Another One Bites the Dust

Undergraduate Review

Volume 12 | Issue 1

Article 3

2000

Another One Bites the Dust

Chad R. Maxwell '02

Illinois Wesleyan University

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by The Ames Library, the Andrew W. Mellon Center for Curricular and Faculty Development, the Office of the Provost and the Office of the President. It has been accepted for inclusion in Digital Commons @ IWU by

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Another One Bites the Dust

By

Chad

R.

Maxwell

H

e bit the dust. Most individuals are familiar with this colloquial phrase, or maybe just Queen's song ''Another One Bites the Dust." Although commonly connected with death, this phrase gains an entirely new meaning when one thinks about literally "biting the dust." The practice of biting dust or eating dirt has existed since the days of

homo halibus.

Scientifically speaking, the practice of eating dirt is called geophagy. Eating dirt is practiced in almost every country throughout the entire world and has been proven to have some health benefits. In addi­ tion, geophagy has significant meaning and symbolism within each culture. Considering these generalizations, it seems odd that the medical communi­ ty terms geophagy as a form of pica. Pica stems from Latin and refers to "a bird that eats everything, a magpie." Today, however, pica is a medical term that means "an abnormal appetite for substances that are not fit to eat" ("Pica"

websters).

This classification of geophagy is not only odd, but also incorrect. Through a chemical and biological study of geophagy it will be shown that dirt is not only edible, but can have health benefits. An exami­ nation of the practice's historical and cultural context will reveal that geophagy is not at all perverse. Thus, in proving geophagy normal and establishing the edibility of dirt, the medical term "pica" will be proven inaccurate and false.

Geophagy: History

The discovery of a non-indigenous white clay next to the prehistoric remains of

homo halibuJ

at Kalambo Falls, Zambia supports the idea that the practice of eating dirt can first be recorded as far back as 2.5 million years ago: "Tens of thousands of years before the birth of clay crafts, this ancient hominid clearly had a relationship with clay"

(Whole Earth).

In addition to the fact that clay craftsmanship had yet to exist, two other rea­ sons point toward

homo halibus

as a geophagist. First, because the clay is

1 Maxwell '02: Another One Bites the Dust

I

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_!

not indigenous to the area of Kalambo Falls, it must have been carried there by an ancient homo halibus. Secondly, it is this very clay which is consumed by modern earth-eaters.

However, historical documentation of the term geophagy did not occur until much later. Aristotle first used the term geophagy in 300 B.C. (Danford). As early as 40 B.C., the eating of dirt was introduced among the Greeks to fight sickness and disease. The ancient Greeks and Romans, especially Diocorides, believed that the clay had special medicinal powers. Ancient priests would obtain the clay from caves on the island of Lemnos. After acquiring the clay, it was mixed with goat's blood, pressed into pellets or lozenges, and then sealed with the figure of a goat. This product was called tierra siglata or "sealed earth." The tablets later became very popular in Rome after Galen, a Greek philosopher and physician, visited Lemnos and returned to Rome with 20,000 of the goat lozenges. After Galen's return, the healing and anti-poison effects of the terra siglata were sought after for many years to come (Frate).

Geophagy is not limited solely to the Greeks and Romans, though. Around 1000 A.D., earth-eating in Europe was identified as a common habit among children and was thought abominable. Avicenna, the Arab physician and philosopher, detested geophagists and attempted to whip the habit out of those who practiced dirt eating. He stated: "they should be abandoned to the grave" (Frate 1). In the sixth century

AD.,

Aeituse observed and documented the practice of geophagy among pregnant women in Greece. In the early 1800's, David Livingston noted that geophagy, also called safUra in African communities, was common among the pregnant women in African tribes. During the mid-1800's when the slave trade increased, the practice of eating dirt was carried across the sea to Jamaica, the West Indies, and the Americas. Slaves infected with hook­ worm-a parasite that "hooks" onto the intestinal lining of its host, feed­ ing off digested foods as they pass-ate the clay to alleviate gastric pain (Abrahams 66). Most research on geophagy indicates that the practice has no racial, temporal. or geographical boundaries, suggesting that geophagy is widespread. In modern human sociery, this practice is most common among the world's poorer or more tribally oriented people, the greatest portion of whom are pregnant black women (Frate 2).

Geophagy: Chemical Analysis

In order to recognize the possible health benefits of consuming clay, it is important to understand its chemical properties and composition.

Through understanding geophagy chemically to eat." Clays are formed by the gradual degr most commonly connected with sedimentary marine sediments in addition to various soils. boundaries. Where there is soil, there usually clay are dependent upon the environment in Depending on the weather conditions, such; sure, etc. and the composition, made from

d

from the surrounding environment, clays will fering structural compositions and properties

Major clay groupings include kaolin, mont a1lophane. The structure of clay is based on tv talline shape-resulting from the organization drons in hexagonal networks, giving clay alar ry to bind and exchange metals because of the yl ions and oxygen in the tetrahedron struCrul Frate discovered ten elements that were consis rate samples: silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium ganese, copper, cobalt, and chromium. Spositc sium, iron, and silicon to be essential element element needed by the body. Thus, if iron is i could be an important source of famine food. found in clay include vanadium and trace am, soils, however, concentrations of all elements I

and calcium were relatively low (Aufreiter).

TI

clays is created by two of its common e1emem to the silica-aluminum ration, which also take structure of clays, clays may absorb water and called the colloidal properry of clay (Sposito Lj

"Kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clays are­ sumed by humans" (Wiley 532). The former aluminum and silicon, and it can only absor~ external surface. Conversely, montmorilloniti water, and organic molecules into the inner I tion and structural properties of clay are the ­ benefits of geophagy.

Geophagy: Biological Analysis

As proven through the aforementioned stt

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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 12, Iss. 1 [2000], Art. 3

Kalambo Falls, it must have been carried

bus.

Secondly, it is this very clay which is aters.

entation of the term geophagy did not occur ;t used the term geophagy in 300 B.C. :., the eating of dirt was introduced among rld disease. The ancient Greeks and Romans,

:i

that the clay had special medicinal powers. the clay from caves on the island of Lemnos. s mixed with goat's blood, pressed into pellets iVith the figure of a goat. This product was earth." The tablets later became very popular

~philosopher and physician, visited Lemnos :0,000 of the goat lozenges. After Galen's lOison effects of the terra siglata were sought

(Frate).

Jlely to the Greeks and Romans, though. jng in Europe was identified as a common

lS thought abominable. Avicenna, the Arab

~testedgeophagists and attempted to whip the

,ced dirt eating. He stated: "they should be .te 1). In the sixth century A.D., Aeituse .e practice of geophagy among pregnant Iy 1800's, David Livingston noted that

11 African communities, was common among

:an tribes. During the mid-1800's when the ctice of eating dirt was carried across the sea to

i

the Americas. Slaves infected with hook­

;5" onto the intestinal lining of its host, feed­

r pass-ate the clay to alleviate gastric pain

h on geophagy indicates that the practice has aphical boundaries, suggesting that geophagy man society, this practice is most common

more tribally oriented people, the greatest rlt black women (Frate 2).

sis

possible health benefits of consuming clay, it is chemical properties and composition.

Through understanding geophagy chemically, one will realize that it is "fit to eat." Clays are formed by the gradual degradation of rock; this process is most commonly connected with sedimentary shales, mudstones, and marine sediments in addition to various soils. Clays have no geographic boundaries. Where there is soil, there usually exists clay. The properties of clay are dependent upon the environment in which they are found. Depending on the weather conditions, such as temperature, location, pres­ sure, etc. and the composition, made from elements found within the clay from the surrounding environment, clays will be produced which have dif­ fering structural compositions and properties.

Major clay groupings include kaolin, montmorillonite, halloysite, and allophane. The structure of clay is based 0:1 two fundamentals: their crys­ talline shape-resulting from the organization of silicon-oxygen tetrahe­ drons in hexagonal networks, giving clay a large surface area-and the abili­ ty to bind and exchange metals because of the dense localization of hydrox­ yl ions and oxygen in the tetrahedron structures (Sposito 43). In 1964, Frate discovered ten elements that were consistently present in three sepa­ rate samples: silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, titanium, potassium, man­ ganese, copper, cobalt, and chromium. Sposito's research also found magne­ sium, iron, and silicon to be essential elements in clays. Iron is an important element needed by the body. Thus, if iron is in chemical form, then clay could be an important source of famine food. Other nutrient elements found in clay include vanadium and trace amounts of strontium. In testing soils, however, concentrations of all elements except iron, aluminum, silicon and calcium were relatively low (Aufreiter). The most important property of clays is created by two of its common elements, aluminum and silicon. Due to the silica-aluminum ration, which also takes part in determining the structure of clays, clays may absorb water and organic compounds. This is called the colloidal property of clay (Sposito 43).

"Kaolinitic and montmorillonitic clays are those most frequently con­ sumed by humans" (Wiley 532). The former clay is made up of mostly aluminum and silicon, and it can only absorb organic compounds to their external surface. Conversely, montmorillonitic clays may absorb cations, water, and organic molecules into the inner layers of the clay. The absorp­ tion and structural properties of clay are the catalysts for the biological benefits of geophagy.

Geophagy: Biological Analysis

As proven through the aforementioned structural and chemical analysis,

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the most important properties of clay are its colloidal properties-the absorption of water, organic materials, and the exchange of cations. Several health benefits are based on these properties. First, clay may be used as an anti-diarrhea medication. Diarrhea occurs when food substances and liq­ uids travel roo quickly through the intestine. This quick progression does not allow the body adequate time to absorb the water from the digested foods. When kaolin clay is eaten, its colloidal properties enable it to absorb the excess water found in the body, food, and intestines, thus curing the diarrhea. In fact, kaolin clay is a primary ingredient in many modern anti­ diarrhea medicines, such as Turns, Maalox, and Rolaids-hence the name

Kaopectate (Ashenbach 87). Furthermore, clays can cure diarrhea by slow­

ing the digestion progress, which gives the body more time to absorb water from the digested substances.

This

process again relieves diarrhea.

A second health benefit of geophagy is that clays can supply minerals and ions that the body requires to sustain its electrochemical balance. Just as clay reduces transit time in the intestines allowing more water to be absorbed, the clay also allows for more minerals and vitamins to be absorbed by the body as well. This may be why many resort to eating clay during periods of starvation. Proteins and liver glycogen reserves are used up during starvation, and most bodies become chemically out of balance. Geophagy can preserve this delicate electrolyte balance (Aufreiter). Furthermore, the cation-exchange properties of clay will allow for the unnecessary minerals in the body to be absorbed by the clay, while the clay can also potentially give up the minerals and ions the body needs. For example, clay can supply the body with calcium while absorbing zinc or iron. Similarly, it can absorb iron while giving the body aluminum, a non­ nutritive element; the converse is also rrue. Thus, the net effect of clay ingestion on mineral status depends on what other foods or nutrients are present in the gut. Clearly, clays do have the ability and potential to aid the body's nutritional status.

Other biological benehts exist from eating clay as well. As the Greeks and Romans knew, clays have the ability to trap organic and non-organic toxins in their structure. For example, mercury atoms can be trapped in clay through an io!) ,- h[i~:." \\I£h potassium, magnesium, or calcium. While the clay traps poisonous and possibly deadly substances, it gives the body ele­ ments it can use, such as potassium-a requirement for every muscle con­ traction. Clays have also been proven to absorb and thus prevent the absorp­ tion of aflatoxins, mold toxins, lethal plant toxins, such as digoxin (a cardiac glycoside), drugs such as chloroquine, and some bacteria (Wiley 536). After

these toxins are absorbed into the body, they ~

body, rendering them harmless. Thus, eating ( one's mineral nutrition depending on the cure the body and stomach; be used as an effective reduce or eliminate secondary compounds or, absorbed by the mucosal cells lining the intest

One of the most interesting biological aspl pregnant female. Katz and Wiley proposed, " out the course of pregnancy confers multiple course of pregnancy" (Wiley 537). Clay may or third trimesters. When eaten in the first tr ins that are tartogenic, or catalysts of abnorm same time, clay suppresses the common symI nausea and vomiting. In the second trimester clay can supply essential nutrients to the mot One of the most important of these nutrient! for the development of strong fetal skeletons. um supplementation through clay may also r, induced hypertension. Clay eating during pr~ toxins; and thus, prevents the developing chil addition, it may increase appetite and nutrier above. Furthermore, in pregnant women whc to toxins from cravings, as well as non-pregn: protecrive coating within the digestive tract

rI

from damage by toxins (Wiley 540).

Wiley and Katz support the calcium-suppl analysis of non-dairying tribes in Africa versu of geophagy among pregnant women. They ~

Geophagy during pregnancy should be that do not practice dairying or do not abundance or lack of d~iryproducts in in different populations is likely to mall in calcium consumption. In addition, p based almost exclusively on plant foods ulations) may profit from other qualitie to adsorb toxic secondary plant compo'

Although they found that the times, such as and versus death, at which tribes ate clay we

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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 12, Iss. 1 [2000], Art. 3

; of clay are its colloidal properties-the rlaterials, and the exchange of cations. Several lese properties. First, clay may be used as an rrhea occurs when food substances and liq­ h the intestine. This quick progression does :ime to absorb the water from the digested ten, its colloidal properties enable it to absorb body, food, and intestines, thus curing the s a primary ingredient in mariy modern anti­

lms, Maalox, and Rolaids-hence the name

urthermore, clays can cure diarrhea by slow­ lich gives the body more time to absorb water

This process again relieves diarrhea.

fgeophagy is that clays can supply minerals es to sustain its electrochemical balance. Just

the intestines allowing more water to be for more minerals and vitamins to be This may be why many resort to eating clay Proteins and liver glycogen reserves are used ,st bodies become chemically out of balance. elicate electrolyte balance (Aufreiter). ange properties of clay will allow for the ,ody to be absorbed by the clay, while the clay le minerals and ions the body needs. For body with calcium while absorbing zinc or iron while giving the body aluminum, a non­ se is also true. Thus, the net effect of clay epends on what other foods or nutrients are ays do have the ability and potential to aid

xist from eating clay as well. As the Greeks and ability to trap organic and non-organic toxins e, mercury atoms can be trapped in clay

1 potassium, magnesium, or calcium. While the

:ibly deadly substances, it gives the body ele­ lSsium-a requirement for every muscle con­ , proven to absorb and thus prevent the absorp­ s, lethal plant toxins, such as digoxin (a cardiac roquine, and some bacteria (Wiley 536). After

these toxins are absorbed into the body, they are simply excreted from the body, rendering them harmless. Thus, eating dirt can significanrly affect one's mineral nutrition depending on the current quantities of minerals in the body and stomach; be used as an effective diarrhea medication; and reduce or eliminate secondary compounds or other toxins that may be absorbed by the mucosal cells lining the intestines.

One of the most interesting biological aspects of geophagy affects the pregnant female. Katz and Wiley proposed, "Clay consumption through­ out the course of pregnancy confers multiple benefits throughout the course of pregnancy" (Wiley 537). Clay may be eaten in the first, second, or third trimesters. When eaten in the first trimester, clay traps dietary tox­ ins that are tartogenic, or catalysts of abnormalities, for the embryo. At the same time, clay suppresses the common symptoms of pregnancy such as nausea and vomiting. In the second trimester, as pregnancy nausea ends, clay can supply essential nutrients to the mother and the developing ferus. One of the most important of these nutrients is calcium, which is critical for the development of strong fetal skeletons. In the third trimester, calci­ um supplementation through clay may also reduce the risk of pregnancy­ induced hypertension. Clay eating during pregnancy also absorbs harmful toxins; and thus, prevents the developing child from being harmed. In addition, it may increase appetite and nutrient absorption as explained above. Furthermore, in pregnant women who are particularly susceptible to toxins from cravings, as well as non-pregnant women, clay can form a protective coating within the digestive tract that then protects mucus cells from damage by toxins (Wiley 540).

Wiley and Katz support the calcium-supplementation argument in their analysis of non-dairying tribes in Africa versus dairying tribes and the rates of geophagy among pregnant women. They hypothesized:

Geophagy during pregnancy should be most common in populations that do not practice dairying or do not consume dairy products. The abundance or lack of d~iryproducts in the diets of pregnant women in different populations is likely to manifest itself in marked variation in calcium consumption. In addition, populations subsisting on a diet based almost exclusively on plant foods (e.g., many non-dairying pop­ ulations) may profit from other qualities of clay, including its ability to adsorb toxic secondary plant compounds. (Wiley & Katz 536)

Alrhough they found that the times, such as pregnancy, versus weddings, and versus death, at which tribes ate clay were highly different, they did

i

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discover that 60% of the dairying populations scored "very few or no preg­ nant women practicing" while 76% of the non-dairying populations of pregnant women reported "regular and consistent earth eating." This implies that clay is a source of nutrients during pregnancy due to the limit­ ed exposure of non-dairying populations to calcium-rich foods.

Although geophagy has many proven health benefits, it can also have negative health consequences. Parasitic infections can occasionally occur depending on the regions from which the dirt is extracted. Geophagists in America, who are in the delta regions of the Mississippi, as Frate has pointed out, seem to have higher levels of these infections (Frate "Holmes County"). Most problems with earth eating, however, stem from a gener­ al abuse of the practice. To illustrate, when one consumes an unorthodox amount of clay it can impact or block the colon, which, if not quickly treated, can lead to death. Additionally, a fierce consumption of dirt may lead to a disruption in the balance of potassium (Whole Earth 41). Severe disruption in potassium levels, called hypocalcaemia, may lead to heart failure and eventually death. In 1964, Mengel identified that geophagy "may cause sluggishness, mental insensibility, profound muscular weak­ ness, and lassitude" (471). Yet, the negative consequences of geophagy are irrelevant when one puts them in perspective with any other food prod­ uct. Of course, eating 3 pounds of dirt will be harmful to the body just as eating 3 pounds of candy will make one sick, but people still eat candy.

Furthermore, by principles of osmosis, clay can rob iron and other nutrients from the body and disrupt equilibrium. Thus, if the clay has lower iron levels than the stomach and body in which it is digested, then it will take up iron and replace it vi:l ion exchange with another mineral, pos­ sibly a non-nutritive element. This iron deficiency may lead to anemia. The absorptive effects of clay can also be dangerous. When eaten, the clay can absorb water from the body and expand giving a false sense of "being full." Although this is an excellent benefit to fight the early stresses of star­ vation, continued abuse may lead to dehydration or possibly malnutrition. Anorexics will sometimes use the "false sense of being full" property of clay

to the point where geophagy becomes an addiction. This abuse of geophagy leads to dehydration, malnutrition and possibly a form of anorexic suicide (Whole Earth 42). Again, one must remember that eating anything may have unavoidable consequences, such as cavities, heart fail­ ure, and scurvy. Thus, the consequences of geophagy must be taken "with a grain of sa!t."

Geophagy

&

Culture

Now that clay has been proven fit to eat, practice is not abnormal. An analysis of why dirt can show why geophagy is not so extrao "Geophagy is not developed individually thrl is learned" (7). For a habit to be taught then behind the lesson. Among several possibilitie major motivations or reasons as to why peop

One of the most common reasons for geo tures believe that to eat the earth is to transfc of the earth to their body. They consider cla) almost a sort of edible prayer. In Eweland, G clay is called "the eye" and is prepared in the bolizes longevity, good health, and well beinl The egg enters the body and blesses the WOIT and fertile as the earth. In Guatemala, the he show another combination of religion and g( been formed from the springs and quarries SI

shrine since before the arrival of Christ. "No making, buying, blessing, or eating the holy, faith" (Whole Earth 41). A similar type clay i: Central America. These cakes are white and; clay items are obviously symbolically chosen whiteness symbolizing purity that cleanses th eaten and celebrated in connection with the 174). Geophagy makes its debut at wedding~

clay figurines are given as bridal gifts. As in I broken and eaten during pregnancy (Aschen'

Perhaps, too, the religious significance of­ one reflects upon Christian beliefs. When CI of his blood was shed onto the ground. Alth ago, the symbolic value of being a part of CI eating the clay upon which His blood once I Furthermore, clay is connected to Christiani. . himself-"and the Lord God formed man 0:

breathed into his nostrils the breath oflife.. eating dust or clay, that from which he was • with God and the life-living elements which

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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 12, Iss. 1 [2000], Art. 3

ring populations scored "very few or no preg­

= 76% of the non-dairying populations of

gular and consistent earth eating." This Fnutrients during pregnancy due to the limit­ >opulations to calcium-rich foods.

any proven health benefits, it can also have . Parasitic infections can occasionally occur m which the dirt is extracted. Geophagists elta regions of the Mississippi, as Frate has gher levels of these infections (Frate "Holmes th earth eating, however, stem from a gener­ lustrate, when one consumes an unorthodox : or block the colon, which, if not quickly fditionally, a fierce consumption of dirt may dance of potassium (Whole Earth 41). Severe Is, called hypocalcaemia, may lead to heart

In 1964, Mengel identified that geophagy ual insensibility, profound muscular weak­ :t, the negative consequences of geophagy are m in perspective with any other food prod­ nds of dirt will be harmful to the body just will make one sick, but people still eat

s of osmosis, clay can rob iron and other disrupt equilibrium. Thus, if the clay has mach and body in which it is digested, then it

it vi;). ion exchange with another mineral, pos­ . This iron deficiency may lead to anemia. , can also be dangerous. When eaten, the clay )dy and expand giving a false sense of "being ellent benefit to fight the early stresses of

star-lead to dehydration or possibly malnutrition.

= the "false sense of being full" property of clay

becomes an addiction. This abuse of m, malnutrition and possibly a form of

h

42). Again, one must remember that eating hie consequences, such as cavities, heart fail­ msequences of geophagy must be taken "with

Geophagy

&

Culture

Now that clay has been proven fit to eat, it is necessary to prove that the practice is not abnormal. An analysis of why cultures and individuals eat dirt can show why geophagy is not so extraordinary. Frate declares, "Geophagy is not developed individually through biological processes but is learned" (7). For a habit to be taught there has to exist a motivation behind the lesson. Among several possibilities, there are primarily seven major motivations or reasons as to why people eat dirt.

One of the most common reasons for geophagy is religion. Many cul­ tures believe that to eat the earth is to transfer the ferrility and fruitfulness of the earth to their body. They consider clay a blessing from within­ almost a sort of edible prayer. In Eweland, Ghana, for example, kaolinic clay is called "the eye" and is prepared in the shape of an egg, which sym­ bolizes longevity, good health, and well being in Ewe culture (Vermeer 57). The egg enters the body and blesses the woman, making her as bountiful and fertile as the earth. In Guatemala, the holy clay tablets of Esquipulas show another combination of religion and geophagy. These tablets have been formed from the springs and quarries surrounding the Esquipula shrine since before the arrival of Christ. "No stage of the process--mining, making, buying, blessing, or eating the holy clay tablets-is unattended by faith" (Whole Earth 41). A similar type clay is sold in another part of Central America. These cakes are white and are called tierra santa. These clay items are obviously symbolically chosen and named by color-the whiteness symbolizing purity that cleanses the soul. The tierra santa is then eaten and celebrated in connection with the Black Christ Festival (Hunter

174). Geophagy makes its debut at weddings as well. In India, detailed clay figurines are given as bridal gifts. As in Ewe culture, these figurines are broken and eaten during pregnancy (Aschenbach H6).

Perhaps, too, the religious significance of earing dirt may be seen when one reflects upon Christian beliefs. When Christ died on the cross, some of his blood was shed onto the ground. Although this happened centuries ago, the symbolic value of being a part of Christ and his sufferings through eating the clay upon which His blood once flowed may still exist.

Furthermore, clay is connected to Christianity through the creation of man himself-"and the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground. And breathed into his nostrils the breath of life ... " (Gen.2.7). Hence, through eating dust or clay, that from which he was created, man is able to connect with God and the life-living elements which produced him.

"""'t

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Cultures may also use clay for its medicinal properties, just as the Greeks and Romans did. The first pharmaceutical value of clay stems from its structure. The crystalline composition of clays can trap poisonous parti­ cles or deadly bacteria and parasites. African people recently brought ro America through the slave trade made use of this trapping property to cure hookworm and prevent infection and typhoid that may stem from the par­ asite (Laufer). Still other cultures harness clay's ion-exchange properties to cure metal poisoning, such as that from mercury. Clays are also a well­ known anti-diarrhea medication and can relieve gastrointestinal discomfort and pain (Hunter 182). More recently, however, "day j~eaten in Uganda as a perceived cure for AIDS" (Abrahams 68).

Geophagy is culturally valuable and normal in other ways beyond those connected with religion and medicine. For example, clay is commonly used as a remedy for nostalgia. Frate describes how it is common for a black woman of the South to send the daughter, who has moved away from her birth city, clay from her original home. This reminds the daugh­ ter of her family and the place where she grew up, relieving her possible anxieties about being away from the places and people she loves. Clay is a communication medium in this case. The use of days as relief from nostal­ gia may also be found in Siberian tribes. The Siberian people once carried small balls of earth on their nomadic journeys. They ate them along the way; the taste reminded them of home

(Whole Earth

42). African slaves were geophagists for a similar reason. They ate clay to become part of the earth, so that when they died, they would return to their homeland. This form of nostalgic relief is very similar to the theories proposed in Sidney Mintz's book,

Ttzsting Food, Tasting Freedom.

In the case of slaves, eating dirt may have been a way to become freer or ro live in the liberation of memory and death, rather than the per~ecutionand oppression of their current time.

Other reasons for soil consumption are of nutritional or physiological value. Soils are chosen by cultures based on location, color, flavor, softness, and plasticity. The soils are said to have a variety of flavor from sour and sweet ro salty and chalky (Abrahams 66). After being chosen, the soil is prepared in a number of ways. Some cultures eat it raw; others bake it and eat it with salt and vinegar. Some even smoke the flavor from the clay. Clay has some nutritional benefits as a famine food, including its potential as a source for calcium and iron. The Ainu people of Japan recognized this potential and had a special recipe for clay-lump soup

(Whole Earth 41).

Clay may also be seen as a food substitute. For example, in 19th century

Sweden, soils were mixed with flour to pm used fine kaolinic clays as a butter substitUi

Clay is most commonly used in conjun or as a food additive. Through the structur, clay, certain foods that would normally be edible. The Aymara of Peru harness these

d

they create a "neutralizing clay dip for feral poisonous night shade family" (43). Those of acorns also incorporate the use of clay al consumers use clay to neutralize normally i within the nut, thus creating a nutritional, clay. Within the last century, soil still funct bread to create a longer sensation of fullne!

Many cultures believe that clay not only increases beauty. Just as the mud mask is n of Western society in rejuvenating their ski when digested, the beauty and the fruits of exterior of the body. Dirt also provides bea Paralleling today's American society, thinne desirable and beautiful body shape amongs They ate soil, known as ampo, in order to

thin stemmed from the false feeling of fuliJ looking thin and frail was at this time high

Conclusions

To review, geophagy has been proven to

supply vital minerals such as iron, calcium: consumer or to a developing fetus. Clay is it can rid the body of harmful heavy met can protect the body from bacterial and p rhea, relieve gastrointestinal pain, and det Furthermore, clay eating is not at all abno from the United States, India, and Mexi practice geophagy; its boundaries are non­ to which clay consumption is practiced re The cultural significance behind geoph of its ordinary nature. Without a doubt, 0

dietary, medicinal, cosmetic, psychologic symbolism behind this ancient practice.

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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 12, Iss. 1 [2000], Art. 3

I

for its medicinal properties, just as the first pharmaceutical value of clay stems from :omposition of clays can trap poisonous parti­ Jasites. African people recently brought to ide made use of this trapping property to cure tion and typhoid that may stem from the par­ lres harness clay's ion-exchange properties to •that from mercury. Clays are also a well-ion and can relieve gastrointestinal discomfort

~recently, however, "clay i:i eaten in Uganda , (Abrahams 68).

luable and normal in other ways beyond those medicine. For example, clay is commonly a. Frate describes how it is common for a send the daughter, who has moved away · her original home. This reminds the daugh­ :e where she grew up, relieving her possible om the places and people she loves. Clay is a his case. The use of clays as relief from nos tal­

~riantribes. The Siberian people once carried lOmadic journeys. They ate them along the

1 of home

(Whole Earth

42). African slaves r reason. They ate clay to become part of the

I,

they would return to their homeland. This

y

similar to the theories proposed in Sidney

rasting Freedom.

In the case of slaves, eating become freer or to live in the liberation of Ian the penecurion and oppression of their

sumption are of nutritional or physiological ltures based on location, color, flavor, softness, lid to have a variety of flavor from sour and lrmams 66). After being chosen, the soil is

'so Some cultures eat it raw; others bake it and :ome even smoke the flavor from the clay. Clay •as a famine food, including its potential as a The Ainu people of Japan recognized this. :cipe for clay-lump soup

(Whole Earth

41). ,od substitute. For example, in 19th century

Sweden, soils were mixed with flour to produce bread. German workers used fine kaolinic clays as a butter substitute (Aufreiter 296).

Clay is most commonly used in conjunction with other food products or as a food additive. Through the sttucture and chemical composition of clay, certain foods that would normally be poisonous or unbearable become edible. The Aymara of Peru harness these detoxification properties of soil; they create a "neutralizing clay dip for feral potatoes which belong to the poisonous night shade family" (43). Those cultures that eat large quantities of acorns also incorporate the use of clay as a food additive. These acorn consumers use clay to neutralize normally indigestible tannic acids found within the nut, thus creating a nutritional, non-toxic food source through clay. Within the last century, soil still functioned as an additive in Sweden's bread to create a longer sensation of fullness (Hunter 190).

Many cultures believe that clay not only increases fertility, bur also increases beauty. Just as the mud mask is now popular among the women of Western society in rejuvenating their skin, some cultures believe that when digested, the beauty and the fruits of the earth will appear on the exterior of the body. Dirt also provides beauty in another way-thinness. Paralleling today's American society, thinness was considered the most desirable and beautiful body shape amongst the Javanese women of 1895. They ate soil, known as ampo, in order to grow thin; in this case, feeling thin stemmed from the false feeling of fullness. In the Javanese culture, looking thin and frail was at this time highly regarded (Abrahams 73).

Conclusions

To review, geophagy has been proven to have health benefits. Soil can supply vital minerals such as iron, calcium, and potassium to a primary consumer or to a developing fetus. Clay is also a natural detoxifying agent; it can rid the body of harmful heavy metals and poisons. In addition, it can protect the body from bacterial and parasitical infections, cure diar­ rhea, relieve gastrointestinal pain, and deter nausea due to pregnancy. Furthermore, clay eating is not at all abnormal. Cultures allover the world from the United States, India, and Mexico, to Africa, Europe, and Japan practice geophagy; its boundaries are non-existent. Thus, the sheer extent to which clay consumption is practiced reserves its place in normal society. The cultural significance behind geophagy is at least as convincing it terms of its ordinary nature. Without a doubt, one cannot deny the religious, dietary, medicinal, cosmetic, psychological, and physiological value and symbolism behind this ancient practice,

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11

­

The Undergraduate Review

So, if another one bites the dust, then is it correct to say that he is suf­

fering from Pica? As stated, pica is defined as "an abnormal appetite for substances that are not fit to eat." With the proven benefits of geophagy,

dirt is definitely fit to eat. In addition, geophagy has been shown to be

normal through the exploration of its limitless practice and the plethora of

cultural importance that it holds. Thus, geophagy is not to be considered a

form of pica, but rather a deep-rooted, global culinary tradition, with infi­ nite cultural meaning and significance.

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dust, then is it correct to say that he is suf­ ca is defined as "an abnormal appetite for :at." With the proven benefits of geophagy, lddition, geophagy has been shown to be

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