Tobago, Antigua and Barbuda, Grenada and Dominica, is projected to experience no significant population growth over the period 2003 to 2015. Annual average population growth is projected to decline, but urban population growth will continue its steep upward trend.
Haiti, with the largest population of the group of countries is projected to see a decline in annual population growth from 1.9% to 1.4%, with the population growing from 8.3 million (2003) to 9.8 million (2015). The population is projected to remain marginally rural with 45.5% of the population projected to be in urban settings in 2015.
Jamaica’s population is projected to show a slight upward trend despite declining annual growth rates. Urban population growth is not expected to be substantial with an almost even being projected between urban and rural populations.
Belize is projected to realize no substantial population change from 2003 to 2015. Annual pop growth rate is expected to decline from 2.4% (1975-2003) to 1.8% (2003-20015) and the trend in urban population growth is expected to be level.
COUNTRY TOTAL POPULATION (millions) ANNUAL POP. GROWTH URBAN POPULATION (%) (% of total) 1975 2003 2015 1975-2003 2003-15 1975 2003 2015 Barbados 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 40.8 51.7 59.1 St. Kitts and Nevis (.) (.) (.) -0.2 1.1 35.0 32.2 32.5 The Bahamas 0.2 0.3 0.4 1.8 1.3 73.4 89.4 91.6 Trinidad and Tobago 1.0 1.3 1.3 0.9 0.3 63.0 75.4 79.7 Antigua and Barbuda 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.9 1.2 34.2 37.8 43.4 Grenada 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.4 1.3 32.9 40.7 49.5 Dominica 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.9 55.3 72.0 76.2 St. Lucia 0.1 0.1 0.2 1.3 0.8 23.6 30.5 36.8 Surinam 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.5 49.5 76.0 81.6 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.7 0.4 27.0 58.2 68.6 Belize 0.1 0.3 0.3 2.4 1.8 50.2 48.4 51.8 Jamaica 2.0 2.6 2.7 1.0 0.4 44.1 52.2 54.2 Guyana 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.1 -0.1 30.0 37.6 44.2 Haiti 4.9 8.3 9.8 1.9 1.4 21.7 37.5 45.5 Table 1: Demographic Trends.
Economic Performance
Caribbean economies are dominated by their export sectors which are concentrated on one to three products based on the region’s natural resource base. Domestic food production is the most common area of non-export production. Particularly, little domestic agricultural production occurs in the more arid or limestone islands such as Barbados. Manufacturing in some economies tends to be significantly dependent on imported inputs. Tourism has been the most dynamic and fastest growing industry in most economies, and is already the dominant industry in some (Pantin and others 2005).
Caribbean economies face a number of challenges which are linked to the following:
• The unraveling of preferential arrangements for traditional exports, a development linked to economic liberalization.
• Poverty and high unemployment, particularly among youth, and concomitant growing social deviance including violence, crime and drugs.
• The Caribbean is marked by a relatively high degree of vulnerability to natural disasters (exacerbated by climate change). The region is also economically vulnerable, as shown by the negative fall-out from 9/11 on as important an economic sector as tourism.
• High levels of foreign indebtedness in some countries.
The report “Economic Survey of the Caribbean 2004 to 2005” (ECLAC, 2004) Observed that Caribbean economies had, in general, exhibited a process of economic recovery. Economic performance improved in 2003, with Caribbean countries as a group registering on average 2.8% GDP growth compared with the 1.0% recorded in 2002. However, the positive average obscures the disparities in GDP growth among countries. At the lower end of the performance range, Guyana recorded an economic downturn (-0.6%) while at the higher end Antigua and Barbuda and Suriname doubled their growth rates in 2003 in comparison with the previous year (Fig. 2) (ECLAC, 2004)
The significance of the recovery lies in the demonstration of the sensitivity of Caribbean to external events. Earlier economic trends in the Caribbean, periods of stable growth expansion (1994-1998) and acceleration (1998-2000) were a reflection of external conditions that were favorable to Caribbean economies and economic performance (ECLAC, 2004) (see Figure 2). By 2005 the majority of Caribbean countries registered a decline in their rate of economic growth with respect to the previous year (Fig. 2) (ECLAC, 2006). The patterns of national performance varied with the highest rates of growth being recorded by Grenada, Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago (9.2 per cent, 7.9 per cent and 7.0 per cent, respectively).
Both St Kitts and Nevis and Suriname achieved 5 per cent growth. Moderate growth rates of between 2% and 3% were achieved by the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Jamaica’s economic performance for the period was described as stagnant at 1.4%, while Guyana experienced a contraction in economic activity as evidenced by the -2.9% GDP growth (Fig. 2) (ECLAC, 2006).
Figure 2: Real GDP Growth for 2005 – Selected Caribbean Countries. (Source: ECLAC 2006)
The export agriculture sector in the Region has been in decline for the past three decades (CDB, 2003). As a result the sector has been contributing less to GDP as export performance has
The heavy dependence on export agriculture, population growth, increased real income, and an expanding tourism industry have contributed to a nominal increase in “food import dependence” (CDB, 2003). However, when food import dependence is viewed as the ratio of food imports to GDP, it is seen to have wither stabilized or declined, indicating that food security ahs not declined between 1970 and 1999 (CDB, 2003).
declined in the face of increasing international competition driven by trade liberalization; the reduction of existing barriers to trade and by preventing the creation of new barriers. This trend has implications for increased impoverishment of rural communities and a social and political stability.
Table 2
Caribbean economies
GDP growth, inflation and current account 2003-2005
Current account as
GDP growth Inflation percentage of GDP
2003 2004 2005 2003 2004 2005 2003 2004 2005
Antigua and Barbuda 5.5 5.2 4.0 3.5 2.1 … -13.9 -10.8 -20.4 The Bahamas 1.9 2.8 3.0 2.4 0.9 1.8 -8.0 -5.3 -11.2 Barbados 3.7 4.8 2.8 1.6 1.4 3.2 -8.0 -10.5 -10.4 Belize 9.1 4.6 3.0 2.6 3.1 3.5 -10.5 -14.4 -11.1 Dominica 1.0 3.6 2.8 2.8 0.9 … -14.4 -20.8 -21.4 Grenada 5.7 -3.0 9.2 1.1 2.5 … -35.5 -13.5 -41.3 Guyana -0.6 1.6 -2.9 4.9 5.5 6.0 -11.4 -9.3 -24.8 Jamaica 2.3 0.9 1.4 14.1 13.7 16.0 -8.7 -6.0 -9.3 St. Kitts and Nevis 0.6 6.4 5.1 3.1 1.7 … -31.5 -23.1 -30.5 Saint Lucia 3.7 3.6 7.9 0.5 3.5 … -20.4 -17.2 -13.5 St. Vincent and the Grenadines 3.6 5.4 2.8 2.2 1.7 … -21.1 -25.9 -31.6 Suriname 5.4 7.8 5.0 13.1 9.1 16.6 -12.2 -8.5 -14.3 Trinidad and Tobago 13.2 6.2 7.0 3.8 4.0 5.3 9.4 16.4 17.4
Average 4.2 3.8 3.9 4.3 3.9 7.5 -14.3 -11.5 -17.1
Standard Deviation 3.7 2.8 3.1 4.3 3.7 6.2 11.3 10.6 14.3
Note: … denotes not available.
Table 3
Indicators of size and development for Caribbean States 2003 (Source: ECLAC, 2004)
Caribbean states Area in Population GDP per Poverty Unemployment Inflation Fiscal balance
Current Public debt as Thousands of Km2 Thousands of inhabitants capita US dollars Percentage of population rate 2003 2003 as percentage of GDP account as percentage of percetage of GDP 2003 2003 below the 2003 GDP 2003 poverty line 2003 The Bahamas 14 312 16691 .... 10.8 3.0 .... -8.17 45.0 Barbados 0.43 272 9651 14 11.1 1.6 -2.5 -8.0 71.1 Belize 23 290 3646 .... 12.9 2.6 -10.9 -18.3 88.9 Guyana 216 762 911 35 ... 4.9 -34.7 -11.0 172.0 Jamaica 11 2 600 2962 19 13.1 14.1 -5.9 -12.4 142.0 Suriname 164 439 2470 .... ... 26.0 0.2 -14.0 37.0 Trinidad and Tobago 0.44 1 300 7836 21 10.6 3.0 2.7 9.6 28.0 OECS 2.81 578 4338 ... .... 1.8 -9.0 -19.0 109.0 Anguilla 0.1 12 7840 ... ... 6.9 2. -34.7 17.2 Antigua and Barbuda 0.44 74 8369 12 .... ... -9.0 -12.7 151.7 Dominica 0.75 72 3023 33 .... 3.0 -5.0 -13.2 127.0 Grenada 0.34 102 3353 32 .... 1.1 -10 -34.5 110.1 Montserrat 0.1 4 7569 1.2 -28 -17.4 16.3 St. Kitts and Nevis 0.27 50 6510 31 .... 3.1 -9 -23.7 162.0 St. Lucia 0.62 167 3658 19 .... 0.4 -9 -15.4 66.5 St. Vincent and the 0.39 112 2819 33 .... 2.7 -2.4 -18.2 76.7
Grenadines
Aruba 1.0 91 22000 ... 6.9 3.7 1.0 -7.0 41.0 British Virgin Islands 0.1 21 10000 ... .... 0.4 -0.7 .... .... Netherlands Antilles 0.8 219 11400 .... .... 1.9 -5.0 0.2 90.0 United States Virgin
The Environment in the Economy
The countries of the Caribbean are characterized by economies that are highly open and that are dependent on the performance of one or two sectors. With the exception of Trinidad and Tobago, which possesses petroleum based economy that in tern has catalyzed the development of a burgeoning industrial sector; most countries of the Caribbean are dependent on their agricultural and tourism sectors.
Figure 3: Structure of GDP at current prices by broad economic sectors: 1985, 1995 and 1999 (% of country’s GDP)
The UNCED Conference Agenda 21 recognized the special circumstances that small island developing states have in common that limited their capacities to achieve sustainable economic development. These circumstances arise from their “island” nature (de Bruglio, 2004) and include; isolation, a heavy dependence upon natural resource base (agriculture, forestry, fishing, tourism, mining and light manufacturing), susceptibility to the vagaries of international trade, the absence of economies of scale, high transportation and communication costs, grave vulnerability to natural disasters, scarce land resources, ever increasing pressures on coastal and marine environments and resources, and limited means and capacity to implement comprehensive sustainable development goals. These constraints
institutional, human, and material resources. This syndrome exacerbates the limited human capacity in those countries with small national populations. This is one of the factors that affect countries ability and the means to manage and use natural resources on a sustainable basis.
The economic growth of individual Caribbean states is based on the unique and limited natural resources that they must configure to form the basis of a sound economy (GoAB, 2004). However, the lack of strategic planning for resource management and lack of understanding of the finite nature of natural resources is resulting in a degradation of ecosystem functions, which will lead to a decline in quality of life (GoAB,2004). In it’s assessment of ….the OECS ESDU determined that “… degradation of environmental resources has continued despite increasing awareness of the strategic importance of the “healthy environment” for the long-term well being of the people of the Caribbean and the sustainability of the economies of the region. The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) of the Region share characteristics of SIDS globally, that combine to create a syndrome of unique social (Table 5), and economic (Box 1) vulnerabilities (Whiter 2003, de Bruglio, 200x). The high levels of vulnerability of SIDS and LLCS to extreme climatic events and natural disasters was highlighted by the impacts of the intensely destructive 2004 and the unusually protracted 2005 hurricane seasons (Table 4).
Table 4: Some intense hurricanes in the Caribbean 1979–2004
Table 4: Some intense hurricanes in the Caribbean 1979–2004 cont’d
The geophysical configuration of low lying coastal states (LLCS) also creates unique vulnerabilities as demonstrated by the protracted flooding experienced in Guyana in early 2006 (CDERA 2006). The impacts of extreme climatic events when superimposed on the characteristics of SIDS create s syndrome of increased vulnerability. Vulnerability is further increased by the reliance of many Caribbean States on the productivity of one or two economic sectors which are vulnerable in their own unique ways. This situation is further compounded by the fact that the activities of the economic sectors contribute to environmental degradation, and habitat destruction, which reduce or eliminate ecosystem goods and services. The loss of ecosystem goods and services reduces economic productively, increases vulnerability of human populations and economic sectors to a range of potential threats.
Table 5: Determinants of Social Vulnerability (adapted from Adger, 1999)
INDIVIDUAL COMMUNITY (COLLECTIVE) NATIONAL/REGIONAL • Poverty/income • Level of resource dependence/access • Resource entitlements • Market access • Access to resources
• Diversity in income sources
• Social status within community • Location/exposure • Adaptation options • Land-use • Location/exposure • Formal/informal coping mechanisms
• Existing sectoral policies and practices
• Institutional preparedness & hazard preparation (planning & resource allocation)
• Institutional affectedness
• (Active) Institutional inertia (rent-seeking)
• Formal/informal institutional & political risk coping mechanisms
• Institutional capacity
• Access/diversity of economic assets
• Market structures
• Absolute level of development
• Absolute levels of infrastructure
Box 1: Indicators of economic vulnerability on the part of SIDS:
• Greater exposure to globalisation trends as a result of WTO regime of tariff reduction and other WTO rules;
• Growing indebtedness;
• Steady depletion of natural resources (minerals, forest, freshwater, fish stocks); • Reduced possibilities of diversifying their economies;
• Reductions in donor assistance; • Growing dependence on tourism;
• Continued designation of per capita income as the principal determinant of development assistance benefits;
• Slow incorporation of ICT;
• The pending loss of lucrative historical markets without clearly elaborated strategies as to how to minimize loss of revenue and employment;
• Failure on the part of the international community to act on climate change during the decade of the 1990s, when economic expansion was at its historical highest level and development aid underwent the greatest reductions since its inception in the late 1940s.
Source: Binger et al. (2002)
The natural environment supports and benefits human populations in many ways through its provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services. These goods and services are innate features of natural systems (Figure 4). They are not produced for the benefit of humans, but humans do benefit from their production. The past abundance and ubiquitous nature of environmental goods and services has caused them to be taken for granted. Environmental goods and services are becoming scarcer because healthy, un-degraded environments are becoming increasingly scarcer. It is not the healthy environments that are missed, it is the goods and services that they provide, and upon which our economies, health, and wellbeing depend (Box 2).
It is imperative that the conservation of the environment become an integral part of the development philosophy of Caribbean states. If Caribbean governments fail to move conservation into the decision making arena for development the familiar economic and social vulnerabilities that have yet to be surmounted, will be exacerbated The consequences of the alternative are already evident, and will be discussed in subsequent chapters.
Fig 4: Linkage between Ecosystem Services and Human Wellbeing (Source: WRI, 2005).
The unique character of the agricultural industry in the Caribbean has the potential to transform the approach to development in the Caribbean. Traditionally a disjointed and partitioned sectoral approach has been taken to development, in which social, economic and environmental potentials are rarely brought together to exploit the latent synergies. Arguably the converse situation maintains, in which advances for stakeholders in one of either the social, economic, or environmental arenas translates to disadvantage for the at least one of the others. The principle underpinning the concept of Sustainable economic development is that the interests of the social, environmental, and economic sectors of development can be advanced in a coordinated manner that minimizes the negative impacts to these sectors while maximizing opportunity.
Box 2: Environmental Goods and Services (Ecosystem Functions) Seagrass Beds
• Habitat for a variety of animals including sea urchins, encrusting worms, sea cucumbers, seahorses
• Nursery area for fish (camouflage) and an important shelter for fish and crustaceans
• Feeding ground for some herbivorous fish including the parrot
• Source of detritus to reef system and nutrient cycling
• Settlement of suspended sediment through baffling effect of leaves. Also bind sediment and encourage accretion
• Habitat for algae, including calcareous algae such as Halimeda. These algae have high concentration of calcium carbonate and when they die they contribute to the sediment budget of beaches.
Coral Reefs:
• Provision of a habitats for a wide array of species
• Provision of a hydrodynamic barrier to wave energy, thereby protecting the shoreline from erosion and facilitating the formation of sandy beaches
• Provision of low energy areas which allow for the growth of seagrass beds
• Support of artesinal fisheries for fish, conch, lobster and shrimp
• Provision of sediment for the formation and maintenance of sandy beaches from the constant breakdown of the carbonate skeleton.
• Ecotourism attraction
• Source of shells used in craft
Mangrove wetlands
• Export of material to other ecosystems such as coral reefs and sea grass beds through changing tides and currents.
• The high productivity of mangrove wetlands provides food for ecosystems such as coral reefs and seagrasses. This transfer of both dissolved and particulate suspended matter is highest during low tide, and helps to support the ecology of coastal waters.
• Providing a variety of habitats for a wide array of terrestrial and aquatic species, having high biodiversity.
• Provision of feeding, nursery and breeding areas for fish, crustaceans, mollusks and crocodiles. The shallow bays and lagoons are good nursery areas. In areas with red mangroves the prop roots provide protection from predators. A variety of birds, including migrants, nest in mangrove wetlands.
• Stabilising of coastlines, acting as a buffer between the land and the sea. Mangrove forests help to control coastal erosion.
• Stabilisation of sediments. The prop roots of the red mangrove trap and stabilise sediment deposits from surface inflow and rivers.
• Protection of adjacent coral reefs from suspended solids and drastic changes in salinity due to ongoing inflow of freshwater.
• Removal of contaminants from surface inflows
• Nutrient retention and removal.
Agricultures role in, and impact on, rural development, export income generation, food security, watershed management, water resource utilization and allocation, demands a socially inclusive, integrated, multi-sectoral, multi-disciplinary, holistic approach to policy development, planning and implementation in order to attain optimal levels of economic efficiency. That this objective requires the efficient utilization of environmental and social resources, suggests that the agriculture industry the potential to transform national development approaches through the act of reforming the agricultural industry.
CHAPTER 2:
POLICY RESPONSES
Since the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, and the ensuing Rio Declaration and Agenda 21, which sought to develop a comprehensive blueprint for global sustainable development, environmental portfolios have gained status and have progressed in the Caribbean from being an add-on to ministries of finance and trade to being ministries in their own rights (UNEP, 2005). Various environmental agreements (The Barbados Declaration and Programme of Action for Small Island Developing States (SIDS/ POA) 1994; St Georges Declaration in 2000; the OECS Environmental Management Strategy and Charter 2001 are pertinent examples) in the region clearly points to an appreciation of the impacts on the natural resources and well being of future generations. These agreements elaborate principles and set out strategies for development that will protect the important but, fragile environments of CARICOM member states. They build on the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21. Among the Caribbean SIDS, there is consensus that all the principles/priority areas of the SIDS/ POA are relevant to their sustainable development, and significant progress has been made by many of these states in implementing the agreements. Environmental institutions are only just beginning to create the capabilities they need to achieve the goals identified in terms of effective trans-sectoral policies and to improve the international negotiating position of the countries. With the onset of Agenda 21, the SIDS/POA, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation and the myriad of international environmental treaties that govern various aspects of environmental management, the governments of the CARICOM region have reiterated their commitment to addressing, in a more holistic manner, the sectoral issues related to the achievement of sustainable development.
In order to successfully monitor and evaluate progress in the region, approaches to sustainable development require consistent, long-term strategies and sound policies, which should be based on timely and reliable information. Extensive fundamental changes in existing governing systems and institutional structures would also be required, if these countries were to be able to derive the benefits from their participation in international environmental treaties and achieve the goal of sustainable development.
Global MEAs
The Caribbean States have taken an active role in defining and developing the major global, non-binding, multi-lateral agreements (MEA), either independently, or through political or geographic groupings such as CARICOM, the G77, and AOSIS. Involvement in the development and implementation of MEAs arises in part from the recognition that global environmental problems with transboundary characteristics can only be affectively addressed through multilateral solutions.
CARICOM’s participation, in particular, in MEAs has incresaeds significantly, driven primarily by member states’ interface with international environmental institutions, the demands of international financial donor institutions and states and, increasingly, the emergence of local environmental actors and interests. International MEAs and non-binding agreements have increased public knowledge of environmental issues and have had significant impact on the development of national policies and legislation to protect the environment and to promote sustainable development in CARICOM member states.
A review of MEAs shows that there are more than 100 conventions that hold some relevance to the Caribbean, many of which have attracted significant levels of ratification and/or accession by Caribbean States (United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Caribbean Environment Outlook (1999)). The most relevant MEAs to the region and the indication of acceptance of these global MEAs to the CARICOM region are presented in table 6 below.
Table 6: The status of MEA Implementation among Caribbean States. Global MEAs
Country CBD CITES Basel Ozone UNFC CCD Ramsar Heitage UNCLOS MARPOL
Antigua and Barbuda * * * * * * * *
Bahamas * * * * * * * * * Barbados * * * * * * * * * Belize * * * * * * * * * * Dominica * * * * * * * * Grenada * * * * * * * Guyana * * * * * * * * * Haiti * * * * * * * Jamaica * * * * * * * * *
St. Kitts and Nevis * * * * * * * * *
St. Lucia * * * * * * * *
St. Vincent and the Grenadines
* * * * * * * *
Trinidad and Tobago * * * * * * * *
Surinam * * * * * * * * *
Legend
* = acceptance (ratification or accession) of the Convention
Conventions
CBD = United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, 1992
CITES = Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 1973 Basel = Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, 1989 Ozone = Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, 1985, and Protocol on Substances that
Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
UNFCC = United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1992
CCD = United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious
Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa, 1994
Ramsar = Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, 1971 Heritage = UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
1972
UNCLOS= United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982
Some difficulties exist in assessing the extent to which the MEAs have impacted on regional and national programming for sustainable development. This is a result of the following:
• Lack of a shared definition of sustainable development, amenable to measurement via a set of indicators;
• The absence of a methodology for determining the impacts of MEAs on the sustainable development planning and development at the national level;
• Lack of adequate collection and compilation of environmental statistics and indicators that can be used for monitoring and control.
Information from CARICOM indicates that member states are more often constrained in their ability to fully meet their obligations under the MEAs due to their respective, small human resource pools, and small economies. Member states find themselves without adequate financial and human resources to ensure compliance with the MEAs to which they have signed on. This capacity constraint is often reflected in the presence or absence of enabling legislation to facilitate the implementation of the various conventions, and hence the mechanisms to put the underlying principles into action. The global level priorities are defined to a greater extent by the main conventions and the associated multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs).
SIDS Barbados Programme of Action (BPoA)
One of the most important and relevant global action plans for the Caribbean is the Barbados Programme of Action (BPOA) for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS). A direct output of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development for Small Island Developing States, the BPoA was adopted to facilitate the implementation of Agenda 21 in SIDS. It is the blueprint for small island developing state and international community to address national and regional sustainable development inSIDS. The BPoA:
• Sets out the basic principles and specific actions required at the global, national, and local levels, to support sustainable development in SIDS.
The BPoA embodies and articulates the sustainable development priority of the Caribbean SIDS. These priorities are reflected in the frameworks of other global, regional, and sub-regional initiatives and agendas. These include, the Mauritius Strategy for the further implementation of the for the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of SIDS, Barbados +5, the Rio Principles, the full implementation of Agenda 21, the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, the Millennium Development Goals, WTO Agendas related to the Doha Round, the St. Georges Declaration of Principles of Environmental Sustainability.
The BPOA translates Agenda 21 into specific policies, actions and measures to be taken at the national, regional and international level. Fifteen priority areas were identified with the understanding that effective action in these areas was essential if SIDS were to achieve the individual and collective objectives of sustainable development. The 15 priority areas for specific action are:
• Climate change and sea-level rise; • Natural and environmental disasters;
• Management of wastes; Coastal and marine resources; • Freshwater resources;
• Land resources; • Energy resources; • Tourism resources; • Biodiversity resources;
• National institutions and administrative capacity;
• Regional institutions and technical cooperation; Transport and communication; • Science and technology;
• Human resource development; • Implementation,
In 1999 a special session of the United Nations General Assembly, undertook the review and appraisal of the Barbados Programme of Action. The Special Session adopted a report2 that identified six priority areas requiring urgent attention in the five years that were to follow. The priority areas were (UNESCO 2006):
• Climate change (adapting to climate change and rising sea levels, which could submerge some low-lying island nations);
• Natural and environmental disasters and climate variability (improving preparedness for and recovery from natural and environmental disasters);
• Freshwater resources (preventing worsening shortages of freshwater as demand grows); • Coastal and marine resources (protecting coastal ecosystems and coral reefs from pollution
and over-fishing);
• Energy (developing solar and renewable energy to lessen dependence on expensive imported oil);
• Tourism (managing tourism growth to protect the environment and cultural integrity).
Climate change and sea-level rise; Natural and environmental disasters; Management of wastes; Coastal and marine resources; Freshwater resources; Land resources; Energy resources; Tourism resources; Biodiversity resources; National institutions and administrative capacity; Regional institutions and technical cooperation; Transport and communication; Science and technology; Human resource development; Implementation, monitoring and review.
REGIONAL MEAs
An evaluation of the impact of regional MEAs on the Caribbean region reflects similar results and limitations as those described for global MEAs. The only environmental convention covering the entire Caribbean is the Cartagena Convention (Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region; 1983) and its protocols on oil spills (Oil spills Protocol), specially protected areas and wildlife (SPAW Protocol) and the recently developed land-based sources of marine pollution (LBSMP Protocol). The Convention and Oil spills Protocol have attracted widespread support, and after many years the SPAW Protocol has entered into force (April, 2000). The record of acceptance of this regional MEA and its associated Protocols is presented in Table 7.
In recent years, CARICOM Governments have assigned very high priority to the sustainable management of the Caribbean Sea. This has led the region to gain acceptance of an international instrument that calls for the development of a management regime for the Caribbean Sea. The resulting United Nations Resolution is entitled “Promoting an Integrated Approach to the Caribbean Sea in the Context of Sustainable Development.” It is envisaged that the management regime will be based on the principles embodied in co-management, and will allow for the responsibility for resource management and ocean stewardship to be shared between the Governments of the region and relevant stakeholders. MEAs have helped to establish a number of important issues on the national environmental agendas of the countries, as well as to broaden stakeholder participation in environmental governance. The onset of MEAs has forced the crucial acknowledgment of the growing need for the development of adequate and timely information to support decision-makers in measuring progress towards sustainable development.
The Cartagena Convention
The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) was adopted in Cartagena, Colombia in March 1983 and entered into force in October 1986, for the legal implementation of the Action Plan for the Caribbean Environment Programme (UNEP/CEP 1983).
Table 7: Status of the Cartagena Convention
Source CARICOM, 2003
The area over which the Cartagena Convention applies comprises the marine environment of the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea and the areas of the Atlantic Ocean adjacent thereto, south of 30° N and within 200 nautical miles of the Atlantic Coasts of the United States (GIWA 2004). The Convention requires the adoption of measures aimed at preventing, reducing and controlling pollution of the following areas:
• Pollution from ships;
• Pollution caused by dumping; • Pollution from sea-bed activities; • Airborne pollution;
• Pollution from land-based sources and activities.
Table 8: Summary of the Protocols of the Cartagena Convention
Protocol adoption Entry in
force Obligation The Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills
1983 October 1986. -Cooperate in taking all necessary measures for the protection of the marine and coastal environment of the Wider Caribbean; particularly the coastal areas of the islands of the region, from oil spill incidents.
-Establish and maintain means of responding to oil spill incidents and
-Through legislative, capacity building, and institutional means, to reduce the risk of oil spill incidents
The Protocol Concerning Marine Pollution from Land-Based Sources and Activities (LBS) 1999 Signed: 6 (Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, France, the Netherlands, and the United States of America)
after it has been ratified by nine Member States following 2 COP
Obligations:
-Take appropriate measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the Convention area from land-based sources and activities,
-Develop and implement appropriate plans, programmes and measures, adopting effective means of preventing, reducing or controlling pollution of the Convention area from land based sources and activities on its territory
-Jointly develop sub-regional and regional plans, programmes and measures to prevent, reduce and control pollution of the Convention area from land-based sources and activities.
The Protocol Concerning
Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW)
1990 2000 Each country shall:
-Take the necessary measures to protect, preserve and manage in a sustainable way, areas that require protection to safeguard their special value; and threatened or endangered species of flora and fauna.
-Regulate and, where necessary, prohibit activities having adverse effects on these areas and species.
-Endeavour to cooperate in the enforcement of these measures, -Manage species of fauna and flora with the objective of preventing species from becoming endangered or threatened
The St. Georges Declaration and the OECS Environmental Management Strategy
In accordance with the Ministers of the Environment in OECS’ request for an “OECS Charter for Environmental Management” and "a regional strategy...that will become the framework for environmental management" in the sub-region., the OECS NRMU developed the St. George's Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability in the OECS (Box 3) , which was signed by Ministers in April 2001 and sets out the broad framework to be pursued for environmental management in the OECS region.
OECS Regional Environmental Management Strategy
Subsequent to the St. George’s Declaration and within its framework principles of Environmental sustainability, the OECS Environmental Management Strategy was developed. The fundamental challenge for the OECS Environmental Management Strategy is to catalyse observable and broad improvement in environmental quality. In order to facilitate achievement of this objective, the OECS Environmental Management Strategy is specific in identifying what should be done and the agencies that should do it. The OECS Environmental Management Strategy provides “one voice” for environmental management in the OECS region. It has been developed through a widely consultative process; including input from OECS state representatives, NGO representatives, the private sector, regional organisations, international development agencies and others. In order to achieve its goal, the OECS Environmental Management Strategy:
• Promotes integration of environmental management into development planning at the regional and national levels.
• Assists the OECS region in planning for and responding to environmental issues of common interest.
• Encourages pooling of intra-regional financial, human and other resources to achieve environmental management objectives.
• Promotes harmonisation of national policy, legislation, capacity building and on the ground implementation with respect to environmental management.
Box 3: The St George’s Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability in the OECS
• The St. Georges Declaration and Principle of Sustainability in the OECS. • Foster sustainable improvement in the quality of life
• Integrate social, economic, and environmental considerations into national development policies, plans and programmes.
• Improve legal and institutional frameworks
• Ensure meaningful participation by civil society in decision making. • Use economic instruments for sustainable environmental management • Foster broad based environmental education, training, and awareness • Address the causes and impact of climate change
• Prevent and mange the cases and impacts of disasters • Prevent and control pollution and mange waste • Ensure the sustainable sue of natural resources • Protect cultural; and natural heritage
• Protect and conserve biological diversity
• Recognize relationships between trade and the environment • Promote cooperation in science and technology
• Manage and conserve energy
• Negotiate and implement multi-lateral agreements
• Coordinate assistance form the donor community in the OECS Region • Implementation and monitoring [of the St. Georges Declaration] • Obligation of member states [under the St. Georges Declaration] • Review [of the St. Georges Declaration]
National Action Plans and Strategies
National level action plans and environmental strategies continue to be prepared to address sustainable development and environmental priorities. The following is a snapshot of national environmental strategies and plans in the Caribbean (Sources: UNEP 1999b; UNDP 2003b; NIMOS 2004, UNEP,2005)
St Lucia
St Lucia through its Ministry of Physical Development, Environment and Housing, has prepared a National Environmental Policy (NEP) and a National Environmental Management Strategy (NEMS) in accordance with the terms of the St George’s Declaration of Principles for Environmental Sustainability, with support from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States Environment and Sustainable Development Unit (OECS ESDU).
Grenada
Grenada endorsed a National Environmental Action Plan during the 1980s. This plan, however, was never implemented as an objective-driven strategic plan of action. In 2000, Grenada published its National Physical Development Plan (NPDP) after an extended process of nationwide public consultations and endorsement by the Cabinet. The NPDP addresses a number of key issues, including forest, coastal and fisheries resources, sustainable tourism, and land use and management within the context of biodiversity conservation and management. This plan lacks a human resource strategy or capacity-building component. A draft National Environmental Policy has been prepared and is undergoing review and discussions.
St Kitts and Nevis
St Kitts and Nevis’s National Environmental Management Startegy and Action Plan 2005-2009 has been completed in 2004. It identifies major environmental issues facing the community and ensures that appropriate policies and actions are formulated and implemented. The NEAP will ensure the Federation’s involvement in regional and international projects related to sustainable development, assisted with the enhancement of environmental legislation, review of
Jamaica
The National Environmental and Planning Agency (NEPA) of Jamaica is directly responsible for the management and protection of the country’s environment and natural resources. NEPA has developed 15 policy papers, central among which is the Jamaica National Environmental Action Plan (JaNEAP). The policy document has been updated several times since the plan was issued in 1995. The present plan covers the period 1999–2002, and identifies 190 practical actions to which the government is committed, identifying the agencies and organizations responsible for their implementation.
Suriname
The Nationale Milieuraad, NMR (National Council for the Environment), in Suriname is a policy and advisory body in the Office of the President. The Nationaal Instituut voor Milieu en Ontwikkeling (National Institute for Environment and Development) in Suriname, known as NIMOS, is the executive and research arm of the Council. These bodies will work with the Inter-Ministerial Advisory Commission (IMAC) upon its establishment, which was unanimously endorsed in a special seminar titled Op Weg naar een Duurzaam Milieubeleid (On the Way to a Sustainable Environmental Policy) in November 1997.
NEMS
Six Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) members/affiliates undertook the preparation of National Environmental Management Strategies (NEMS) in fulfillment as a requirement of their respective Government mechanisms in discharge of their individual obligations under the St George’s Declaration (SGD) of Principles for Environmental Sustainability in the OECS, 2001. In addition to the St. Lucia, St Kitts and Nevis, and Grenada discussed above, Antigua and Barbuda, Anguilla, and St. Vincent and the Grenadines have completed National Environmental Management Strategies and Action Plans (OECS/ESDU).
Regional Assessments, Projects and Programmes
Several regional assessments, projects and programmes currently being implemented are of importance for the region. These include:
Global International Water Assessment (GIWA)
The Global International Water Assessment (GIWA) produced a comprehensive and integrated global assessment of international waters, the ecological status of and the causes of environmental problems in 66 water areas in the world, and focus on the key issues and problems facing the aquatic environment in transboundary waters. GIWA has completed an assessment of the Caribbean and the findings are set out in two reports:
• Caribbean Sea/Small Islands- Region 3a
This report presents the GIWA assessment of the Small Islands sub-system of the Caribbean Sea region, which covers CARICOM member states of the Lesser Antilles. The report indicates that the sub-region is an area particularly vulnerable to human activities owing to the fragility of the island ecosystems and their limited carrying capacities. Habitat and community modification, as a result of anthropogenic pressures, was found to cause the most severe transboundary environmental and socio-economic impacts in the sub-system. The governments regard rapid economic growth as a priority, which they have failed to balance with the conservation and protection of important ecosystems. The report discusses an analysis of the root causes of habitat and community modification by investigating the cause-effect pathways of the concern. Policy options are proposed that aim to provide solutions to these fundamental issues, in order to enhance the management of the region’s aquatic environment (UNEP, 2004).
• Caribbean Islands- Region 4
This report presents the GIWA assessment of the Greater Antilles Caribbean Islands region, an archipelago comprising drainage basins and coastal areas that contain some of the world’s most diverse and productive habitats (Jamaica, Haiti and the Bahamas are included in this group). The report indicates that a variety of human activities are impacting these countries’ sensitive and
particular concern, but despite considerable and widespread environmental and socio-economic impacts, there has been a lack of appropriate measures aimed at mitigating this concern. The past and present status and future prospects are discussed, and the transboundary issues of pollution are traced back to their root causes. Policy options are analysed that aim to address these driving issues in order to significantly improve environmental quality and secure the region’s future prosperity (UNEP, 2004).
The CARSEA Project
The Caribbean Sea Ecological Assessment (CASEA) is being undertaken to establish a decision-making and management framework for collective policy and action to protect the ecosystem function of the Caribbean Sea and its ability to sustainably supply services, which improve human wellbeing (CARSEA, 2003).
The CARSEA assessment is being developed with the input of the Secretariats of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM), which represent the continental and insular Caribbean countries with associate status from some other countries with vested interests in the Caribbean Sea. The ACS has the political mandate from the ministers of the region to advance a proposal to have the Caribbean Sea designated as a Special area in the context of sustainable development. The project has been integrated with the work program of the ACS and UNECLAC to advance the wider Caribbean regional agenda ‘Promoting an Integrated Management Approach to the Caribbean Sea Area in the context of Sustainable Development’ (A/RES/57/261), approved by the 57th Session of the UN General Assembly. The incremental value of CARSEA is that it can provide a scientific foundation for the UN Resolution because it is based on the peer reviewed and published MA conceptual framework for an integrated assessment (ecological, economic and socio-cultural) in the context of sustainable development. Further the CARSEA project will examine whether there is scientific support for the recognition of the Caribbean Sea by the international community as a “Special Area in the context of Sustainable Development” (CARSEA, 2003).
Integrated Watershed and Coastal Area Management in Small Island Developing States of the Caribbean (IWCAM)
The GEF/CEHI/UNEP CEP/UNDP project will demonstrate integrated watershed management and coastal area management systems in thirteen Caribbean SIDS. The project addresses the special conditions and needs of small island developing states (SIDS) necessitate more integrated approaches to land and water management as a mechanism to address threats to their water resources.
The long-term goal of the project is to enhance the capacity of the thirteen participating countries to plan and mange their aquatic resources and ecosystems on a sustainable basis. This will be achieved through the strengthening of the capacities of the participating countries to implement an integrated approach to the management of watersheds and coastal areas. The project will also assist participating countries in developing National Integrated Water Resources Management Plan.
Global Water Partnership - Caribbean
The Global Water Partnership- Caribbean (GWP-C) was developed in response to the priorities established by the BPOA, and motivated by the Global Water Partnership. The GWP-C is a working partnership among stakeholders in water management in the Caribbean. It is a network of partners for achieving an integrated approach to water resources management at the community, national and regional levels. The objectives of the CWP are:
• To establish proactive alliances in water resources management that are representative, gender sensitive, and participatory at the community, country, and regional levels.
• To promote integrated water resources management (IWRM) as the approach to water resources management in the region and to obtain national commitments towards IWRM implementation.
• To align the Caribbean Region with hemispheric and other global water initiatives in order to capitalize on international experiences and opportunities for regional capacity-building in IWRM.
• To improve water governance through the promotion, enhancement and effective implementation of legislation, policy, programs and institutional regulatory and administrative frameworks.
• To collaborate with other organizations and institutions working in other areas of sustainable development.
The Interim Secretariat (the Caribbean Council for Science and Technology) and Steering Committee of the CWP have been established, and the CWP was launched in June 2004.
Table 9: Major National Plans and Reports in the Caribbean (UNEP, 2005) COUNTRY National Report on UNCED National Report for WSSD State of the Environment Reports/National Environmental Profiles National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan National Conservation Strategy National Sustainable Development Policy/Plans Environmental Actions Plans UN Convention on Desertification (Action Programmes) UNFCCC National Communications Forestry Action Plan Antigua and Barbuda 1992 2002/ 2002* 1991 ip na na na na 2001 1993 Bahamas 1992 2002 na 1999 na na na na 2001 Na Barbados 1992 2001 2001 2002 na na na 2001 2001 1993 Belize na 2002 1995 (coast) 1998 na 2004 1993/ 1996 na 2002 Na Dominica na 2002 1991 2001 na na 1994 na 2001 1993 Grenada Na 20022/ 2002* 1991 1988/ 2000 na na 1994 na 2001 1993 Guyana na 2002 na 1999 na na 1994 1994 2002 Na Haiti 1992 Na 1985 na na na 1999 na 2002 Na Jamaica 1992 2002 1987,1995, 1996,1997 2003 na na 1994/ 1995 2002 2000 1990/ 2004 St. Kitts and Nevis 1992 2002* 1991 Ip na na 1994 na 2001 1992 St. Lucia na 2001 1991 2000 na na 1994 na 2001 1993 St. Vincent and the Grenadines na 2002* 1991 1986 na na 1994 na 2000 1993 Surinam na 2001 na ip na na na na na na Trinidad and Tobago 1992 na Na ip na na na na 2001 1993
CHAPTER 3: FRESHWATER
Many of the CARICOM Member States face severe constraints in terms of both the quality and the quantity of freshwater because of their small size and particular geological, topographical and climatic conditions. The scarcity of water resources is a limiting factor for economic and social development in CARICOM (Caribbean Environmental Outlook, 2005). This is even more the case for low-lying coral-based islands, where there are limited supplies of groundwater and which are protected only by a thin permeable soil. Water supply was identified as a priority by the 1978 Caribbean Environmental Health Strategy and the First CARICOM Ministerial Conference on the Environment (CARICOM 1989).
Water Resources
Groundwater, rainfall, surface reservoirs and rivers are the main sources of freshwater in many CARICOM member states. The majority of the member states are reflective of the following four country examples:
In Antigua and Barbuda for example, there are no perennial water sources in the country. The total average rainfall for both islands is estimated at 453 million m3/year and Internal Renewable Water Resources (IRWR) about 52 million m3/year. At present the country's agricultural and municipal (domestic and commercial) water demands are being met by two desalination plants (total capacity 3.3 million m3/year); three surface dams, numerous small ponds and 5 well fields (total capacity 2.8 millions of m3/year). The small ponds are used primarily for agriculture and many of the reservoirs are used for both agricultural and municipal uses. During drier months irrigation is restricted to a very limited surface due to shortfall in surface and groundwater yields, and most surface water storage is diverted to municipal supply. On the other hand, Barbuda's topography and geology are not well suited to dam construction (AQUASTAT).
In Barbados, the Annual Internal Renewable Water Resources were estimated in a 1997 Water Resources Study to total about 82 million m3. Groundwater derived from infiltrated
rainfall accounts for 73.9 million m3; surface water amounts to 5.8 million m3; springs 2.0 million m3 and direct runoff to the sea 0.5 million m3(AQUASTAT).
The mean annual rainfall is 2 200 mm for Trinidad and 1 900 mm for Tobago. According to a study conducted in 1998, available surface water resources were estimated at 3 600 million m3/year for Trinidad and 136 million m3/year for Tobago. The groundwater safe yield for both islands was estimated at 107 million m3/year. Large-scale development of surface water has been limited to four rivers in Trinidad and Tobago. There are five surface water reservoirs (four in Trinidad and one in Tobago) with a total capacity of 75 million m3. Private water users have constructed and operate small reservoirs, mainly in south Trinidad, but no data about their capacity were available. Groundwater is found throughout most of Trinidad. The major groundwater areas include the Northern Valley aquifers in alluvial deposits at Chaguaramas, Tucker Valley, Diego Martin and Port of Spain; the alluvial fan deposits at El Soccorro, Valsayn, Tacarigua and Arima; the artesian aquifers in the Sum Sum and Durham sands; the reef limestone's of the Central Range; and sands in the Erin, Morne L'Enfer, and Mayaro formations of Southern Trinidad.
Estimates of surface water resources are not available over all of Guyana: there are data available from the three main drainage basins of Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice (Table 9).
Table 10: Characteristics of the main river basins in Guyana.
Drainage basin Station Surface area (km2) Discharge (km3/y) Specific discharge (m3/s/km2)
Plantain 66 600 66.96 0.0319
Apaikwa 14 000 23.98 0.0543
Essequibo
Kamaria 53 500 35.52 0.0211
Demerara Great Falls 2 460 2.32 0.0299
Berbice Itabru 5 100 1.60 0.0099
The groundwater system comprises three aquifers. A small amount of the copious supplies of surface water which run off is trapped by a long low earth embankment to form large shallow dams locally known as "conservancies". The conservancies are located in the "backland" or upper stream catchment areas and comprise water-retaining embankments and structures.
Water Use
Water demand which has increased over the past 30 years as a result of population growth and rapid urbanization is exceeding the natural supply capacity. At current population levels, the available water supply in some of the member states is significantly below the international limit of 1 000 m3 per capita per year below which a country is classified as ‘water scarce’ (Government of Barbados 2000). This limit places Antigua and Barbuda (800 m3 per capita), Barbados (301 m3 per capita), and St Kitts and Nevis (621 m3 per capita) in the category of water-scarce countries (FAO 2003b).
Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in the CARICOM, consuming over 90 per cent of the total water used in Guyana, Haiti and Suriname. Industrial consumption of total
renewable water resources exceeds other uses in Barbados, while domestic consumption is the primary use in others such as Trinidad and Tobago (UNEP, 2005).
The demand for water in many of the islands The Bahamas is met primarily by extraction from shallow freshwater lenses. Extraction of freshwater is very high on some islands in this archipelago as a result of the demands of the local population and the tourism industry. This is especially the case on New Providence, where inadequate freshwater resources necessitates the import of water from Andros Island. Nationally, the high water deficit has led to desalination of seawater by reverse osmosis (Government of the Commonwealth of The Bahamas 2001).
Management Issues
Many of the low limestone islands of the Caribbean such as Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, Grenada, and Barbados, are heavily dependent upon rainfall as the freshwater recharge source. The situation is critical for these countries where rainfall seasonality is very pronounced (UNEP, 2005). For example, in Barbados groundwater recharge is restricted to the three wettest months of the year; with only 15–30 per cent of annual rainfall reaching the aquifers (Jones and others 1998). Of critical importance, much of the rainfall in the region is strongly associated with tropical depressions and storms, therefore any change in the occurrence of these events will have an impact on the water supply of many CARICOM countries (see Gray 1993; Nurse and others 1998 in UNEP, 2005). In Dominica, for example, reduced flows in the Castle Comfort, Roseau, Layou and Geneva rivers have raised national concerns, since these rivers are the main source of potable and irrigation water on the island The declining flows have been well correlated over the last few decades with extended periods of drought (Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica 2000 in UNEP, 2005).
