Liberal Reforms Sweep Europe; The Ottoman Empire
Liberal Reforms Sweep Europe
Tories: A traditional, conservative political party. Those who occupied the House of Lords (the aristocracy) were generally Tories.
Whigs: The more liberal political party. Generally those who occupy the House of Commons (the commoners) were Whigs
Noblesse oblige: The ideology that, although they were entitled to more by definition, the nobility were obligated to aid those who were less fortunate.
Corn Laws: Generally accepted as the “first step” toward liberal reform in Great Britain, the Corn Laws regulated foreign trade. The Corn Laws placed high tariffs on imported grain. This greatly benefited the landlords. The Corn Laws were first put in place when England was at war with France.
Peterloo Massacre / Battle of Peterloo: The failure to repeal that Corn Laws led to unrest, and ultimately riots, amongst the workers and middle classes. They were supported by the liberal
intellectuals. In response, the Parliament passed the Six Acts (see below), which severely limited rights of press and speech. What followed was an angry—but surprisingly orderly—protest in Manchester that was put down by the English cavalry. This became known as the Peterloo Massacre or the Battle of Peterloo.
Six Acts: Laws enacted by Parliament that severely limited civil liberties in England. It ultimately led to the Peterloo Massacre (see above).
House of Commons: The part of the Parliament that housed the commoners that were in Parliament. They voted to re-proportion how many representatives should be sent from each territory in England. This had not been done since the Middle Ages when the Parliament was first called to session. The were viewed as much more powerful, since they had the power to propose laws.
House of Lords: The other house of Parliament. Although they were relatively powerless in comparison with the House of Commons, they still had the power to veto the laws proposed by the House of
Commons.
Old Sarum: Once a bustling weavers' town during the Middle Ages, it sent a relatively large number of delegates to Parliament. Now, however, it is much smaller. It became known as a rotten borough (see below).
rotten borough: The term used for a city or territory that is grossly over-represented in Parliament.
Franchise: Suffrage (the right to vote)
peers: One of the (few) powers granted to the House of Lords, this was the power to make peers, that is to say, they had the power to knight other people.
Reform Act of 1832:
Chartists: People who subscribed to the concept of Chartism, a sociopolitical liberal reform that swept through England. Beginning with the writing of People's Charter in 1838 and the political and
economical distress in the 1830's and 1840's. This movement advocated mainly for universal male, not female, suffrage. Other things that they advocated for were the secret ballot and the fair payment for the labor of someone who took time to serve his country.
composed mainly of Dutch-Spanish Jews from the Netherlands, was generally accepted in England. They had modern professions, such as merchants, and were acculturated into modern society. As a result, there were very few restrictions placed on the Jews.
Lionel Rothschild: The first Jew to be elected to Parliament. He was supported mainly by liberals, who, fittingly, believed in choice and equality. If restrictions can't be made on other religious minorities, they argued, then the Jews should also not be restricted. One of the reasons that he was not accepted at first was because the oath taken when sworn into public office mentioned overtly Christian beliefs.
Jews' Bill: Written in 1858, this bill was not actually about Jews, but about Jews being allowed to hold public office. Jews, in addition to other religious minorities, were allowed to use their own oaths that suited their religious beliefs.
Benjamin Disraeli: A perfect example of how open English society was. A Jew-gone-Christian-but-still-identifies-as-a-Jew, he was elected Prime Minister.
Great (Potato) Famine: Due to poor agriculture. The potato, which was very economically important for Ireland, was infected with a virus. It killed a great many people.
Absentee landlords: Landlords who spent most of their time in England attending posh cocktail parties and expensive brunches (thing The Picture of Dorian Gray). They owned the most land in Ireland.
Black '47: The worst year of the Great Potato Famine.
Coffin ships: Ships packed with people emigrating from Ireland to the US. They were called “Coffin ships” because so many people died.
1830: The year between 1829 and 1831. It was a year of a great many reforms across Europe.
Louis XVIII: The king of France. Although not a horrible king, he wasn't that great, either. He was succeeded by his brother, Charles X (see below).
Charles X: Louis XVIII (see above)'s successor. He was the last of the Bourbons dynasty. He is required for conquering Alegeria (see below) because of constant pirate attacks from Algerian sailors. He is a determined absolute monarch. He was ultimately kicked out of France because he wanted to restore absolute monarchy.
Algeria: Conquered by Charles X (see above) because of constant pirate attacks by Algerian sailors on French ships.
Marquis de Lafayette: A young liberal, he fought alongside Washington in the American Revolution. Upon returning to France, he became the head of the National Guard, or an army that worked for the citizens of France as opposed to the government. He also held this position during the French
Revolution. By now, he is in his eighties.
Louis-Philippe: He advertised himself as a “Citizen King.” To help absorb the numerous foreigners, he establishes the French Foreign Legion (see below). To gain popularity, he promises a great number of reforms. He increased the electorate size over the course of his reign, but overall, people feel that he did not do much to help the people of France. He ultimately steps down due to the demands of the middle and working classes and creates a republic.
"Citizen King": What Louis-Philippe advertised himself as.
Belgium: France tried to combine this with the Austrian Netherlands into one, unified state. This is not because:
• Belgium is mainly Catholic, whereas the Austrian Netherlands were Protestant
• They don't like each other.
In response, France makes Belgium a neutral state, meaning that, in the event of a war, it could not pick sides. This would keep the balance of power. Belgium was also required to accept a German king,
Leopold.
Poland: A revolution to liberate itself from Russia, which controlled Poland. This revolution was unsuccessful. At the time, Poland is ruled over by Alexander, who was not as czar, just a king.
Nicholas: The czar of Russia at the time. He wanted to Russify (see below) his territories.
Decembrists: A group of liberals who attempt to overthrow Czar Nicholas.
Russification: The process of making all of Russia's territories adopt a Russian standard for language, currency, etc.
Italy: Yet another country where a revolution took place. Like Poland, this revolution was also unsuccessful.
Giuseppe Mazzini: The head of Young Italy (see below). He attempted to become ruler of a unified Italy. (At the time, Italy was composed of many small city-state doohickeys.)
Young Italy: A liberal revolutionary group whose goal was to create a unified Italy. To do this, they had to drive out the Austrians, who were in control of most of Italy at the time, which was unsuccessful. 1848: The year between 1847 and 1849; this year also had many reforms and revolutions in it.
Louis Philippe: Same as above, he was forced to step down now by the middle and working classes because they viewed him as unsuccessful (so much for the “Citizen King”). Upon stepping down, a republic was established.
"Right to Work": Viewed as a civil liberty, just like the right of free speech and freedom of religion, the workers viewed the government as ultimately responsible to make sure that jobs were available for the working class. If, for some reason, there were no jobs available, then it was the government's
responsibility to create jobs using national workshops (see below).
National Workshops: Created by the government to create jobs for the working class, these were despised by the bourgeoisie, since it took people form their factories. They were unpopular for the same reason that many people today do not support Obama's healthcare plan. Ultimately, the national workshops were closed down.
The June Days: Due to a change in demographics amongst the people of France, revolts erupted all over. Many people who lived in the country were afraid that, just like the factories, other industries would be nationalized as well. Thus, a new, more conservative government was voted into power. They closed the national workshops, which caused mobs and riots to erupt all across Paris, called The June Days. They were ended by the army being called in and killing 10,000 – 12,000 workers.
Louis Napoleon: Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, he became president because he promised something for everyone:
• he promised a strong, centralized government for the monarchists
• he promised economic stability and order for the bourgeoisie He was also popular because of his name.
Austria: A revolution takes place here. Unlike other countries, Austria was a different case and much more difficult to handle. This is because:
• the peasants were demanding a new, socialist government
• students and the bourgeoisie wanted a new, liberal government
• because the Austrian empire was so big, not everyone identified themselves as ethnically Austrian.
Each group wanted something different. By 1849, everything has settled down, except for Hungary. This is because no two could agree with each other as to how the government should be sturctured, etc.
Vienna: Where the students and the bourgeoisie are rebelling.
Magyar: The Hungarians, they wanted to remain part of the Austrian Empire, but they wanted to be autonomous. Over the course of 1848, they gained their independence. Similar demands were also made by the Bohemians, or the Czech Republic.
autonomy: The concept of having your own government.
Louis Kossuth: The leader of the Magyars
Bohemia: The Czech Republic; they, like the Magyars wanted autonomy while at the same time remaining part of the Austrian Empire.
Hapsburg: The dynasty of Austrian rulers. They ruled for since the Middle Ages.
Inbreeding: What the Hapsburgs were known for; rather self-explanatory.
Ferdinand: The ruler of the Austrian Empire during this time of revolution. He was a Hapsburg. As a result of the revolution, he is forced to step down. He is succeeded by his nephew, Franz Joseph (see below).
Franz Josef: He is very popular, and rules for approximately eighty years — he is even the king of Austria during World War I. He is viewed as being a gap between the past and the present.
Frankfurt Assembly: After a revolution broke out throughout the various German states, the leaders met in the Frankfurt Assembly to hammer out the details:
• Large/Small Germany: In “Small” Germany, Austria would be excluded, in “Large” Germany, Austria would be included. The reason that this was controversial was because Austria was a very conservative nation, which would clash with the liberalrevolution taking place in
Germany. Austria is also Catholic, whereas the Germans were Protestants. They chose a Small Germany.
• Nature of Government: In a unified Germany, should the government be a monarchy or a republic? They chose a constitutional monarchy.
• Schleswig-Holstein: A German state that was under Danish control, but they were viewed as politically separate from Denmark. Leaders grappled over whether or not they should be included in the “new” Germany.
Every state has its own monarchy, but there would be one “head” monarch who would be in charge of them all.
Prussia: Looked to as the leader of the German unification. They are asked to fight Denmark for control over Schleswig-Holstein (see above), which was successful. As the princes start to return, the king of Prussia is offered the crown, but refuses.
Papal States: Italian states ruled over by the Vatican. In these states, the kings were chased out and republics were established; Giuseppe Mazzine (see above) returned. The Pope is overturned. The Austrians were called to restore order.
Giusseppe Mazzini: see above; he was invited back to create a Roman republic.
Risorigimento: The Italian would for “freedom
Gabriel Riesser: A Jewish lawyer who was very big on Jewish emancipation. He believes that Jews should be included in the new German constitution.
Sardinia: An Italian state that forces its king to adopt a constitution. It was the only state to keep its constitution.
Sick Man of Europe: The nickname for the Ottoman Empire, which was viewed as “too big to fail.” They were too weak to fend of Russia, which was aiming to take over Constantinople and gain access to the Mediterranean — the Ottomans had to rely on the English and the French for help.
Capitulations: The ability for foreigners to be tried by their own courts, not by Ottoman courts. This was because the Christians thought that it was inappropriate to have Muslims try Christians. This was a sign of how weak the Ottomans were. They do this to make sure that the other European countries will keep on lending them money.
Mehmet Ali: A Janissary (see below) from Albania, he is sent to re-conquer Egypt, which was conquered by Napolian. There, he rises up the ranks and eventually becomes the ruler of Egypt. He tries to modernize the Egpytian economy.
Mahmut II: An Ottoman sultan. He works to modernize the Ottman Empire, and begins this by secretly attacking the Janissaries. He teaches his students how to use weapons, and then launches a surprise attack on them, killing them all.
Janissaries: A group of Christian-gone-Muslim mercenaries, they were like the Mafiah of the Ottoman Empire. They had the power to overthrow the current sultan by murdering
him.
Auspicious Event: When Mahmut II (see above) kills off the Janissaries (see above)
Tanzimat: A period of time in which Mahmut II tries to modernize the Ottoman Empire. He passes laws to make all citizens equal under the law.
Dragomans: The Arabic word for “translator.” When the Jews came to the Ottoman Empire from Spain during the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, they worked as translators for the noble families. Gradually, however, this job was usurped by the Christians in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Kira: A woman who would sell trinkets to the noble families. This would put her in a position of influence. Although at one point the kiras were mainly Jewesses, this job too was usurped by the Christians.
Chacham Bashi: The Ottoman equivalent of a consistory, it was a governing body for the Jews. There was a national Chacham Bashi, and then each Jewish community was also requried to have one.
Damascus Affair: A scandal where the Jews of Damascus, Syria were accused of killing a Christian and using his blood for baking their matzahs. Interestingly, the leaders of the Jewish community confessed to these charges.
blood libel: A rite in which human blood is used to make something for religious purposes; here, it means the Jews were accused of using the Christians blood for baking matzahs.
Moses Montefiore: A Jewish-English entrepreneur, he effectively bribed the Ottomans to let the Jews be free again. His having to do this and the Damascus Affair (see above) shows to things:
• the increase in Christian power in the Ottoman Empire, and
