Equivalence Equivalence
(Jakobson/Nida/Newmark/Koller) (Jakobson/Nida/Newmark/Koller)
No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as
representing the same social reality:
representing the same social reality: Edward Sapir Edward Sapir
Equivalence: complicated, contentious concept. Some initial considerations: Equivalence: complicated, contentious concept. Some initial considerations: equivalence needn’t be sameness, isomorphism, but can also be equality of equivalence needn’t be sameness, isomorphism, but can also be equality of values
(‘equi-values (‘equi-valencvalence’); Language’); Languages aren’t es aren’t the same, the same, but ‘values can but ‘values can be thebe the same’.
same’. Nid
Nida: a: ‘Tr‘Transanslatlating ing conconsissists ts in in repreproroducducing ing in in the the recrecepteptor or lanlanguaguage ge thethe closest
closest naturalnatural equivalent of the SL message’.equivalent of the SL message’.
Nat
Naturaural l equequivaivalenlence: ce: MalMaloneone, , VinVinay ay & & DarDarbelbelnetnet: : all all conconcercerned ned basbasicaicallylly wi
with th nanatuturaral, l, lilingnguiuiststic ic eqequiuivavalelencnce, e, shshififts ts didictctatated ed by by ththe e SLSL-T-TL L papairir (ca
(cane=ne=dogdog; ; crecream= am= (di(diffuffuses ses intinto) o) panpanna/ na/ crecrema, ma, etcetc.) .) anand d recrecommommendend va
variriouous s ststraratetegigies es to to obobtatain in itit, , frfrom om vevery ry liliteteraral, l, onone-e-onon-o-one ne momoveves s toto reordering and modification. Is ‘lentement’ the natural equivalent of ‘slow’? reordering and modification. Is ‘lentement’ the natural equivalent of ‘slow’? Or should it be
Or should it be ‘ralentir’?‘ralentir’? Di
Direrectctioionanal l eqequiuivavalelencnce: e: MaMalolone ne (‘(‘SuSubsbstititututitionon’)’), , ViVinanay y & & DDararbebelnlnetet (‘Adaptation’) also look at
(‘Adaptation’) also look at directionaldirectional equivalence, chosen by the translatorequivalence, chosen by the translator
and
and not not dicdictattated ed by by the the ST; ST; equequi-vi-valealent nt tratranslnslatiationons: s: e.ge.g.. cyclismecyclisme notnot
‘cycling’ but 1) cricket
‘cycling’ but 1) cricket (G.B.) and 2) baseball (US).(G.B.) and 2) baseball (US). These
These are are dichotemised dichotemised poles: poles: we we chose chose which which aspects aspects to to render render into into TL.TL. Directional equivalence in particular can hide an ideological, domesticating Directional equivalence in particular can hide an ideological, domesticating agenda (we linguistically colonise the French by making them play cricket, agenda (we linguistically colonise the French by making them play cricket, etc.). All presumption of symmetry means we are forgetting Sapir-Whorf, etc.). All presumption of symmetry means we are forgetting Sapir-Whorf, and presuming the world is like ourselves: or, worse, deliberately making it and presuming the world is like ourselves: or, worse, deliberately making it like ourselves. Solution? Venuti would answer:
like ourselves. Solution? Venuti would answer: resistancy and foreignisationresistancy and foreignisation..
Sometimes translation is ‘horizontal’, from SL > TL,
Sometimes translation is ‘horizontal’, from SL > TL, and sometimes ‘vertical’and sometimes ‘vertical’ (cf. Nida’s 3-part transfer diagram), when ST meaning is broken ‘down’ into (cf. Nida’s 3-part transfer diagram), when ST meaning is broken ‘down’ into non-verbal kernels, when we ‘listen to the sense’ (Danica Seleskovitch), non-verbal kernels, when we ‘listen to the sense’ (Danica Seleskovitch), ‘d
‘devevererbabalilisese’, ’, anand d trtrananslslatate e ththis is babasisic, c, kekernrnel el memeananining, g, ththee tertiumtertium comparationis
comparationis, ‘up’ into the new , ‘up’ into the new TT.TT.
Roman Jakobson (USSR/US), Eugene Nida (US), Peter
Roman Jakobson (USSR/US), Eugene Nida (US), Peter Newmark (UK), WernerNewmark (UK), Werner Koller (Germany) begin to look less at linguistic equivalents and consider Koller (Germany) begin to look less at linguistic equivalents and consider different types of equivalence in context, e.g. :
different types of equivalence in context, e.g. :
-- WhaWhat is tt is the ‘nhe ‘natuaturalral’ equ’ equivaivalenlent of tht of the Spae Spanisnish bah bad lucd luck dayk day,,Martes 13Martes 13: --:
--the literal linguistic equivalent, Tuesday 13, or --the functional, pragmatic the literal linguistic equivalent, Tuesday 13, or the functional, pragmatic equivalent, Friday 13 in G.B. and venerdi 17 in Italy?
-- ThThe natue naturaral equil equivavalelent of drent of dressssining in g in blblacack, as a k, as a sisign of mougn of mournrnining, in ag, in a culture where that colour is traditionally white?
culture where that colour is traditionally white?
-- ThThe e nanatuturaral l eqequiuivavalelent of nt of (N(Nidida’a’s s fafamomous e.gus e.g.) the lam.) the lamb b of God in of God in aa culture which has never seen a lamb? Etc.. Is meaning in the word or in culture which has never seen a lamb? Etc.. Is meaning in the word or in the sense?
the sense?
‘Meaning’ & ‘Equivalence’ a seminal concept
‘Meaning’ & ‘Equivalence’ a seminal concept in Translation Studies in ‘50sin Translation Studies in ‘50s and ‘60s - the ‘Linguistic
and ‘60s - the ‘Linguistic Turn’. Attempts were made too be more systematicTurn’. Attempts were made too be more systematic than simply t
than simply the ‘free/literal’ he ‘free/literal’ binary oppobinary opposition. sition. Some pairingsSome pairings:: Literal/faithful Free
Literal/faithful Free R
Reeaaddeerr--ttoo--wwrriitteer r WWrriitteerr--ttoo--rreeaaddeerr A
Alliieennaattiioon n NNaattuurraalliizzaattiioonn F
Foorreeiiggnniizzaattiioon n DDoommeessttiiccaattiioonn F
Foorrmmaal l DDyynnaammiicc S
Seemmaannttiicc CCoommmmuunniiccaattiivvee Ä
Äqquuiivvaalleennz z KoKorrrreessppoonnddeennzz What text unit do we
What text unit do we translate? word? phrase ? sentence? paragraph?translate? word? phrase ? sentence? paragraph?
Unit of translation (‘the linguistic level at which ST is recodified in TL’: word? Unit of translation (‘the linguistic level at which ST is recodified in TL’: word? Phrase?
Phrase? Sentence? Paragraph ? NidSentence? Paragraph ? Nida talks of unita talks of units as ‘Meaningful s as ‘Meaningful mouthfulsmouthfuls of language’;
of language’;
Vinay & Darbelnet: ‘Lexicological unit’ (e.g. ‘tout de suite = immediately) or Vinay & Darbelnet: ‘Lexicological unit’ (e.g. ‘tout de suite = immediately) or ‘units of
‘units of thought’ (‘all thought’ (‘all those involved those involved in the disin the disaster’).aster’).
What has to be equivalent? Word? Message? Invariant core? What has to be equivalent? Word? Message? Invariant core?
How to decode/
How to decode/recode? recode? How to get How to get equivalence given non-isomequivalence given non-isomorphism of orphism of most languages and cultures: ‘Shall I
most languages and cultures: ‘Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?’:compare thee to a summer’s day?’: but if summer is bad? (Albert Neubert); equivalence of idioms: ‘too many but if summer is bad? (Albert Neubert); equivalence of idioms: ‘too many cooks spoil the broth’ – troppi cuochi rovinano il brodo ? ‘Say when’ > cooks spoil the broth’ – troppi cuochi rovinano il brodo ? ‘Say when’ > Dimmi quando? Dimmi quando basta? Not formal, linguistic equivalence, Dimmi quando? Dimmi quando basta? Not formal, linguistic equivalence, but
but functionalfunctional, situational., situational.
I. Jakobson, ‘On linguistic aspects of translation’ (1959) distinguishes: I. Jakobson, ‘On linguistic aspects of translation’ (1959) distinguishes:
Intralingual translation
Intralingual translation, rewording (‘interpretation of verbal , rewording (‘interpretation of verbal signs throughsigns through
other signs in the same
other signs in the same language’), paraphrase;language’), paraphrase;
Interlingual
Interlingual: interpretation of verbal signs through: interpretation of verbal signs through some other some other language.language.
‘The translator recodes and transmits messages received
‘The translator recodes and transmits messages received from anotherfrom another source. Thus translation involves 2 equivalent messages in 2
source. Thus translation involves 2 equivalent messages in 2 differentdifferent codes’.
codes’.
Intersemiotic
Intersemiotic: transmutation, interpretation of verbal signs : transmutation, interpretation of verbal signs through non-through non-verbal sign system: novel >film, poem >music,
Follows Saussure: signifier / signified arbitrary. Equivalence, then? Follows Saussure: signifier / signified arbitrary. Equivalence, then? Adequate transference, but no true equivalence, even with
Adequate transference, but no true equivalence, even with synonyms: e.g.synonyms: e.g. Russian
Russian syr syr , butter/burro, etc. ‘Equivalence in difference is the , butter/burro, etc. ‘Equivalence in difference is the centralcentral
problem of language’ (& translation). Differences dictated mostly by problem of language’ (& translation). Differences dictated mostly by grammar & lexis (cf. Vinay & D.): ‘Languages differ
grammar & lexis (cf. Vinay & D.): ‘Languages differ essentially in what theyessentially in what they must convey, not what they may c
must convey, not what they may convey’: language differences in obligatoryonvey’: language differences in obligatory grammatical/lexical forms – e.g. gender (‘house’ feminine in
grammatical/lexical forms – e.g. gender (‘house’ feminine in most Romancemost Romance lang.s, neutral in German and English; aspect of
lang.s, neutral in German and English; aspect of verb – Russianverb – Russian distinguishes between completed action or not, etc.; level
distinguishes between completed action or not, etc.; level of semantic field:of semantic field: fratelli, Geschwister, siblings, brothers and sisters, hijas (Spanish) if both fratelli, Geschwister, siblings, brothers and sisters, hijas (Spanish) if both female, etc. .
female, etc. . But if grammar won’t translate something, lexis will.But if grammar won’t translate something, lexis will.↓↓
II. Jakobson: Everything is
II. Jakobson: Everything is translatable (‘universalist’). We understandtranslatable (‘universalist’). We understand
‘ambrosia’ though we’ve never drunk it. Loans, neologisms, semantic shifts, ‘ambrosia’ though we’ve never drunk it. Loans, neologisms, semantic shifts, paraphrase can all be used to
paraphrase can all be used to express the ‘untranslatable’. In new literaryexpress the ‘untranslatable’. In new literary language
language of of Northern Northern Siberian Siberian Chukchees,Chukchees, ‘screw’ =
‘screw’ = rotating nailrotating nail;; ‘chalk’ =
‘chalk’ = writing soapwriting soap;;
‘watch’ =
‘watch’ = hammering heart hammering heart , etc.. Fir, etc.. First Russian st Russian word for word for ‘plane’ =‘plane’ =flyingflying steamship
steamship. All have been adapted to. All have been adapted to knownknown elements.elements.
III. Jakobson mainly functions on level
III. Jakobson mainly functions on level of word. We move towards larger unitof word. We move towards larger unit of meaning in the
of meaning in the US Bible translator Eugene Nida:US Bible translator Eugene Nida:
Towards a Science of Translation
Towards a Science of Translation (’64); Nida & Charles Taber,(’64); Nida & Charles Taber, The Theory The Theory and Practice of Translation
and Practice of Translation (Leiden, 1969). ‘Translation theory underwent a(Leiden, 1969). ‘Translation theory underwent a quantum leap with Eugene Nida’ (Munday) Moves away from idea
quantum leap with Eugene Nida’ (Munday) Moves away from idea that athat a word has a fixed meaning, towards the
word has a fixed meaning, towards the functional meaning infunctional meaning in context/situation. ‘Say when’/ ‘Hello’
context/situation. ‘Say when’/ ‘Hello’ SL ‘
SL ‘Hello’Hello’::
French: ça va? Hallo French: ça va? Hallo
German: wie geht’s? hallo German: wie geht’s? hallo Italian: olà, pronto, ciao Italian: olà, pronto, ciao
English: hi, hello, how are you English: hi, hello, how are you Phone? Face to
Phone? Face to face? Arrival or face? Arrival or departure? departure? Nida: ‘It is bNida: ‘It is both scientifically andoth scientifically and practically more efficient to
practically more efficient to reduce the ST to its structurally simplest andreduce the ST to its structurally simplest and most semantically evident kernels, to retransfer the meaning from SL most semantically evident kernels, to retransfer the meaning from SL toto receptor L on a structurally simple level,
receptor L on a structurally simple level, and to generate the stylisticallyand to generate the stylistically and semantically equivalent expression in the Receptor Language’ (Nida, and semantically equivalent expression in the Receptor Language’ (Nida, ’64).
’64).
IV. RECE
IV. RECEPTOR LAPTOR LANGUANGUAGEGE see Mundsee Munday: 40)ay: 40) A A (SL) (SL) BB (TL ‘receptor’) (TL ‘receptor’) II ↑↑ II II II II
((aannaallyyssiiss)) ((rreessttrruuccttuurriinngg)) II II II II ↓ ↓ II X
X ---(transfer) (transfer) ---Y---Y Nida’s 3-stage Transfer model (Nida & Taber 1969). Applied to ‘Ciao’: Nida’s 3-stage Transfer model (Nida & Taber 1969). Applied to ‘Ciao’:
A
A (SL) (SL) Hello Hello B B Ciao!Ciao! ↓
↓ ↑↑
(Fr
(Frieniendly dly gregreetieting ng on on arrarrivaival l etcetc) ) (decisi(decision on to to disdistintinguiguish: sh: phophone?tne?tu/lu/lei?) ei?) etcetc.. ↓
↓ ↑↑
X
X → → (transfer) (transfer) → → YY
This borrows fro
This borrows from Chomsky’s generative-trm Chomsky’s generative-transformative model (‘keransformative model (‘kernels’)nels’) (Aspects of the Theory of Syntax). All lang.s
(Aspects of the Theory of Syntax). All lang.s have 6-8 deep-structurehave 6-8 deep-structure ‘kernels’ common to all languages, vehicle
‘kernels’ common to all languages, vehicle of meaning. Basic structuralof meaning. Basic structural elements out of which language builds
elements out of which language builds its elaborate surface structures.its elaborate surface structures. Translator: analyses S
Translator: analyses SL into simplest, structurL into simplest, structurally clear forms (kernels),ally clear forms (kernels), transfers message mentally at kernel level; reconfigures SL ready for transfers message mentally at kernel level; reconfigures SL ready for TL;TL; restructures message in TL, making sure it has same impact
restructures message in TL, making sure it has same impact (cf. A sentence(cf. A sentence like ‘so he stood there ... with pigs falling out of his face’, Rushdie, Satanic like ‘so he stood there ... with pigs falling out of his face’, Rushdie, Satanic Verses, describing a Muslim apostate. The FULL IMPACT must be preserved: Verses, describing a Muslim apostate. The FULL IMPACT must be preserved: no normalizing or
no normalizing or under-translating)under-translating).. ‘Scientific & practical’ (Nida) & done in
‘Scientific & practical’ (Nida) & done in 3 stages:3 stages:
literal transfer literal transfer minimal transfer minimal transfer
‘literary’ transfer, finally creating: ‘literary’ transfer, finally creating:
e.g.1 e.g.1
1
1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 88 Greek ST: egeneto anthrop
Greek ST: egeneto anthropos, apestalmenos os, apestalmenos para theou, onoma aupara theou, onoma auto Ioannesto Ioannes Literal:
Literal: 1
1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 88 Became/happened m
Became/happened man, sent an, sent from from God, God, name name to-him to-him JohnJohn Minimal transfer:
Minimal transfer: 1
1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 88 There
Literary transfer: Literary transfer:
1
1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 88 There
There came came a a man, man, sent sent from from God, whose God, whose name name was was JohnJohn (Or: A man
(Or: A man 2, named 2, named 6 John 6 John 7/8, 7/8, was sent 3 was sent 3 by 4 by 4 God 5God 5
BUT: Ambiguity: linguistic, cultural? BUT: Ambiguity: linguistic, cultural? Nida’s l
Nida’s linguistiinguistic techniques for c techniques for disambigdisambiguation :uation :
I Semantic structure analysis
I Semantic structure analysis: to decide what’s core meaning, what’s: to decide what’s core meaning, what’s
not. not.
e.g. of non-correspondence of semantic field. e.g. of non-correspondence of semantic field. Spanish email, invitation to conference: ‘we expect you will attend’ Spanish email, invitation to conference: ‘we expect you will attend’
Esperar
Esperar : covers wider semantic : covers wider semantic field. 1.Hope/2.want/3.expect/4.look forwardfield. 1.Hope/2.want/3.expect/4.look forward
to. to. Esperar Esperar ∕ ∕ / / \\ \\ 1.
1. To wish bu To wish but with little expectatiot with little expectation n 2. to wish 2. to wish 3. to wish/req3. to wish/require,+ strong expuire,+ strong expectationectation 4.to await eagerly
4.to await eagerly →→
1.
1. = = to to hohope pe 2. 2. =t=to o wawant nt 3.3.=t=to o exexpepect ct 4. 4. = = toto look forward to
look forward to
(cf Italian: aspettare. ‘aspettiamo una vostra risposta’ , ‘aspettiamo un (cf Italian: aspettare. ‘aspettiamo una vostra risposta’ , ‘aspettiamo un bambino’, etc.)
bambino’, etc.)
Disambiguate through context or co-text. Disambiguate through context or co-text. Cf. Bassnett ‘spirit’ diagram e.g.
Cf. Bassnett ‘spirit’ diagram e.g.
2. to disambiguate 2 homonyms (same form, different
2. to disambiguate 2 homonyms (same form, different meaning).meaning).
Historical fact: Monte Cassino: the Allies received
Historical fact: Monte Cassino: the Allies received a message, ‘a message, ‘Der Der Abt ist im Kloster’
Abt ist im Kloster’.. Abt Abt (abbot) was read as abbreviation for(abbot) was read as abbreviation for Abteilung
Abteilung (battalion), (battalion), hence hence ‘battalion ‘battalion in monin monastery’, anastery’, andd bombed).
bombed).
II Hierarchical structuring
II Hierarchical structuring & componential analysis:& componential analysis:
Where the problem is to find
Where the problem is to find word on same level; to word on same level; to examine basic meaningexamine basic meaning of word and contrast with other terms in
of word and contrast with other terms in same field.same field.
e.g. family: grandmother, cousin, in-law, according to number, gender, e.g. family: grandmother, cousin, in-law, according to number, gender, generation, linearity (direct ancestor or
generation, linearity (direct ancestor or not/male-female): mostly irrelevantnot/male-female): mostly irrelevant in European languages (but NB nipote/nipotino) but vital in many
e.g.
e.g. generic generic verb: verb: move move →→ hyponyms hyponyms : : walk walk run run skip skip hop hop crawl?crawl? walk
walk →→ : : march, march, stroll?stroll?
Analyse into component parts, then
Analyse into component parts, then decide on the definitions below:decide on the definitions below: Kidnap/abduct/hijack Kidnap/abduct/hijack Table/desk/worktop/bench Table/desk/worktop/bench Fond/attached/devoted Fond/attached/devoted Detached
Detached house/semi-(detached house)/flat/maisonette/studio/bhouse/semi-(detached house)/flat/maisonette/studio/bedsit edsit
a) To steal a
a) To steal a person, often for ransom b) remove a personperson, often for ransom b) remove a person by force or fraud, to kidnap c) to stop and steal a vehicle; by force or fraud, to kidnap c) to stop and steal a vehicle; to steal in transit; to force a driver to take a vehicle to the to steal in transit; to force a driver to take a vehicle to the hijacker’s chosen destination
hijacker’s chosen destination
a) an article of furniture consisting of a flat top on legs, a) an article of furniture consisting of a flat top on legs, pillars or trestles for use at meals,
pillars or trestles for use at meals, work, play, etc. b) awork, play, etc. b) a sloping or flat table for
sloping or flat table for reading or writing, often fitted withreading or writing, often fitted with drawers; a pulpit or lectern c a surface designed to be to drawers; a pulpit or lectern c a surface designed to be to be used for working on, or fitted e.g. on top of kitchen be used for working on, or fitted e.g. on top of kitchen units d)
units d) long seat or long seat or form with or form with or without a bacwithout a back, a work-k, a work-table
table a)
a) foolishly lovinfoolishly loving (arch.), g (arch.), very affectionvery affectionate; kindlyate; kindly disposed b) feeling affection or fidelity
disposed b) feeling affection or fidelity towards c) attachedtowards c) attached as by a vow; strongly attached to; zealous
as by a vow; strongly attached to; zealous
a) a house standing alone, unconnected to other
a) a house standing alone, unconnected to other buildingsbuildings b) a house which is
b) a house which is partly separated; joined by a partypartly separated; joined by a party wall to one other house only c) a set of rooms for living wall to one other house only c) a set of rooms for living which are part of a larger building, usually on one floor d) which are part of a larger building, usually on one floor d) small apartment on two levels which is part of a larger small apartment on two levels which is part of a larger building but has its own e
building but has its own entrance e) small apartmentntrance e) small apartment designed to be lived in by one or two people, comprising designed to be lived in by one or two people, comprising usually one large room for living
usually one large room for living and sleeping, a bathroomand sleeping, a bathroom and possibly separate kitchen f) rented, furnished room and possibly separate kitchen f) rented, furnished room with galley-kitchen or
with galley-kitchen or incorporated cooking-area.incorporated cooking-area. Bachelor: +human +male –married OR
Bachelor: +human +male –married OR +human +male/female +university+human +male/female +university degree
degree
Bank? Heart? Bank? Heart?
III How to assess connotative meaning. St. John’s gospel: Gk.
III How to assess connotative meaning. St. John’s gospel: Gk. gunaigunai trans.trans. ‘woman’ (King James), which
‘woman’ (King James), which Nida translates ‘mother’: positive connotation.Nida translates ‘mother’: positive connotation. He posits a
He posits a clinecline::
5
5 4 4 3 3 2 2 11
Good
Good ← ← ………..……...…....…... . bad→→ bad S
(where to place
(where to place ‘adolescent/teenager, daughter/girl, animal/pet?)‘adolescent/teenager, daughter/girl, animal/pet?) ***
*** OR:
OR: Paradise Lost,Paradise Lost, VII, 319-321): literal, minimal,or literary?VII, 319-321): literal, minimal,or literary?
Forth flourished thick the clustering vine, Forth flourished thick the clustering vine, forth crept
forth crept
The swelling gourd: up sto
The swelling gourd: up stood the cornyod the corny reed,
reed,
Embattled in the field. Embattled in the field.
Literal: rigogliosa fiori la vite a grappoli, Literal: rigogliosa fiori la vite a grappoli, striscio fuori
striscio fuori
La zucca crescente; si raddrizzo lo stelo di La zucca crescente; si raddrizzo lo stelo di grano
grano
Schierato in campo. Schierato in campo.
Literary (Lazzaro Papi, 1829): Literary (Lazzaro Papi, 1829): Di fior s'adoma
Di fior s'adoma
La racemosa vite, e lenta La racemosa vite, e lenta striscia striscia La tumida cucurbita: La tumida cucurbita: schierate schierate Rizzansi in campo Ie Rizzansi in campo Ie granose ariste. granose ariste.
(Baldi, reason for preferring Papi: 'ci è
(Baldi, reason for preferring Papi: 'ci è sembrata la piu originale,sembrata la piu originale, poeticamente quindi la piu vicina
poeticamente quindi la piu vicina a Milton, nonostante tutte Ie sue
a Milton, nonostante tutte Ie sue infedeltà letterali')infedeltà letterali') ***
*** ‘Since there are, in
‘Since there are, in translating, no such things as identical equivalents, onetranslating, no such things as identical equivalents, one must seek to find the
must seek to find the closest possible. However, there are fundamentally 2closest possible. However, there are fundamentally 2 different types: one which may be called
different types: one which may be called formalformal, and another, which is, and another, which is
primarily
primarily dynamic’ dynamic’ . Nida. (‘literal / free’). Nida. (‘literal / free’)
Dynamic: based on what he calls
Dynamic: based on what he calls equivalent effect,equivalent effect, where 'the relationshipwhere 'the relationship between receptor and message should be substantially the same as
between receptor and message should be substantially the same as thatthat which existed between the original receptors and the
which existed between the original receptors and the message' (Nida '64) T-message' (Nida '64) T- Text and T-Culture orien
Text and T-Culture oriented; the foreignness of ST is minted; the foreignness of ST is minimized.imized.
'Dynamic equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct 'Dynamic equivalence in translation is far more than mere correct communication of information'
communication of information' (Nida) It is ‘a pragmatic focus on (Nida) It is ‘a pragmatic focus on thethe
communicative requirements of the text receiver and purpose of
communicative requirements of the text receiver and purpose of translationtranslation without losing sight of the communicative preferences of
without losing sight of the communicative preferences of original messageoriginal message producer or function of original text’.
‘A translation of dynamic equivalence aims
‘A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of at complete naturalness of expression, and tries to relate the receptor to
expression, and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behaviour relevantmodes of behaviour relevant within the cultural patterns of his own
within the cultural patterns of his own culture; it does not insist that culture; it does not insist that hehe understand the cultural patterns of the SL context. ..One
understand the cultural patterns of the SL context. ..One of the modernof the modern
English translations which perhaps more than any other seeks for equivalent English translations which perhaps more than any other seeks for equivalent effects is J.B. Phillips’
effects is J.B. Phillips’ rendering of the NT. In Romans 16:16 he rendering of the NT. In Romans 16:16 he quitequite naturally translates ‘greet one another with an holy kiss’
naturally translates ‘greet one another with an holy kiss’ as ‘give oneas ‘give one another a hearty handshake all round’. During the past 50
another a hearty handshake all round’. During the past 50 yrs there hasyrs there has been a marked shift …
been a marked shift … from the formal to the dynamic dimension. (1964)from the formal to the dynamic dimension. (1964) WHEREAS ‘Formal equivalence focuses all the attention on
WHEREAS ‘Formal equivalence focuses all the attention on the messagethe message itself,
itself, inin both form and content...both form and content... One is concerned that the message in One is concerned that the message in thethe
receptor language should match
receptor language should match as closely as closely as possible the differentas possible the different elements in the source language. … ‘
elements in the source language. … ‘ The type of translation wh
The type of translation which most completely typifies this struich most completely typifies this structuralctural equivalence might be called
equivalence might be called a ‘gloss translation’ in which the translatora ‘gloss translation’ in which the translator attempts to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as
attempts to reproduce as literally and meaningfully as possible the form andpossible the form and content of the original. E.g. a
content of the original. E.g. a rendering of some Medieval French text intorendering of some Medieval French text into English, intended for students of early French literature not
English, intended for students of early French literature not requiring arequiring a knowledge of the original language. Their needs call for a relatively close knowledge of the original language. Their needs call for a relatively close approximation to the structure of the early French text,
approximation to the structure of the early French text, both as to form (e.g.both as to form (e.g. syntax and idioms) and content (e.g. themes and
syntax and idioms) and content (e.g. themes and concepts). Such asconcepts). Such as translation would require numerous footnotes to make the text fully translation would require numerous footnotes to make the text fully comprehensible… Typically, formal
comprehensible… Typically, formal correspondencecorrespondencedistorts thedistorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language
grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence, and hence
distorts the message, so as to cause the
distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or toreceptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard'.
labor unduly hard'.
NB Fawcett’s comment: The use of formal equivalents might at
NB Fawcett’s comment: The use of formal equivalents might at times havetimes have
serious implications
serious implications in the TT since the translation will not be easilyin the TT since the translation will not be easily
understood
understood by the by the target audtarget audience. ience. (Fawcett,(Fawcett, Nida: the success of a translation depends on
Nida: the success of a translation depends on achieving equivalentachieving equivalent response. For this there are 4 basic
response. For this there are 4 basic requirements:requirements: making sense
making sense
conveying spirit and manner of original conveying spirit and manner of original natural, easy form of expression
natural, easy form of expression producing similar response
producing similar response If a conflict a
If a conflict arises between content and form: 'correspondence in meaningrises between content and form: 'correspondence in meaning must have priority over correspondence in style’.
must have priority over correspondence in style’. DISCUSSION of Nida: Virtues: moved from
DISCUSSION of Nida: Virtues: moved from word-for-worword-for-word, purely linguisticd, purely linguistic approach to a receptor-based theory. Vices: Still too focused on
approach to a receptor-based theory. Vices: Still too focused on word levelword level still (Andre Lefevere, 1993:
still (Andre Lefevere, 1993: Translating Literature.Practice and Theory);Translating Literature.Practice and Theory);
‘equivalent effect’ considered 'impossible to measure’ (van den
‘equivalent effect’ considered 'impossible to measure’ (van den Broeck) andBroeck) and 'Inoperant if text is out
equivalent response in different cultures / times? Qian Hu
equivalent response in different cultures / times? Qian Hu ('93): difficulty('93): difficulty with cultural references: cf famous ‘hearty handshake’;'Inoperant if text is with cultural references: cf famous ‘hearty handshake’;'Inoperant if text is out ofTL space
out ofTL space and time' (Newmark); Edwin Gentzler and time' (Newmark); Edwin Gentzler (deconstructionist(deconstructionist):): Nida’s aim to convert all
Nida’s aim to convert all readers / cultures to dominant discourse of readers / cultures to dominant discourse of Protestant Christianity.
Protestant Christianity.
Try to think of a) for
Try to think of a) formal b) dynamic TT:mal b) dynamic TT:
1.
1. ‘Have a break, have a kitkat’ ‘Have a break, have a kitkat’ 2.
2. ‘Fo‘For verr very Ypy Ypsilsilon pon peopeople’ le’ 3.
3. ‘Every ‘Every cloud cloud has has a sila silver lver liningining’ ’
*** ***
PETER NEWMARK:
PETER NEWMARK: Approaches to Translation Approaches to Translation (’81)(’81) A Textbook of Translation A Textbook of Translation
(’88):
(’88): ‘semantic ‘semantic and and communicative’.communicative’.
Much practical good sense and many good
Much practical good sense and many good examples, but less influentialexamples, but less influential than Nida; pre
than Nida; prescriptive. scriptive. Departs froDeparts from Nida's receptom Nida's receptor-orientation; considerr-orientation; considerss a full equivalent effect 'illusory'; ‘the
a full equivalent effect 'illusory'; ‘the conflict of loyalties,conflict of loyalties, the gap betweenthe gap between
emphasis on source and target language will
emphasis on source and target language will always remain as thealways remain as the overriding problem in translating theory into practice’. Instead of
overriding problem in translating theory into practice’. Instead of Nida’sNida’s ‘formal and dynamic’ he posits semantic and
‘formal and dynamic’ he posits semantic and communicative.communicative.
Communicative translation: ( Nida’s dynamic ). To produce on the
Communicative translation: ( Nida’s dynamic ). To produce on the T readerT reader an effect as close
an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.readers of the original. Semantic translation : (Nida’s formal). Attempts to render, as closely as
Semantic translation : (Nida’s formal). Attempts to render, as closely as semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the
semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exactexact meaning of the original. NOT literal:
meaning of the original. NOT literal: it ‘respects context’, interprets, explainsit ‘respects context’, interprets, explains (e.g. metaphors)
(e.g. metaphors)
BUT: ‘The literal is the
BUT: ‘The literal is the best approach’:best approach’:
‘In communicative as in semantic translation …
‘In communicative as in semantic translation … the literal word-for-wordthe literal word-for-word translation is not only the best,
translation is not only the best, it is the only valid it is the only valid method of translation’.method of translation’. (’81).
(’81).
His objection: there can be no real ‘equivalent effect’: equivalent effect is His objection: there can be no real ‘equivalent effect’: equivalent effect is ‘inoperant if
‘inoperant if the text is out the text is out of TL space aof TL space and time’ – e.g. mnd time’ – e.g. modern translatioodern translationn of Homer? ‘The Scarlet Letter’?. And readers shouldn’t ‘be handed
of Homer? ‘The Scarlet Letter’?. And readers shouldn’t ‘be handed everything on plate’.
everything on plate’.
P
Paarraammeetteerr sseemmaannttiic c ttrraannssllaattiioonn ccoommmmuunniiccaattiivvee translation
Transmitter/addres Transmitter/addres sée Focus sée Focus Focus on thought Focus on thought processes of the processes of the transmitter; should transmitter; should only help TT reader only help TT reader with connotations if with connotations if seminal to message seminal to message Subjective, TT reader Subjective, TT reader focused, oriented to focused, oriented to specific language & specific language & culture
culture
C
Cuullttuurree SSttaayys s wwiitthhiin n SSLL culture (cf culture (cf foreignisation) foreignisation) Transfers foreign Transfers foreign elements into the TL elements into the TL culture
culture T
Tiimme e & & oorriiggiinn NNoot t ffiixxeed d iin n aanny y time/local space: time/local space: translation needs to translation needs to be successively be successively redone redone
Ephemeral: rooted in own Ephemeral: rooted in own contemporary context contemporary context
R
Reellaattiioon n tto o SSTT AAllwwaayys s ‘‘iinnffeerriioorr’’;; ‘loss’ of meaning ‘loss’ of meaning
May be ‘better’ than ST; May be ‘better’ than ST; ‘gain’ of force v.’loss’ of ‘gain’ of force v.’loss’ of semantic fidelity
semantic fidelity U
Usse e oof f SSL L nnoorrmmss IIf f SSL L nnoorrmms s ddeevviiaattee,, this must be this must be reproduced in TT; reproduced in TT; loyalty to ST author loyalty to ST author
Respect for SL form, but Respect for SL form, but ultimate loyalty to TL ultimate loyalty to TL norms
norms T
TL L ffoorrmm MMoorre e ccoommpplleexx,, awkward, awkward, non-normative. ‘other’; normative. ‘other’; detailed, tendency to detailed, tendency to overtranslation. overtranslation.
Smoother, simpler, more Smoother, simpler, more conventional/referential: conventional/referential: tendency to tendency to undertranslate. undertranslate. Appropriateness: Appropriateness: field of application field of application Serious literature, Serious literature, autobiography, autobiography,
personal ‘effusion’, all personal ‘effusion’, all
authoritative authoritative statement statement
Vast majority of texts: Vast majority of texts: non-literary, technical, non-literary, technical, informative texts,
informative texts,
publicity, popular fiction publicity, popular fiction E
Evvaalluuaattiioon cn crriitteerriiaa AAccccuurraaccy oy of f
reproduction of ST reproduction of ST meaning & meaning & significance significance Accuracy of Accuracy of communication of whole communication of whole ST message in TT ST message in TT
Discussion of Newmark: his terms received less discussion than Nida’s, prob Discussion of Newmark: his terms received less discussion than Nida’s, prob because very similar, and both stress TT reader .
because very similar, and both stress TT reader . Aware that text-type andAware that text-type and function of the translation can decide
function of the translation can decide the type of equivalence. Prescriptivethe type of equivalence. Prescriptive and pre-linguistic, but provides lots of good
and pre-linguistic, but provides lots of good e.gs.e.gs. ***
***
Equivalence (Contd.; see also Munday & Hatim, Translation: An Advanced Equivalence (Contd.; see also Munday & Hatim, Translation: An Advanced
Resource Book) Resource Book)
“Translation as a practice shapes, and takes shape “Translation as a practice shapes, and takes shape
within, the asymmetrical relations of power that operate within, the asymmetrical relations of power that operate under colonialism”(Naranjana, 1992).
under colonialism”(Naranjana, 1992). After Nida. Nid
After Nida. Nida a was very influenwas very influential on German thtial on German theorists ’70s/80eorists ’70s/80s: Wolframs: Wolfram Wilss, Leipzig School (Otto Kade, Albert Neuber), & Werner Koller. Nida’s Wilss, Leipzig School (Otto Kade, Albert Neuber), & Werner Koller. Nida’s ‘scientific’ approach congenial to them. Publications in
‘scientific’ approach congenial to them. Publications in ’79 emphasize’79 emphasize ‘science’ of translation: cf.:
‘science’ of translation: cf.: Koller:
Koller: Einführung Einführung in in die die bersetzungswissŰŰbersetzungswissenschaft enschaft ’79; ’79; ‘Research ‘Research into into thethe Science of Translation’ ‘89
Science of Translation’ ‘89 Concept of ‘Equivalence’ (
Concept of ‘Equivalence’ ( Aquivalenz Aquivalenz ) & ‘Correspondence’) & ‘Correspondence’
((Korrespondenz Korrespondenz ).).
Correspondence: equivalence in language systems: contrastive
Correspondence: equivalence in language systems: contrastive linguistics,linguistics, (Saussure’s
(Saussure’s LangueLangue): identifying false friends, syntax interference, etc.): identifying false friends, syntax interference, etc. Equivalence:
Equivalence: ParoleParole: specific ST-TT pairs, actual language of : specific ST-TT pairs, actual language of those particularthose particular texts. Correspondence is the mark of a good
texts. Correspondence is the mark of a good linguist; Equivalence, a goodlinguist; Equivalence, a good translator.
translator.
Koller basically concerned with Equivalence (Parole). But what Koller basically concerned with Equivalence (Parole). But what /which/where/what level?
/which/where/what level?
Sees equivalence as process constrained by text’s DOUBLE LINKAGE: to ST Sees equivalence as process constrained by text’s DOUBLE LINKAGE: to ST & TT: a) potentially conflicting SL/TL linguistic
& TT: a) potentially conflicting SL/TL linguistic factors, textual & extra-factors, textual & extra-textual, b) communicative conditions on receiver’s side: historical-cultural textual, b) communicative conditions on receiver’s side: historical-cultural conditions in which texts & their
conditions in which texts & their translations are produced / received.translations are produced / received. What has to
What has to be equivalent? Hobe equivalent? How? w? ‘Linguistic/textual units ‘Linguistic/textual units of TT areof TT are equivalent if corresp
equivalent if correspond to ST ond to ST elements in some elements in some or all of followor all of following:ing: Koller’s different types of equivalence:
Koller’s different types of equivalence:
Formal equivalence: In purest form, the rare case
Formal equivalence: In purest form, the rare case in which SL/TL signifiersin which SL/TL signifiers happen to have same orthography or phonology: caffé French /Italian. More happen to have same orthography or phonology: caffé French /Italian. More generally, equivalence of form/aesthetics, word-play. S.t. called ‘expressive generally, equivalence of form/aesthetics, word-play. S.t. called ‘expressive equivalence’ (expressive form of lang.). Nida’s
equivalence’ (expressive form of lang.). Nida’s formalformal, Newmark’s, Newmark’s semantic.semantic.
Denotative, referential equivalence: when SL /TL words refer to exactly Denotative, referential equivalence: when SL /TL words refer to exactly same thing in real
same thing in real world: (Sapir-Whorworld: (Sapir-Whorf!) Koller: some call f!) Koller: some call this ‘contentthis ‘content invariance’/tertium comparationis.
invariance’/tertium comparationis.
Connotative equivalence: SL/TL triggering same
Connotative equivalence: SL/TL triggering same associations: Koran, coffee,associations: Koran, coffee, summer’s day, ‘river’ (Hoffman, Lost
summer’s day, ‘river’ (Hoffman, Lost in Translation).in Translation). Text-normative equivalence: differ
Text-normative equivalence: different texts behaving in similar or different texts behaving in similar or differentent ways (Reiss, Ch. 5)
Pragmatic equivalence: when translation aimed to have same
Pragmatic equivalence: when translation aimed to have same effect oneffect on respective readers: (Newmark’s communicative, Nida’s dynamic). ‘Say respective readers: (Newmark’s communicative, Nida’s dynamic). ‘Say when’ – ‘dimmi quando basta’. ‘Chien méchant’, ‘beware of
when’ – ‘dimmi quando basta’. ‘Chien méchant’, ‘beware of the dog’).the dog’). Not all these variables are relevant
Not all these variables are relevant to every situation: translators have toto every situation: translators have to decide, & prioritise: ‘with every text,
decide, & prioritise: ‘with every text, and every segment of text, theand every segment of text, the translator who consciously makes such a choice (1-5 above) must set
translator who consciously makes such a choice (1-5 above) must set up aup a hierarchy of values to be
hierarchy of values to be preserved in translation: from this he (sic)= canpreserved in translation: from this he (sic)= can derive a hierarchy of equivalence
derive a hierarchy of equivalence requirements. This in turn must berequirements. This in turn must be preceded by a translationally relevant text-analysis’.
preceded by a translationally relevant text-analysis’. e.g. from Munday & Hatim, 50-51: ‘I
e.g. from Munday & Hatim, 50-51: ‘I had wanted for years to get Mrshad wanted for years to get Mrs
Thatcher in front of my camera. As she got more powerful she got sort of Thatcher in front of my camera. As she got more powerful she got sort of sexier’
sexier’ . (Newsweek) TL= Arabic.. (Newsweek) TL= Arabic. formal
formal ‘sexier’. No lang‘sexier’. No language calques it, as uage calques it, as Arabic, e.g., does Arabic, e.g., does with ‘strategy’:with ‘strategy’: stratiijiiya), tho’ many European langs do ‘più sexy’
stratiijiiya), tho’ many European langs do ‘più sexy’ etc.. No ‘aesthetic-formal’etc.. No ‘aesthetic-formal’ features to maintain, so move up
features to maintain, so move up equivalence hierarchy:equivalence hierarchy: when 1) impossible, or insufficient
when 1) impossible, or insufficient →→
2) denotative. SL form replaced by
2) denotative. SL form replaced by TL form referring basically to same ‘thing’:TL form referring basically to same ‘thing’: something like ‘physically inviting’.
something like ‘physically inviting’.
for many rhetorical, cultural, linguistic reasons, denotative may not do
for many rhetorical, cultural, linguistic reasons, denotative may not do justicejustice to ‘sexy’. Might give ‘pornographic’ idea (cf.
to ‘sexy’. Might give ‘pornographic’ idea (cf. Arabic). If so,Arabic). If so,→→
3) connotative equivalence, next level,
3) connotative equivalence, next level, ‘similarity of association’ . Perhaps‘similarity of association’ . Perhaps ‘attractive’.
‘attractive’.
‘attractive’ in Arabic partly satisfactory, but semantically conveys physical ‘attractive’ in Arabic partly satisfactory, but semantically conveys physical ‘gravity’. So
‘gravity’. So →→
4) text-normative. Text norms go beyond connotations, to sort of language 4) text-normative. Text norms go beyond connotations, to sort of language right in that s
right in that sort of text., ort of text., attitude, etc.. attitude, etc.. Perhaps, then, Perhaps, then, we should jettison we should jettison ‘sexy’‘sexy’ completely, and modify sexual attractiveness to ‘attractive femininity’, perhaps completely, and modify sexual attractiveness to ‘attractive femininity’, perhaps glossing with ‘so to speak’, ‘for want of
glossing with ‘so to speak’, ‘for want of a better word’.a better word’. Now have similar
Now have similar effect on ST/TT reffect on ST/TT reader, -- eader, -- ‘equivalent effect’, so:‘equivalent effect’, so:→→
5) pragmatic equivalence. 5) pragmatic equivalence.
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