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A B ST R A C T

V A N

E

SS A

R A

N H

A

D A

P I

N

T

O

J

O

R

G

E

P

E

R

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A

.

U

s e o

f

a

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h lo r a

m i

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a

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r

i

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k i

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a

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D

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p A

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r e

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t

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a

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x

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s

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io

n

-

B

y

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d

u

c

t

s

b

y

C

o n s

u

m

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(

u

n

d

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d i

r e c

t

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f D

r.

H O

WA R D S

.

WE I N B E R G

)

I

n a n a

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a

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10 8

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t

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1 14

A

p

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r

S

t

a n

d

a r

d O p

e r a

t

i

o n

P

r o c

e

d

u r e

12 9

A p

p

e n

d i

x

E

-

F

r e

e

a

n

d

T

o

t

a

l C h l

o r

i

n e

D

e

t

e r

m i

n

a

t

i

o n

14 8

(6)

L I

ST

O

F F

I G

U

R E S

F

i

g

u r e

l

:

T H

M

an

d

H A

A

f

o r

m

a

t

i

on

15

F i g

u r e

2

:

C

o n v e nt

i

o n a

l

dr

in

k in

g

w

a

t

e r tr e at

m

en

t p

r o c e s s

w it

h

d i

f f

e r e n

t p

o

in

t

s o

f

a

dd i

t

i

o n o

f

fi

na

l

d

i

s

in

f

e c

ta n

t

s

2 2

F

i

g

u r e

3:

T

r e a

t m

e n

t p

r o c e s s e

m

p l

o

y

e

d in

th

e s

t

u

d y

-s

y

s

te

m

. .

2 7

F

i

g

u r e

4

:

D i

str

ib

u

t i

o n

S y

stem

M

a

p

3 0

F

i

g

u r e

5

:

L

o c a

t i

o n o

f t

h

e

w

a

t

e r

t

r e a

tm

e n

t p

l

a n

t

r e

la

t iv e

to

t

h

e

f

o u r

d

i

s

t

r

i b

u

ti

o n s

y

s

te

m

lo c a

t i

o n s s a

m

p l

e

d

(

D S I

,

D S I I

,

D S I I I

-

A

a n

d

D S I I I

-

B

)

in

t h

e t

hr e e s a

m p li

n

g

e v en

t

s

3

6

F ig

u r e

6

:

A

r c

V i

e

w m

a

p w i t h t h

e

10

D

S

s a

m

p li

n

g p

o

in

ts

c

h

o s en,

t h

e

w

ate r tr e at

m

e n

t

an

d th

e

l

o c a

l i

z at

io n

o

f

t h

e s u

b

j

e c

t

s en r o

l l

e

d i

n

th

e s

tu

d y

4 0

F

i

g

u r e

?

:

S

u

m m

a r

y

o

f T H

M

a n a

l

y

sis

p

roc e

d

u r e

4 5

F

i

g

u r e

8:

Su

m m

a r

y

o

f H A A

a n a

l y

s

i

s

p

r o c e

d

u r e

4

7

F

i

g

u r e

9

:

S

u

m

m

a r

y

o

f

T O X

a n a

l y

s

i

s

p

roc e

d

ur e

4 8

F ig

u r e

10

:

S

u

m m

ar

y

o

f

T O B

r a n a

ly

s

i

s

p

r o c e

du r e

4 9

F i

g

u r e

1

1:

T H

M

c o n c e n

t

r a

ti

o n s a sa

fu n c

tio

n o

f

e x

te

n

d

e

d

c o n

ta c

t t

im

e

w it

h

c

h l

o r a

m

in

e s

5

1

F ig

u r e

12

:

H A

A

c o n c en tr a

t i

o n s a s a

fi

m

c

t i

o n o

f

e x

t

e n

d

e

d

c on

ta c

t

t im

e

w it

h

c

h l

o r a

m

in

e

5 3

F

ig

ur e

1 3

:

Co n c e

n

tr a

t

i

on s o

f

t

o

t

a

l

t

r

ih

a

l

o

m

e

t h

ane s

m

ea s u r e

d

in

th

e

d

i

s

tr

i b

u

t

i

o n s

y

ste

m d

u

ri

n

g t

he

y

e a r

2 0 0 0

5 4

F

i g

u r e

1

4

:

T H

M

var

i

a

b i l i

t y

a

t t h

e

p

o

i

n

t

o

f

e n

tr

y t

o

th

e

d i

str

i b

u

ti

on s

y

ste

m

5 5

(7)

F ig

u r e

16

:

C

o

m

pa r

is o n

o

f

tota

l

tr

ih

a

l

o

m

et

h

ane c o n c e ntr at

io n

s

le

a v

in

g

t

h

e tr eat

me n

t p

la

n t

( W

T P

)

a n

d in

t

h

e

d i

s

tr

i

bu

t

i

on s

y

ste

m

(

D S I

)

6 1

F

i

g

u r e

17

:

C

o

m

p

a r

is o n

o

f t

o

t

a

l t

r

ih

a

l

o

m

e

t h

a n e c o n c e n

tr a

ti

o n s

le a v

in

g t

h

e

tr

e a

t

me n

t p l

an

t

(

W

T P

)

an

d in

t h

e

d i

s

tr

ib

u

t

i

o n s

y

s

te

m

(

D S I I

)

6 2

F i g

u r e

l 8

:

T T H

M

a n

d

T O X

a

t D S I I I

-

A

6 5

F i g

u r e

19

:

C

o

m

p

a r

i

s on

b

et

w

e e n t

h

e

T T H

M

c onc e ntr at

i

o n s o

b

ta

in

e

d

at

t h

e

w

ate r

tr e a

tm

e nt

p l

a nt

(W

T P

)

an

d

tw

o

d i

s

tr

i b

u

t

i

o n s

y

ste

m

p

o

in

t

s

(

D S I I I

-

A

a n

d

D

Si

n

-

B

)

6 5

F

i

g

u r e

2 0

:

Co

m

p

a r

i

son

b

e

t w

e e n

th

e e x

p

e r

im

e n

t

a

l

(

o

b

s e r v e

d

)

an

d

t h

e

m

o

de

l

(

c o

m

p

u

te

d

)

T T H

M

c o n c e n

tr a

t i

o n s o

b t

a

in

e

d i

n

D S I f

o r

F

e

b

r u a r

y 6 t

o

9

o

f 2 0 0 1

6 8

F i g

u r e

2 1

:

C

o

m

p

a r

i

s o n

b

et

w

e e n

th

e e x

p

e r

im

e n

ta

l

(

o

b

s e r v e

d

)

an

d fl

i e

m

o

d

e

l

(

c o

m

p

ute

d

)

T T H

M

r e s u

lt

s

o

b t

a

in

e

d i

n

D S I I fo r

F

e

br u a r

y 17 t

o

2 0

o

f 2 0 0 1

6 9

F

i

g

u r e

2 2

:

C

o

m

p

a r

i

s o n

b

e

tw

e e n

th

e e x

p

e r

im

en

ta

l

(

o

bs e r v e

d

)

a n

d

th

e

m

o

d

e

l

(

co

m

p

u

t

e

d

)

T T H

M

r esu

lts

o

b

ta

in

e

d

in

D S I I I

-

A fo r

A

u

g

u s

t 14 t

o

17

o

f 2

0

0 1

7 1

F

i

g

u r e

2

3

:

T H

M

r e s u

lts

o

f

w

e e

k l

y

s a

m

p l

e s co

l l

e c

t

e

d

a

t D S I I I

-

A

7 2

F i g

u r e

2

4

:

R

e

la

t iv

e

p

r o

p

o r

t i

on o

f

in

di

v

id

u a

l

T H

M

s

p

e c

ie s c o n

tr

i b

u

t i

on

t

o

T T H

M

a

t D S I I I

-

A

7 3

F

i

g

u r e

2 5

:

T T H

M

,

T

H

A A

an

d T O X

r e s u

l t

s o

f

w

e e

k l y

s a

m

p l

e s c o

ll

e cte

d

in

D S I I I

-

A

7 4

F i g

u r e

2 6

:

C

or r e

l

at

i

o n

b

e

tw

een

t h

e

T O X

a n

d

T H

M

c o nc e n

tr a

t

i

o n s o

bt

a

i

ne

d

w

e e

k

l

y

7

5

F i

g

u r e

2

7

:

C

o

m

p

a r

i

s on

be

t w

e e n

th

e

T T

H

M

a n

d

fr

ee c

h l

or

in

e res

i

du a

l

s re su

l

ts

o

bta

in

e

d in

e a c

h w

ee

k

7

6

F i g

u re

2 8

:

C

o

m

p

a r

i

s o n

b

e

t w

e e n

th

e

T T H

M

an

d T H A A

r e s u

l t

s o

bt

a

in e

d

in

e a c

h w

e e

k

7 8

F

i

g

u r e

2 9

:

C

o

m

p

ar

i

s

ra

i

b

e

t w

ee n

t h

e

T O X

a n

d

th

e

T T H

M

a n

d

T H A

A

r esu

lt

s o

b

ta

in e

d in

e a c

h w

e e

k

7

9

F i

g

u r e

3 0

:

C

o

m

p

a r

is o n

be

t w

e e n

t

he

T T H

M

,

T

H A

A

an

d

u n

kn o

w

n

O X

le v e

l

s

in

c

h lo r

in

a

te

d

an

d

c

h

l

o r a

m

in

a

t

e

d

w

a

te r s

8 1

F

i g

u r e

3

1

:

C

o

m

p

ar

i

s on

b

e

tw

een

th

e

T T H

M

a n

d

T H A

A l

e ve

l

s

in

t

he

p

o

in

t

o

f

en

t

r

y t

o

th

e

d i

s

t

r

ib

u

t

io

n

(8)

L I

ST

O F

T A B L E

S

T

a

b

l

e

1:

C

o

m

p

a

ri

s o n o

f th

e

m

i

c ro

b i

o c

i d

a

l

e

f fi

c

i

e n c

y

o

f

fr

e e c

h l

o

ri

n e

w i t

h

c o

m b i

ne

d

ch lo

ri

ne a

t 5

' '

C

an

d

p H

v a

l

ues r a n

g

in

g

fr o

m

6 t

o

9

(

9 9

% i

n a c

t i

v a

t

i

on

)

6

T

a

b

l

e

2

:

Pr

o

p

er

t

ie s

o

f

T H

M

s

12

T

a

b

l

e

3

:

Pr o

p

e r

t i

e s o

f

H A A

s

1

3

T

a

b

l

e

4

:

E

s

t im

a te

d

r e

te n

t i

o n

t im

e

in

s a

m

p l i

n

g l

o c a

t

i

ons

3 1

T

a

b

l

e

5

:

St

or a

g

e

t

an

k

s

l

o ca

t io n

, stor a

g

e an

d

ov e r

fl

o

w

v o

lu

m

es

3 2

T

a

b l

e

6

:

D

a

t

e s a n

d

s a

m

p l i

n

g l

o c at

i

o n s u s e

d

t

o c

ha r a c

te r

iz e

t h

e

te

m

p

o r a

l

an

d

s

p

a

tia

l

v a r

ia

b

i li

t y i

n

t h

e

D B P

le v e

l

s

3 5

T

a

b l

e

7

:

T H

M

sa

m p l

e c o

l l

e c

t i

o n

p

e r

i

o

d

u s e

d

as u i

p

u

t f

o r

E P

A

N E T

s

i

m

u

l

at

i

on s

3

8

T

a

b

l

e

8

;

R

e

t

en

t

i

o n t

i

m

e s at t

h

e s a

m

p l i

n

g p

o

in

t

s

4 1

T

a

b l

e

9

:

T T H

M

,

T H A A

a n

d

T O

X

v a

ri

a

b i

Ut y

a

t t

he

p

o

i

n

t

o

f

en

t

r

y t

o

t h

e

d is

tri b

u

t

i

o n s

y

ste

m

5 7

T

a

b l

e

10

:

C

a

l

c u

la

ti

o n o

f t h

e

U

n

k

n o

w

n

O

r

g

a n

i

c

h

a

l id

e

(

O X

)

c o n c e n

t

r a

t i

on

5 8

T

a

b l

e

1 1

:

R

e c o v e r

i

e s o

bt

a

i

ne

d

u s

i

n

g

a c o

m

p

osi te

m

e

t h

o

d

5 9

T

a

b l

e

12

:

D

a

i

l y

a v e r a

g

e

T T H

M

an

d T H A

A

c o n c en tr a

t i

o n s

m

e a s u r e

d

a

t

t

h

e

tr e a

t m

e n

t p l

a n

t

(

W

T P

)

an

d

a

t

D

SI I

6 3

T

a

b

l

e

13

:

T T H

M

d

a

t

a u s e

d

a s

in

p

u

t fo r

s

im

u

la

t i

o n s a

t D S I

6 7

T

a

b l

e

14

:

T T

H

M

da

t

a u s e

d

as

i

n

p

u

t

fo r

s

im

u

la

t

i

ons a

t D S I I

6

9

T

a

b l

e

15

:

T T H

M

d

a

t

a u s e

d

as

i

n

p

u

t

fo r

s

im

u

la

t

i

o n s a

t D S I I I

-A

7 0

T

a

b l

e

16

:

T T H

M

a n

d T

H A

A

r e s u

l

t

s

du r

in

g p

e r

i

o

d

o

f

c

h l

o r

in a

ti

on

7 7

(9)

A C

K

N

O

W

L E D

G

E

M

E N T S

F i

r s

t

a

n

d f

o r e

m

o s

t

,

I w

o u

l d l i k

e

t

o

th

a n

k

D

r .

H

o

w

a r

d S

.

W

e

i

n

b

e r

g

f

o r

h i

s

in

v a

l

u

a

b l

e a n

d

c o n

t

in

u o u s

g

u

i d

a

n

c e a n

d

e

n

c o u r a

g

e

m

e n

t

.

I

a

m

a

l

s o

d

e e

p

l y

g

r a

t

e

f

u

l

t

o

D

r.

Ph i l l i p C

.

Sin

g

e r

f

o r

h i

s e x

p

e r

t

i

s e.

T h i

s r e s

e

a r c

h b

e n e

f i

t

e

d

e

n

o r

m

o u s

l y fr

o

m h i

s

i

n

p

u

t

.

I

a

m

a

l

s o

in

d

e

b

t

t

o

D

r .

M

i

c

h

a e

l D

.

A i

tk

e n

f

o r

b

e

in

g

a r e a

d

e r o

f

t

h i

s

t

h

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i

s a

n

d f

o r

p

r

o

v

i d i

n

g

im

p

o

rt

a

n

t

a c a

d

e

m i

c

g

u

i d

a

n

c e

d

u r

i

n

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h

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l

a s

t t

w

o

y

e a r

s

.

I w

o u

l d

a

l

s o

l i k

e

t

o

t

h

a n

k C

a r r

i

e

D

e

l

c o

m

y

n ,

F

r e

d

e r

i

q

u e

B

l in

a n

d D

a n

i

e

l R

a

d i l

o

f f

f

o r

th

e

i

r

h

e

l

p

i

n

s a

m p l

e a n a

ly

s e s,

L

a r r

y

M

c

M

i l l

a n

f

o r c

l

a r

i f i

c a

t

i

o n s a

b

o u

t

w

a

t

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t

r e a

t

m

e

n

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p

r

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c e s s e s a

n

d

M

a r

t

e

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a

W

e

b b f

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e

l

p

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m

p

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t

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D

r.

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a

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a v

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M

a

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l

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a

b l

e

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t

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h i

s r e s e a r c

h

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n

d

m

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h

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m

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n

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h

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o v

m

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p

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2 5 7 9

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i

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k

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P

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m

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it

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b

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a

d

o , o v o s

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p

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m

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(10)

I

.

O

B J E C T I V E S

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h

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s s

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u

d

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a r

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fi

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p

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t

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y

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m

s

p

e c

i

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li

z

i

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g i

n

e

p i d

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m i

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lo

g y

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w

a

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c

h

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m i

s

t

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y

a

n

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g i

n e e

r

in

g

, s

t

a

t

i

st

ic s

, a n

d

o

b

st

e

t

r

ic s

t

o

d

et

e

r

m

in

e

w he

t

h

e r

t

h

e o c c u r r e

n c

e o

f

s

p

o n

t

a n e o u s a

b

o r

t

io n

m i

g

ht

b

e r e

l

a

t

e

d

t

o

t

h

e

p

r e s e

n

c e o

f

d i

s

i

n

f

e c

t

io n

b

y

-p

r o

d

u c

t

s

(

D

B F

s

)

in

dr

in

k i

n

g w

a

t

e r.

Pr e v

i

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m io

l

o

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f

o u

n

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t

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la

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th

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r e s e n c e

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f D

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s

in

d

r

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k i

n

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a n

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n

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bo

rt

io n

.

H

o

w

e v e r,

t

h

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tu

d i

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e s

t

im

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e x

p

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i d

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n

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e

D

B F

s

p

a

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l

a n

d

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l

v a r

ia

b i l i

t y

, a n

d

t

h

e r e

f

o r e

h

a v e a s e r

i

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s

k

o

f

m

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ia

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.

T h

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l

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a s s e s s e x

p

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D

B

F

s

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k in

g

w

a

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m

e a s u r e

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t

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m

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T

H

M )

,

ha

lo a c e

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(

H A A

)

, a

n

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a

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h

a

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(

T O X

)

c o n c e

n

tr a

t

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.

T

o

m

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t t

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b

j

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t

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t

h is

s

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t

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v e e v a

l

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f

t

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e

D B

F

c o n c e n

t

r a

t

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o n s

in

t

h

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f in

i

s

h

e

d w

a

t

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d d i

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i b

u

t

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m

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h lo r a

m i

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t

io

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f

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f m

a

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o n .

Sa

m

p l

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l l

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p p

r o a c

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t

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d i

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lu

d i

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fr

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le s

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to

(11)

I I

.

B A C

K

G R O

U

N

D

n

.

A

.

D

i s i n f e c t i o n o f

D

r i n

k

i n g

Wa t e r

D i

s

in

fe c

t

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f dr

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w

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h l

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c

h lo r a

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w i d

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d m i l l i

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fr

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s e a s e s.

I I

.

A

.

l

.

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s

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n

f

e c

t i

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n g

F

r e e

C

h l

o r

i

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C h lo

r

i

n

e c a

n

b

e

u

s e

d in

w

a

t

e r

t

r e a

t

m

e

n

t

a s a n o x

i d iz

in

g

a

g

e n

t

(

m

a

in

l y

u s e

d fo r

t

a s

t

e, o

d

o r a n

d

c o

lo r

c o n

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r o

l

a n

d

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i d

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f ir o

n

a n

d m

a n

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a

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f

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c

t

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.

T h

e a

d

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T h

e

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f d

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a

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h l

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c

h ie

v

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y

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p p l

y

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g i

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p

r e s s u r e o r

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l i

q

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l

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t

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(

s o

d iu

m

h

y

p

o c

h lo r

it

e o r

c a

lc

i

u

m h

y p

o c

h lo r

i

t

e

)

.

T h

e c o n

d

e n s a

t

i

o n

o

f m

o

le c u

la r

c

h l

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e

g

a s

i

n

t

o a

l i q

u

i d

c a n

be

a c

h ie v e

d w he n

t

h

e

g

a s

i

s s u

b

j

e c

t t

o

p

r e s s u r e s

in

e x c e

s

s o

f i

t

s v

a

p

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p

r e s s u r e

w i

th

t

h

e r e

le a s e o

f h

e a

t

a n

d

a

d

e c r e a s e

in

s

p

e c

i f

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l

u

m

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f

a

b

o u

t

4 5 0 f

o

l d

(

H

a a s,

19 9 0

)

.

I

t

c

a

n

b

e

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d

a s a

g

a s

(

C l2

(g

)

)

g

e n e r

a

t

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ft

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p p l y i

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t

h

e

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m

a

l

e

n

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g y

n e c e s

s a

r

y

t

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t

h

e

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a

p

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iz a

t

i

o

n

o

f

(12)

T h

e

h

y

d

r o

ly

s

i

s o

f

c

hl

o r

i

n

e

g

a s

in

w

a

t

e r o c c u r s a c c o r

d i

n

g

t

o

t

h

e

f

o

l l

o

w i

n

g

r e a c

t

io n :

C l

2

+

H

2

0

-

*

H 0 C 1

+

H

^

+

C r

K

h

=

4

x

l 0

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(

m

o

l / L

)

^

[

I I

.

l

]

H

y

p

o c

h l

o r o u s a c

i d i

s a r e

l

a

t

i

v e

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y

w

e a

k

a c

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t

h

a

t

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t

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H O C l ^

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+

0 C 1

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p

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=

7

.

5

[

I

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2

]

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n

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5 w

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4

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e

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t

h

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l l

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t

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d in

[

11

.

2

]

.

I I

.

A

.

2

.

D i

s

in

fe c

t i

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i

n g

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o

m b i

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C h

l

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n

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o

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m

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a

t

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f

c

h lo r a

m

i

n

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(

m

o n o c

h l

o r a

m i

n

e,

d i

c

h lo r a

m i

n

e o r

t

r

ic

h lo r a

m i

n

e

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,

w i

t

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t

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t

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f

r

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t

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a

n

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p

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d

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n

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p H

, r e

l

a

t

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t

r a

t

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f N

H

t "^

a n

d H O C l

,

c

o n

t

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t t

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e a n

d

t

e

m

p

e r

a

t

u

r e.

(13)

T

h

e o r e

t

ic a

l l y

, a

t

c

h lo r

i

n

e

t

o a

m

m

o n

i

a

w

e

i

g

h

t

r a

t

i

o s

le s s

t

h

a n

5

:

1

a n

d p H

v a

lu e s

b

e

t

w

e e n

7

a n

d 8

, c o

m

m

o n c o

n

d i

t

io n s

a

p p

l i

e

d d

u r

in

g

d

r

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n

k i

n

g

w

a

t

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h l

o r a

m i

n a

t

i

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m

o n o c

h l

o r

a

m

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n

e

(

N

H

2

C I

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w i l l b

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t

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p

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d

o

m

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n t

f

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w

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t

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[

I I

.

5

]

.

H O C l

+

N H

3

^

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2

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[

n

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5

]

A t

la r

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c o n c e n

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1

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1 5

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t

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l

[

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[

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a

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y

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a

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(14)

M

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p

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(

d

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q

u

a

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[

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5

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o r

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s

(

d

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9

] )

i f

t

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n

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t

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o

n

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f p

r o

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d

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n c r e a s e s

(

S

y

m

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t

a

l

.,

19 9 8

)

.

N

H

i

C l

+

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s

C l

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H

^

^

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k

+

N

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s

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[

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9

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V

a

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J

a

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(

1 9 8 8

)

f

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c a n

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l

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p

H

v a

l

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g

w

a

t

e r.

T h

e

f

o r

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a

t

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n

o

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r o

m

a

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r o

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m

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n

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h

a s a

l

s o

b

e e n

d

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i b

e

d i

n

t

h

e

l i

t

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t

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t

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a s a

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e c

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b

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(

S

y

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t

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l

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,

19 9 8

)

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A

c c o r

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f

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p

H

a

n

d

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t

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o .

B

r o

m

a

m i

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f

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t

h

a

n

c

hl

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b

u

t t

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s

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n

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t

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t

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h

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b

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n

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a

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a

ft

e r

2 4

to

4 8 h

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i

n

t

h

e

d i

s

t

r

i b

u

t

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y

s

t

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m

b

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l i

v e

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T

h

e

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t

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t

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o

f

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r

m

D B F

s

i

s n o

t

w

e

l l d

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m

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t

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d

y

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e v e n

t

h

o

u

g h l i

t t

l

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f

o r

m

a

t

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o n o

f

T

H

M

s

i

s e x

p

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t

e

d

t

o

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fr

o

m d i b

r o

m

a

m i

n

e

(

S

u

g

a

m

a

n

d H

e

l

z,

19 8 0

)

.

V

a

l

e n

t

i

n e

(

1

9 8 6

)

s u

g g

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t

e

d

t

h

e

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o

f

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n t

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D B F

p

r o

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a

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n

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n

g

w

a

t

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d

u e

t

o

t

h

e

h i g h

r e a c

t

i

v

i

t y

o

f i

t

s

b

r o

m i

n

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t

o

m

.

T h

e

d

e

fi

n

i

t

i

o

n

o

f

t

h

e

t

e r

m

s

fr

e e c

h l

o r

i

n

e, c o

m b i

n

e

d

c

h l

o r

i

n

e, a n

d

c

h l

o r

i

n

e r e s

i d

u a

l

a r e

p

r e s e n

t

e

d i

n

t

h

e

f

o

l l

o

w i

n

g

e x

p

r e s s

i

o n s

(

S

t

u

m

m

a n

d

M

o r

g

a n,

1 9 9 6

)

w i

t

h

t

h

e

t

e r

m

s

i

n

p

a r e n

t

h

e s e s

b

e

i

n

g

n o r

m

a

l l

y

n

e

g

l i g i b l

e :

F

r e e c

h l

o r

i

n e

=

(

2

[

C l

2

] )

+

[

H O C l

]

+

[

O C r

]

[

11

.

10

]

C

o

m

b i

n

e

d

c

h l

o r

i

n

e

=

[

N H

2

C l

]

+

2

[

N H C l

2

]

+

(

3

[

N C I

3

] )

[

I I

.

1 1

]

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