MPW1153 2153 Moral Studies.pdf

Full text

(1)MPW1153/2153 MORAL STUDIES Saharudin Suhaidi. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(2) Project Directors:. Prof Dr Mansor Fadzil Prof Dr Zakaria Ismail Open University Malaysia. Module Writer:. Saharudin Suhaidi. Reviewed by:. Dr Wong Huey Siew Open University Malaysia. Edited by:. Ahmad Zulkarnain Ramli Mangai Rajoo Azeezah Jameelah Mohamed Mohideen. Developed by. Centre for Instructional Design and Technology Open University Malaysia. Translated by:. Pearson (M) Sdn. Bhd.. Printed by:. Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd. Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9, Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan. First Printing, September 2007 Seventh Printing, November 2010 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), November 2010, MPW1153/2153 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM). Version November 2010. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(3) Table of Contents Course Guide Topic 1:. Topic 2:. xi - xv. Introduction to Moral Studies in Malaysia 1.1 Background of Moral Studies 1.2 Importance of Moral Studies 1.2.1 Practises Noble Values 1.2.2 Love and Loyalty to the Nation 1.2.3 Upholds the Constitution and the Sovereignty of Law 1.2.4 Good Behaviour and Morality 1.2.5 Meeting the Challenges of Vision 2020 1.2.6 Awareness of the Constitution and Exercise Rights Accordingly 1.2.7 Awareness and Carrying Out Responsibilities as Malaysians 1.2.8 Practise Good Manners 1.2.9 Become Moral Agents Summary Concept of Ethics and Types of Moral Values 2.1 Background of Moral Studies 2.1.1 Ethics 2.1.2 Morals 2.1.3 Akhlak (Good Behaviour) 2.1.4 Laws 2.2 Factors that Influence Ethics 2.3 The Differences between Laws and Ethics 2.4 Values in Life 2.5 Functions of Values 2.6 Types of Moral Values 2.7 Differences between Morals, Religions, Customs and Laws 2.7.1 Morals and Religions 2.7.2 Morals and Customs 2.7.3 Morals and Laws 2.8 Normative Statements and Descriptive Statements on Morals 2.9 Importance of Moral Values 2.9.1 Fulfilling Human Nature Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6. 8 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 13 14 14 15 15 16 17 17 19 19.

(4) iv.  TABLE OF CONTENTS. 2.9.2 2.9.3 2.9.4 2.9.5 2.9.6 2.9.7 Summary. Encouraging Good Deeds to Onself and Others. Preventing Immorality Creating and Maintaining Peace Continuation of Human Civilisation A Complete Human Personality Maintaining the Status of Mankind. 19 20 20 20 20 21 21. Topic 3:. Theory of Ethics 3.1 Theory of Moral Development 3.1.1 Lawrence Kohlberg 3.1.2 Jean Piaget 3.1.3 PiagetÊs Moral Development Theory Criticism 3.2 Social Morality Development Theory 3.2.1 BanduraÊs Criticism Theory 3.3 Behavourial Moral Theory 3.4 Theory of Social Morality 3.5 Theory of Honourable Personality 3.6 Theory of Psychoanalysis 3.7 Theory of Teleological Ethics 3.7.1 Utilitarianism 3.7.2 Egoism 3.8 Theory of Deontology Summary. 22 22 22 25 27 27 28 28 30 30 31 32 32 35 35 36. Topic 4:. Moral Principles and Values in Religion and Beliefs 4.1 The Basis of Moral Principles 4.1.1 Principle of Duty 4.1.2 Principle of Existentialism 4.1.3 Principle of Goodness 4.1.4 Principle of Badness 4.1.5 Principle of Human Evolution 4.1.6 Principle of Ambition 4.1.7 Principle of Trust 4.1.8 Principle of Ikram Muslimin (Solidarity) 4.1.9 Principle of Leadership 4.1.10 Principle of Patience 4.2 The Importance of Moral Principles 4.2.1 Humans with Strong Principles 4.2.2 Survival in Life 4.3 Religion. 38 39 39 40 40 40 41 42 42 42 42 43 43 43 43 43. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(5) TABLE OF CONTENTS . v. 4.3.1 Islam 4.3.2 Christianity 4.3.3 Buddhism 4.3.4 Hinduism 4.3.5 Sikhism 4.4 Beliefs 4.4.1 Confucianism 4.4.2 Taoism 4.4.3 Animism 4.5 Priority of Values Summary. 44 46 47 48 49 50 50 50 51 51 52. Topic 5. Moral Thoughts and Identity of a Human with Morals 5.1 Thought and Conduct 5.2 Trends of Thought 5.2.1 Naturalism 5.2.2 Emotivism 5.2.3 Intuitional 5.2.4 Rationalism 5.3 Attitude and Self-Awareness 5.3.1 Physical Attributes 5.3.2 Emotional Attributes 5.3.3 Intellectual Attributes 5.3.4 Social Attributes 5.4 Self-Esteem 5.4.1 Pride and Dignity 5.4.2 Differentiating Self from Actions 5.4.3 Determining Wishes 5.5 Consistency in Moral Values 5.5.1 Self-image 5.5.2 Clear on LifeÊs Moral Aims 5.5.3 Strive to Improve Ourselves 5.5.4 Changing and Maintaining Positive Attitudes Summary. 54 55 56 57 58 60 61 64 65 66 66 67 68 68 69 69 70 71 71 72 72 74. Topic 6:. Shaping Moral Humans 6.1 Societal Rules 6.2 Human Personality 6.2.1 Intrinsic Motivation 6.2.2 Feelings of Guilt and Disagreement 6.2.3 Trusted Interests. 76 77 79 80 81 81. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(6) vi.  TABLE OF CONTENTS. 6.2.4 Admiration 6.2.5 Trusted Justification 6.3 Forms of Morals 6.3.1 Principlistic Ethics 6.3.2 Situational Ethics 6.4 Moral Dimensions Summary. 81 82 83 84 85 86 87. Topic 7:. Freedom and Justice 7.1 Free Spirit and Independent 7.1.1 Spiritual Freedom 7.1.2 Freedom from Slavery 7.2 Freedom in an Independent Country 7.2.1 Personal Freedom 7.2.2 Freedom of Speech 7.2.3 Freedom to Own Property 7.2.4 Freedom to Make Choices 7.2.5 Freedom to Choose and Social Responsibilities 7.3 Moral Justice 7.3.1 Efforts to Preserve Justice 7.4 Conflict of Freedom and Justice Summary. 88 89 89 90 92 92 93 93 93 94 95 95 96 96. Topic 8:. Types of Moral Conflicts and Its Solutions 8.1 Types of Conflicts 8.1.1 Conflict of Racial Discrimination 8.1.2 Conflict of Discrimination of Age 8.1.3 Conflict of Socioeconomic Discrimination 8.1.4 Social Dilemma 8.1.5 Conflict between Groups 8.2 Strategies in Solving Conflicts 8.2.1 Analysis of Values 8.2.2 Cognitive Development 8.2.3 Strategy of Building Hierarchies 8.2.4 Strategy of Diluting Problems 8.2.5 Strategy of Compromise 8.3 Solving Socio-Culture Issues 8.3.1 Role of the Family 8.3.2 Approaches by Religion and Non-aligned Organisations 8.3.3 Education Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). 97 98 98 98 98 99 99 100 100 100 101 101 102 102 102 103 104.

(7) TABLE OF CONTENTS . 8.3.4 8.3.5 8.3.6 Summary. Excellence of Character Role of the Government Laws and Rules. vii. 104 104 105 106. Topic 9:. Economic Issues 9.1 Government and Trade 9.2 Business Ethics 9.2.1 Company Policies 9.2.2 Higher Management 9.2.3 Employees 9.2.4 Ethics of Business Management 9.2.5 Business Laws 9.2.6 Dignity of Employees 9.3 Corruption 9.3.1 Reasons Why Corruption Occurs 9.3.2 Consequences of Corruption 9.3.3 Ways to Overcome Corruption Summary. 107 107 108 109 109 110 110 110 111 112 112 114 114 115. Topic 10:. Issues in Technology 10.1 Information Technology 10.2 Genetic Cloning 10.2.1 Implications of Human Cloning 10.2.2 Benefits of Human Cloning 10.2.3 Flaws of Human Cloning 10.3 Chemicals in Agriculture 10.3.1 Human Health 10.3.2 The Moral Question over Agricultural Chemicals 10.4 Nuclear Technology 10.4.1 Applications of Nuclear Technology 10.4.2 Implications of Nuclear Usage Summary. 116 116 118 118 119 120 120 121 122 122 122 124 125. Topic 11:. Environmental Issues 11.1 Global Warming 11.1.1 Factors Causing the Increase in EarthÊs Temperature 11.1.2 Effects of Global Warming 11.2 Water Pollution 11.2.1 Causes of Water Pollution. 126 126. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). 127 129 130 131.

(8) viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS. Topic 12:. 11.2.2 The Moral Question over Water Pollution 11.3 Noise Pollution 11.3.1 Classifications of Noise Pollution 11.3.2 Factors that Influence Noise Pollution 11.3.3 Effects of Noise Pollution 11.3.4 Morals and Noise Pollution Summary. 132 133 133 134 135 135 136. Moral Issues in Social Life and Voilence 12.1 Euthanasia (Assistance in Dying) 12.1.1 Forms of Euthanasia 12.1.2 The Moral Question in Euthanasia 12.2 Murder 12.2.1 Suicide 12.2.2 Abortion 12.2.3 Death Penalty 12.3 Moral Issues in Socio-Culture 12.3.1 Black Metal 12.3.2 Pornographic VCDs and Magazines 12.3.3 Pre-marital Sex 12.3.4 Incest 12.3.5 Gangsterism 12.3.6 Amok 12.3.7 Snatch theft 12.4 Concept of Violence 12.5 Sexual Violence 12.5.1 Sexual Harassment 12.5.2 Rape 12.6 Domestic Violence 12.7 Road Bullying 12.8 Violence in War 12.9 International Violence Summary. 137 138 138 139 140 140 141 141 142 142 143 143 143 144 144 144 145 146 146 147 147 148 149 150 150. Answers. 152. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(9) COURSE GUIDE. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(10) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(11) COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.. INTRODUCTION MPW1153/2153 Moral Studies is one of the courses offered by the Faculty of Applied Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered within 8 weeks.. COURSE AUDIENCE This course is offered to all students taking diploma or bachelor programmes at all institutions of higher learning as required by the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA). This module aims to impart the basic concepts of ethics and morality that are commonly practised in the context of Malaysian plural society. As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how the course is conducted.. STUDY SCHEDULE It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be accumulated.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(12) xii . COURSE GUIDE. Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours. STUDY ACTIVITIES. STUDY HOURS. Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussions. 3. Study the module. 60. Attend 3 tutorial sessions. 10. Online Participation. 12. Revision. 15. Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s). 20. TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED. 120. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this course, you should be able to: 1.. Identify basic concepts and various types of moral values;. 2.. Explain a number of theories on ethics and morality including their critiques;. 3.. Appreciate moral values in different religions;. 4.. Identify traditional and common values among Malaysians;. 5.. Apply the right decisions involving moral issues;. 6.. Explain conflicts of moral values; and. 7.. Practise good moral value as members of the community.. COURSE SYNOPSIS This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is presented below: Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(13) COURSE GUIDE. . xiii. Topic 1 begins with an introduction to the background of Moral Studies, followed by the importance of it. Topic 2 discusses the concepts of ethics, values and morals which also relate to rules, laws, religions and customs. It also touches on how those concepts related to moral values. Topic 3 introduces several theories related to moral studies that become the foundation of good individual formation. Topic 4 explains the basis and the importance of Moral Principles. It also discusses religions and morality values that closely linked to each other. Topic 5 discusses how thought and conduct can influence oneÊs behaviour and moral values held. It also touches how oneÊs behaviour and actions can be influenced by attitude and self-awareness. Besides, it also touches how individual self- esteem can influence the moral values one has. Topic 6 discusses the formation of society with high morals that has moral rules, particular forms and dimensions to produce humans with good personality. Topic 7 describes freedom and justice from the moral perspective, based on the moral concepts of our country. It also touches on the conflicts that may arise while practising freedom and justice at the same time. Topic 8 discusses several types of conflicts of values that can affect the harmonious relationship in a society. It also discusses the strategies of solving the conflicts and specifically for solving socio-cultural issues. Topic 9 discusses issues in economy from moral perspective, in the aspects of profit-seeking, corruption and ethics. Topic 10 discusses issues in technology from moral perspective, in the aspects of information technology, genetic cloning, chemicals in agriculture and also nuclear technology. Topic 11 discusses environmental issues from moral perspective, in the aspects of global warming, water pollution and also noise pollution. Topic 12 discusses issues related to todayÊs social life like euthanasia, murder and other socio-cultural issues. It also touches on the violence that occurs around us ă in families, societies and the country as a whole.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(14) xiv . COURSE GUIDE. TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely gone through a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your progress of digesting the topic. Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations throughout the module. It is inserted after you have gone through one subsection or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in the form of a question that may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When you come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already gone through. When you attempt to answer the question prompted, you should be able to gauge whether you have understood what you have read (clearly, vaguely or worse you might find out that you had not comprehended or retained the sub-section(s) that you had just gone through). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly from the module itself. Activity: Like Self-Check, activities are also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self-Check, Activity can appear in various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even ask you to conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your opinion and evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to widen what you have gathered from the module and introduce it to real situations. You should engage yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and evaluate instead of just having to recall and define. Summary: You can find this component at the end of each topic. This component helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points inside the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details from the module. Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargons used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms from the module.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(15) COURSE GUIDE. . xv. References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read and refer to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information needed as well as to enhance your overall understanding of the course.. PRIOR KNOWLEDGE Students need not have any basic knowledge in a particular area prior to taking this subject. There are no specific pre-requisites because this is a compulsory subject, as determined by the MQA.. ASSESSMENT METHOD Please refer to myVLE.. REFERENCES Raymond A. S., & John W. J. Jr, (2002). Principles of physics: A calculus-based text, (3 rd ed.). Harcourt College Publishers. James S. W., (2004). Physics (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(16) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(17) Topic. 1. X Introduction. to Moral Studies in Malaysia. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.. Identify the rationale behind the existence of moral studies in the education system;. 2.. Identify the importance of Moral Studies in producing a noble individual;. 3.. Discuss the appreciation and practice of the principles of the Rukun Negara to form a society with high moral standards;. 4.. Identify individual freedoms and rights based on the laws and Constitution of the country; and. 5.. Practise a lifestyle that centres on the slogan 'Budi Bahasa Amalan Kita'.. X INTRODUCTION This topic discusses the background of moral studies in MalaysiaÊs education system. Moral Studies was introduced with the aim of producing Malaysians with good behaviour according to the values of our country. These noble values encompass values that are accepted by all communities in our country. This is to accommodate the various races, ethnicities, customs, cultures, religions and beliefs in Malaysia.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(18) 2. X. TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA. The importance of Moral Studies is linked to the government's aim of producing a society with high morals that is respected by other nations. It should be a society that practises noble values from an early age. Moral Studies at the higher education level functions to form a knowledgeable and pious society, endowed with noble values, which practises the principles of the Rukun Negara to achieve Vision 2020.. 1.1. BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES. In this new century, science and technology is growing so rapidly that the world has become a smaller place ă a borderless world. Unfortunately, along with this progress, comes problems that, unless managed carefully, will certainly jeopardise the good values within the family institution, community, society and the country. Hence, it is vital for rapid growth in science and technology to correspond with human development because knowledge without the practice of good values is akin to „a shady but fruitless tree‰. Thus, it is not surprising that there are knowledgeable people who use knowledge for violence and destruction. For example, a person who is knowledgeable and skilful in making explosives uses his or her knowledge and skill to create bombs that destroy life. In Malaysia, the development and progress of knowledge and skills are nurtured well through an education system that balances development and progress of knowledge with development and progress of noble values. This can be seen through the National Education Philosophy that states „education in Malaysia is a continued effort to develop the potential of an individual in a holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce a human being who is balanced and harmonious in terms of intellect, spirituality, emotion and physically based on the beliefs and obedience to God‰. In order to achieve this noble aim, the education system was shaped to produce individuals who were knowledgeable and practiced its own formulated set of good values. As mentioned previously, the development of a harmonious human being can be realised through knowledge and appreciation, as well as the practice of noble values. Therefore, Moral Studies and Islamic Studies were introduced. Islamic Studies is compulsory for all Muslim students, while non-Muslim students are required to take up Moral Studies. The Institutions of Higher Learning Act 1996 states that the Moral Studies subject is to be offered as an addition to other subjects or courses in the institutions of higher learning; all non-Muslim students in the institutions are required to take this subject as a pre-requisite to attain certificates, diplomas and degrees in the institutions.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(19) TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA W. 3. SELF CHECK 1.1 Did the society of the past practise moral values more than the current society?. 1.2. IMPORTANCE OF MORAL STUDIES. Moral Studies was introduced in the education system to groom good and responsible individuals through the cultivation, appreciation and practice of the noble values of the Malaysian society. The development of the people in Malaysia is paralled to that of those living in a pluralistic society. Today, the people in Malaysia want to progress physically, mentally and spiritually by maintaining Eastern values while at the same time, not lagging behind in science and technology.. 1.2.1. Practising Noble Values. The basis of Moral Studies is the practise of noble values. Through the appreciation and practice of noble values taught in Moral Studies, a high moral society can be created. The practise of noble values in a society begins with an individual. The noble values of an individual exist through knowledge and religious beliefs. As a Malaysian, belief in God is a tenet that should be practised and appreciated, as enshrined in the first principle of the Rukunegara, ÂBelief in GodÊ. Malaysia comprises various races, ethnicities and religions. Islam is the official religion as enshrined in Part I Article III (1) of the Federal Constitution of Malaysia. However, other religions can be practised peacefully in any territory within the federation. As all religions in the world preach noble values, individuals who practise the teachings of a religion would also be individuals who practise noble values.. 1.2.2. Love and Loyalty to the Nation. Malaysia practises parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy. Moral Studies stresses on love and loyalty towards the country. Through the practice of loyalty to King and country, every citizen will be loyal and willing to make sacrifices to defend the country from its enemies. Undivided loyalty to the King and country is one of the factors that can unite Malaysians who comprise various races and religions.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(20) 4. X. 1.2.3. TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA. Upholding the Constitution and the Sovereignty of Law. The countryÊs Constitution was drafted based on agreement between all races and parties in the country. Through Moral Studies, every individual is taught to be a citizen who respects, appreciates and understands the national constitution as a social contract that cannot be questioned or threatened by any individual or party. Every individual in our nation is protected by the law. The law is drafted to ensure justice and freedom of individuals and society. The rights and freedoms of all citizens are guaranteed and can be freely practised as long as they do not contravene any law in Malaysia.. 1.2.4. Good Behaviour and Morality. Malaysians are well-known for possessing Eastern values such as politeness and decency. Through Moral Studies, the good qualities of Eastern values are stressed upon. The governmentÊs efforts to make courtesy a way of life can be realised through the practice of the noble values taught in Moral Studies. The population, which comprises various races, religions and beliefs, should live together in mutual respect. We should respect other cultures. The same goes for religions and beliefs. Moral Studies stresses on mutual respect for all religions and beliefs.. 1.2.5. Meeting the Challenges of Vision 2020. The fourth challenge in Vision 2020 is „to create a moral and ethical society‰. Thus, Moral Studies in the national education system aims to create individuals who not are only highly knowledgeable but have good morals and ethics as well. We do not want knowledgeable individuals who are arrogant, proud and use their knowledge for immoral activities like violence and destruction. Through Moral Studies, the people in our country from various races and beliefs can live in unity, peace and harmony. This is ideal to meet the fifth challenge of Vision 2020, which is „to create a society with morals and compromise‰. The Developed Nation Vision, using our own formula, is a major agenda for the current generation and is to be carried on by future generations. We desire development that occurs physically and spiritually. The nine challenges of being a developed nation in Vision 2020 is to produce citizens who are balanced intellectually, spiritually, emotionally and physically, that is, an integrated development of both physical and spiritual aspects for the well-being of the people. The society does not want to create intelligent individuals who end up as white-collar criminals. Even though we want development based on high technology, we are not willing to use it to destroy other humans and the environment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(21) TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA W. 1.2.6. 5. Awareness of the Constitution and Exercising Rights Accordingly. Individual rights in our country are enshrined in the Federal Constitution. Part II of the Constitution states the basic rights of Malaysian citizens clearly. These include the right to personal freedoms, the right to receive protection and rights on property. We should be aware of our rights as Malaysian citizens so that we can look after ourselves, our family, our society and our property. We also have the right to live freely in peace and prosperity. Our rights and freedoms are enshrined in the Constitution, thus assuring a peaceful and harmonious life for all Malaysians. Therefore, if we exercise our rights and freedoms according to the Constitution, our family, society and country can exist in peace and harmony where we do not trouble others and vice-versa.. 1.2.7. Awareness and Carrying Out Responsibilities as Malaysians. Every Malaysian has a duty towards the country. We are responsible for developing ourselves and the nation. Our main responsibilities are maintaining peace and harmony as well as developing the country. To achieve this, all Malaysians should cultivate and practise the spirit of tolerance and compromise among one another. Mutual respect and neighbourliness can promote the spirit of unity, which is the basis for racial harmony. Noble values and practices have to be instilled at a very young age, and one way is by teaching Moral Studies in primary schools right up to the tertiary level.. 1.2.8. Practising Good Manners. Good manners refer to noble values such as sincerity, patience and tolerance. The implementation of the slogan ÂBudi Bahasa Amalan KitaÊ shows how serious the government is in ensuring Malaysians practise good manners in everyday life. Moral Studies can help us to practise not only good manners but also create a harmonious and united society.. 1.2.9. Becoming Moral Agents. Moral Studies can produce moral agents who function as practitioners of noble values. Individuals with excellent morals and ethics can set good examples for others. Excellent individuals are not only moral agents, but also good moral recipients. Thus, Moral Studies stresses on moral values that are acceptable to everyone, so that Malaysians become respected and highly regarded by people from other nations. Who are moral agents and moral recipients? In our education system, formal moral agents are teachers while informal moral agents are the Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(22) 6. X. TOPIC 1. INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA. authorities and elders. They can be parents, siblings and other members of society. On the other hand, formal moral recipients are schoolchildren and university students like you. Informally, however, moral recipients are every individual in the country. In a nutshell, all human beings are moral agents and recipients. This ultimately differentiates humans from animals, as humans are able to deduce rationally and free of feelings and emotions that can influence their own actions; while logic and morals are two dimensions that are not prevalent among animals.. ACTIVITY 1.1 Based on this diagram, explain in your own word what you have learned in this topic. Discuss with your classmate and tutor.. •. Moral Studies was introduced to shape a Malaysian society that practises noble values in a country of various races, religions and beliefs.. •. Everybody in the society lives in an environment of peace and harmony that consistently gives priority to the spirit of unity, mutual respect and tolerance among one another.. •. Moral Studies creates a society which knows its rights and roles, as stated in the Federal Constitution. The members of this society will serve as agents of change in character development and subsequently, the nation.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(23) TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO MORAL STUDIES IN MALAYSIA W. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). 7.

(24) Topic. 2.  Concept. of Ethics and Types of Moral Values. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.. Define ethics, values, morals and laws accurately;. 2.. Discuss the three types of morals;. 3.. Differentiate among morals, religions, customs and laws;. 4.. Differentiate normative and descriptive moral statements; and. 5.. Discuss the importance of moral values..  INTRODUCTION In this module, we will discuss the concept of ethics, values, morals and behaviours. These subjects are very important in our daily lives. The practice and understanding of ethics, morals, values and behaviours form a bridge to unity and harmony, not just in a family but also in society and the country. Our discussions in this topic will also relate to rules and laws, religions and customs; and the implications of failing to follow them. Read the following topics and make sure you are able to meet the set objectives.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(25) TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. . 9. 2.1 BACKGROUND OF MORAL STUDIES Value can refer to the estimation of price, rank, quality, status or other outstanding characteristics. Let us look at these meanings from different angles. Firstly, letÊs look at the definition of quantitative value. Quantitative value is the value of an object in terms of price. This value is stated in numbers. The higher the number, the better or more valuable the object is. A RM10 item is more expensive than a RM5 item. Similarly, a student who obtains 90% marks will be valued more than another student who only obtains 50% marks. Next are qualitative values. These are values that determine an item based on its characteristics that are accepted by society. For example, how does one differentiate between the values of glass and diamonds? Everyone would state that the value of diamonds is more than glass. How about the value of a painting? All these are based on qualitative value. Let us look at the meaning of values from the perspectives of several researchers related to this word. Suffean Hussin (1993) defined values as the quality, benefit and importance of a behaviour, principle, activity or object. Alhabshi (1995) stated that values are respected by individuals or societies. In addition, he said that values are related to a system of belief based on what is assumed good or bad by an individual or a society. In 1994 the National Institute of Public Administration (INTAN) explained ÂvaluesÊ in terms of three categories: 1.. Values as characteristics, that is, to grant certain characteristics and positions to something.. 2.. Values as the statement of price rate or marks of an object.. 3.. Values as a general measure of something that is desired or appreciated. This type of values is axiological and related to the philosophy of values.. Based on the earlier discussion, we can state that values function as a benchmark of standards. Values serve as a guide for us in making selections and taking action.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(26) 10 . TOPIC 2. CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. ACTIVITY 2.1 Fill in the blanks. In my opinion, the meaning of values is⁄....................................................... ................................................................................................................................. ................................................................................................................................. .................................................................................................................................. 2.1.1. Ethics. Ethics originated from the Greek word ÂethosÊ meaning customs and usages. According to Frankena (1973) and Grassian (1981), ethics is moral philosophy of morals or philosophical thinking on morality, moral ills and moral considerations. Ethics encompasses both theoretical and philosophical study of morals or proper conduct. We can say ethics is a philosophical study of morality which covers proper conduct, obligations, positive attitudes, responsibilities, social justice and good characteristics for a good life.. 2.1.2. Morals. Morals originated from the Latin word ÂmoresÊ which is similar in meaning to ethics (Ashmore 1987). The Oxford Advanced LearnerÊs Dictionary (6th ed.) states morals as awareness of proper and improper conduct as well as what should be followed and discarded. Morals and ethics more or less carry the same meaning. However, morals relate more to conduct while ethics refer to rules that are set to improve circumstances. Moral considerations are based on educations the surrounding social system and religion.. 2.1.3. Good Behaviour (Akhlak). Linguistically, good behaviour or akhlak originated from the Arabic word ÂkhuluqÊ which meant well-mannered. Akhlak refers to conduct, speech and selfimage based on Islamic teachings. In other words, akhlak is a form of conduct related to noble values that must be practised by Muslims. This means that the noble values in akhlak are based on the Al-Quran and Hadith.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(27) TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. 2.1.4. . 11. Laws. Laws are rules that are drafted by the authorities to ensure that our conduct leads to well-being. Any contravention of the law will lead to punishment, provided the offence can be proven. A part of ethics is not stated in the legal system as going against ethics does not lead to tangible suffering. If there is a breach of ethics, punishment cannot be determined clearly through the judiciary.. 2.2 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ETHICS (a). Humans: Human beings are gifted with intelligence. Therefore, we have the ability to choose between good and bad.. (b). Instincts: The main instincts in humans are the instincts to eat, wed, love children, defend oneÊs life and worship divinity. We can use these instincts at any time for good purposes (good ethics) and bad purposes (bad ethics). Therefore, we should control our instinctive urges with our minds, not just with emotions.. (c). Customs and norms: These are values accepted by the majority of society. Therefore, they have a strong influence in shaping ethics, whether good or bad. For example, gotong-royong activities can help us form good ethics, while gambling is unacceptable in society and is treated with contempt.. (d). Descendants: This is an important factor in forming noble ethics, or the lack of it. For example, children are likely to follow their parentsÊ behaviour.. (e). Environment: The environment that influences ethics is divided into two ă physical (climate and geographical factors) and spiritual (the essence of the individual connected to religion or belief). These two factors shape the conduct of a person.. ACTIVITY 2.2 Explain the similarities and differences of the ethics practised by a doctor and a judge.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(28) 12 . 2.3. TOPIC 2. CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LAWS AND ETHICS. Helping the less fortunate and needy are good ethics. Not helping them is a breach of ethics, but does not contravene the laws. A person who kills someone else breaches ethics and also the law, since murder is against the law and not cherishing life is considered unethical. Generally, there are four parts of the law - Statutes, Common Law, Constitutional Law and Regulations (directives from the authorities). Laws and ethics encourage people to not act or behave badly laws state clearly the punishment for breaching them, while most ethics do not set clear punishments for nonconformity. There are many differences between laws and ethics, among which are stated in Table 2.1. Table 2.1: Differences between laws and ethics No. 1. 2. 3.. 4. 5. 6. 7.. Ethics Do not require enforcement officers Enforced by conscience The punishment for breaching ethics is self-punishment against inner feelings that is not recorded by any party Determines the limits of customs, idealism, confidence and moral values in a society Obeying values and code of ethics will surely prevent the breaching of laws More general and involves the conduct and behaviour of a person in society Expands the change in attitude towards good and bad conduct in society. 8.. Comprehensive enforcement of rules. 9.. Takes into account spiritual aspects like staying free of envy and away from crime. Laws Require enforcement officers Enforced by the courts The punishment for breaching laws is fixed and recorded by the judge/ court Sets definite limits (doÊs and donÊtÊs of an individual) Obeying the laws does not mean obeying ethics Controls misbehaviour/ negative behaviour or crime Only sufficient to determine the limits for bad/ negative behaviour in society Only sufficient to determine the limits of rules set by the law Many things not taken into account like envy. It only metes out punishment for the consequences of actions of envy.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(29) TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. . 13. EXERCISE 2.1 Explain from the point of ethics and laws, when a person is asked to help a victim of a road accident and refuses to do so.. 2.4 VALUES IN LIFE (a). Values in Life from the Aspect of Materialism On the RM10 note, there is a statement that says, ÂThis currency is legal tender for the value of Ten Ringgit (RM10)Ê and ÂBank Negara MalaysiaÊ. Through this statement, we can purchase goods worth RM10 at the maximum. Therefore, goods worth more than RM10 cannot be purchased with the money in hand. Currency notes contain value that is legally recognised to purchase goods or services that are equal in value to the sum stated on the notes.. (b). Values in Life from the Moral Aspect Values in the life of an individual with morals are not differentiated quantitatively. For example, stealing five Ringgit or ten Ringgit makes no difference morally as stealing is a value of moral, not the amount stolen. Hence, regardless of five or ten Ringgit, stealing is still wrong and is against the law.. (c). Value in Life Intrinsically The value of an item is dependent on the individual, for example the value of being rich. It is the norm in our society today to consider a person with a lot of money as being rich, and poor if the opposite. However, if we view wealth from the point of human personality, moral values and quality of life, then the person who is rich does not necessarily mean he or she has great amounts of money.. People have different opinions on values. Some see it from the aspect of materialism while others see it from a moral point of view. Some place importance on moral values and some choose immoral values. The implication is that there are individuals who are willing to forgo moral values for wealth while some continuously relinquish chances for wealth by preserving moral values. In Islam, humans are taught to be moderate, seeking and owning material values by taking into consideration moral values and rejecting unscrupulous material values. As a conclusion, values arising from ethics and moral are the basis in forming the attitudes, opinions, motivation, personality, progress and development of a nation and organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(30) 14 . TOPIC 2. CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. 2.5 FUNCTIONS OF VALUES (a). Values as a Consistent Standard in PeopleÊs Actions Here, a value acts as an agent or moral critic. For example, a person who appreciates ÂtrustÊ and ÂpurityÊ would not indulge in corruption.. (b). Values as a Guide in Solving Moral Conflicts When solving conflicts, we will analyse and assess the causes and suggestions for a solution. Example: You are offered a lucrative salary to undertake a dangerous job. It is beneficial to society but not to your family. In this case, values play an important role in making the decision to accept or reject the offer.. (c ). Values as a Limit against Actions and Conduct by Individuals or Society Our conduct is judged by our parents, teachers, elders and friends. This restricts our conduct in order to receive acceptance and affection from others.. 2.6. TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. The types of moral values that we should know are: (i). Instrumental (Extrinsic) Values Extrinsic values are qualities that are accepted or rejected as tools to achieve aims. In our country, caning is meted out on rapists to eradicate rape and incest. Another example is the penalty of death for drug traffickers in order to stop drug dealing in the country.. (ii). Intrinsic Values Intrinsic values are qualities which do not depend on other values. These are the inner values of a person. For example, we feel sad when witnessing the suffering of an individual. This feeling is a value which is not dependent on other values; instead the value itself is the final aim.. (iii) Subjective Values Subjective values are qualities which depend on the views of an individual. This means that a value may seem good to one person but bad to another.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(31) TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. . 15. (iv) Objective Values Objective values are values which are free from personal choice. (v). Relative Values Relative values are based on the rules of a society. They differ from society to society. The values are accepted generally, proven good or bad and maintained at all times.. (vi) Absolute Values Absolute values are values that cannot be disputed at any time. These relate to the beliefs and religion of a person.. EXERCISE 2.2 Based on the statements below, elaborate on the type of morals related to each situation. 1.. Indulging in illicit sex must lead to heavy punishment.. 2.. Hariyah cried upon hearing the story about the unfortunate family which was hit by flood, just before Hari Raya Puasa.. 2.7 2.7.1. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MORALS AND RELIGIONS, CUSTOMS AND LAWS Morals and Religions. Human conduct is linked to religions and customs. Religion encompasses the way of life, while customs only encompass a portion of society. There are elements of morals in both. The following are the differences between morals and religions.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(32) 16 . TOPIC 2. CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. Table 2.2: Differences between morals and religions No. 1.. 2.. 3.. 4.. 5. 6.. 7.. Moral Moral rules are not recorded in holy books that can be followed by all religions. Moral rules, followed or not, are only subject to the personÊs level of awareness in a situation, without fear. Interpretations of rules change according to the customs of a society. Rules governing relationships between human and human; humans and the environment. Moral rules are not in-depth. An action is deemed correct or wrong according to the rules of the society. Moral rules tend to make a person judge of his or her own conduct, resulting in the person acting on only logical thinking.. 2.7.2. Religion Rules of the religions are recorded in holy books which form the guide to all worshippers. Rules of the religion and its consequences form the guide and teachings to its followers unquestioningly. Whether followed or not, it is held to be true. Rules of the religion are as stated in the holy books. They do not change according to race or territory. Rules govern the relationship between humans and God. Rules of the religions are deeper. In Islam, for example, the rules are set in the Al-Quran. Rules of the religions are fixed rules set down by God. It is logic according to thought and has high and deep values.. Morals and Customs. Customs are practised by a portion of society. The ÂdesignÊ of the customs can be identified by looking at the related portion of society. For example, in Malaysia, the baju kurung is the customary attire for Malay women, the cheong sam for Chinese women and the saree for Indian women. However, moral values, that is politeness, is found in all three portions i.e. the style of dressing. Hence, morals are more universal but customs are practised only by a certain number of people. Customs are only adhered to at certain places and time. For example, the proposal customs of the Malays only occurs during the engagement function with the venue being the home of the bride-tobe. Moral rules are obeyed at any place and time as they are universal in nature. Overall, we can say that in everyday life, customs and morals are closely interlinked in forming a system of society. However, we also find that there are customs that go against the moral values in life.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(33) TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. 2.7.3. . 17. Morals and Laws. The assurances of well-being are rules accepted and obeyed by humans. In this context, the rules are made of moral rules and laws. Laws arise from the adherence of individuals to a legitimate authority, while morals are determined by intellect or views and not written, recorded and enforced by any party. It is bound by time and place. Laws cover rules and punishments for breaching rules, which involve actions through conduct, speech and writing. These rules are determined by the authorities. The society under the jurisdiction of the authorities must follow these laws. They differ from moral rules that involve conduct towards other humans and the environment. Laws are enforced by the police and other enforcement officers appointed by the authorities. While moral enforcement is based on the feelings of the individual, laws do not take into account affection and mercy. Each rule and punishment for the breaching of that rule have already been determined and must be obeyed. Therefore, it is important that moral aspects are considered when passing a law.. 2.8. NORMATIVE STATEMENTS AND DESCRIPTIVE STATEMENTS ON MORALS. Statements on morals are related to values. It was previously stated that values are not morals. But morals are closely linked to moral values, so moral statements are often linked to good and bad values or right and wrong values. Grassian (1981) stated that normative ethics is an attempt to provide logical, systematic and proper answers to moral questions. This means that moral ethics focuses on normative statements that have implications on human conduct. Normative statements are considerations of good or bad values, right or wrong values, and accepted or rejected values. For example, abortion is an immoral act. Frankena (1973) states that morals are divided into two ă general and specific. Normative statements on human acts ă whether good or bad, right or wrong, obligation or not, and necessary or unnecessary ă are termed moral obligations or deontic consideration. For example, Âthe public should not buy and sell shares with the intention to gambleÊ is a deontic consideration because the intention to gamble is something that is unacceptable in the eyes of religion and law.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(34) 18 . TOPIC 2. CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. Normative statements on individuals, motives, purposes and personalities ă whether good, bad, noble, evil, responsible, guilty, pious and despicable ă are termed consideration of moral values or aretaic. For example, Âsmart investors have never gambled in buying sharesÊ discusses the personality of the smart investor i.e. having never gambled in buying shares. The aretaic consideration statement does not touch on the obligations of a person, but only assesses the moral characteristic ÂsmartÊ. Normative statements are not usually linked to the consideration of moral values, and that is what is called consideration of non-moral values. This is normally related to cars, paintings, novels, experiences and others. We can say ÂitÊ is good or bad. For example, the statements Âthe car is bright blue in colourÊ or Âit is an interesting novelÊ are free from moral values because they explain the features of the car and novel. Normative statements that instruct or command are statements that require someone or everyone to obey the rules or laws, for example, Âparents must be respectedÊ. Descriptive statements on morals are statements that mention or explain the characteristics of a person, item, matter and such. Descriptive statement on the good nature of a person gives an impression of the characteristic or values possessed by the person. For example, ÂAli is a forgiving personÊ explain AliÊs characteristic of easily forgiving someone who has offended him. This statement is different from normative statements that we had discussed earlier. However, this statement can be changed to a normative statement, ÂAli should forgive Abu for his actions towards him.Ê Observe that the statement ÂIn Malaysia, Cabinet reshuffle is under the jurisdiction of the Prime MinisterÊ is a descriptive statement. It explains a logical fact according to the situation in Malaysia. It is not related to the consideration of moral values. We can safely say that fact-based descriptive statements do not consider values or obligations. Descriptive statements can be changed to normative statements, for example, Âvoter registration is on the declineÊ can be changed to the normative statement Âgood citizens should register as votersÊ.. EXERCISE 2.3 1. Explain the customs that contravene morality and suggest how to overcome the problem. 2. How can moral values restrict the conduct of a person, ensuring he or she is always honourable?. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(35) TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. 2.9. . 19. IMPORTANCE OF MORAL VALUES. A society with morals will foster peace in the country. The second challenge in Vision 2020 is to create a country that is free-willed, calm and progressive with self-confidence; proud of what it has and what it has achieved; and possesses strength in adversity. The Malaysian society is easily recognisable by its enthusiasm to succeed, its awareness of its capabilities, its refusal to yield to anyone and the respect it receives from other countries. Why and how can this society with morals be created? Morals are important in focusing on happiness in this world. A country will be peaceful and prosperous if its society has high moral standards. The shaping of a society with high moral standards starts with individuals and families.. 2.9.1. Fulfilling Human Nature. Before we discuss morals in society, it is better if we look from the individual aspect. In oneÊs self, there are inner values that have existed since birth. An individual will be at peace when admiring beauty. Inner peace also exists when we do good, help others, always smiling to others and being cheerful. Anxiety, nervousness and confusion will occur when an individual faces something uncomfortable like the stench from a sewage treatment plant, seeing someone with a fierce face and so on. Sympathy and pity exist when we see something that is touching, while we feel anguish, hate and misery when seeing cruelty and oppression. Sympathy, hate, sadness, hurt, joy and so on are feelings that cannot be taught but are part of human nature. Good ethics are important in fulfilling human nature.. 2.9.2. Encouraging Good Deeds to Oneself and Others. Ethics refer to the good conduct that is the principle of all human beings. Ethics makes it important for human nature to be followed. When someone is sympathetic, the next step is naturally to provide help or assistance to the person who needs it. A person with ethics has a life filled with good deeds and behaviour, not just for himself but the good deeds are felt around him. Hence, it is clear that ethics can encourage good things and conduct the well-being of the society and country.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(36) 20 . 2.9.3. TOPIC 2. CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. Preventing Immorality. People with ethics will feel awkward if they had to do something that went against their ethics. Hence, people with ethics would not do something that is against their ethical beliefs. These ethics are a deterrent to any unacceptable deed done by a person, society and country.. 2.9.4. Creating and Maintaining Peace. Wars, murders and destruction of nature are unethical acts. Do you want to live in fear in a barren, war-torn land? Definitely, no one would want to live in such conditions. A free spirit, a happy family, a peaceful country and a clean environment are the desires of every person in this world. A peaceful life in this world is not possible if the people inhabiting the world do not play their part in heading towards the direction mentioned. Without ethics, the inhabitants will live in chaos and their souls will always be miserable. The calmness of the soul and harmony of life will only exist if every being in this world possesses high ethics. In other words, ethics can bring about peace, happiness and well-being in the world.. 2.9.5. Continuation of Human Civilisation. The world today is not only plagued by civil crimes, but also sophisticated crimes, as sophisticated as the development of technology. The development of technology is to ease and quicken our work. Actually, creating good is easy but creating evil is a lot easier. It has become the norm that when good exists, there will also be disobedience. This can be seen clearly in the progress of computing; when new software is created, almost immediately a virus is created to fail the operation of the software. Good ethics practised by all beings can continue progress in any field. This can be related to the theory of utilitarianism that stresses upon us to act towards maximum good for all parties. Thus, the human civilisation will continue to grow for the well-being of all.. 2.9.6. A Complete Human Personality. The term Âperfect beingÊ refers to a being who is complete physically, spiritually and intellectually. Perfect beings would not do things which are condemned by family, society and self. Generally, there are no perfect beings. In our country, ethical persons are awarded with the title mithali (exemplary).. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(37) TOPIC 2 CONCEPT OF ETHICS AND TYPES OF MORAL VALUES. 2.9.7. . 21. Maintaining the Status of Humanity. Humans are the best of creations. They have been gifted with intelligence by God to differentiate between good and bad actions. Hence, calling a person an animal is unacceptable.. ACTIVITY 2.3 Based on the explanations on the importance of morals, build a mind map to help you remember the given facts. Then, conduct your own observation on the society. Give your comments and opinion on how good or bad the society is today.. . Value can be refer to the estimation of price, rank, quality, status or other outstanding characteristics.. . Ethics means customs and wages.. . Morals refer to the awareness of proper and improper conduct as well as what should be followed and discarded.. . Laws are rules that are drafted by the authorities to ensure that our conduct leads to well-being.. . The five factors that influence ethics are: Humans, instincts, customs and norms, descendants and environment.. . Functions of values are: Consistent standards in peopleÊs actions, guide in solving moral conflicts and limit against actions and conduct by individuals or society.. . Normative statements on human acts ă whether good or bad, right or wrong, obligation or not, and necessary or unnecessary ă are termed moral obligations or deontic consideration.. . Descriptive statements on morals are statements that mention or explain the characteristics of a perosn, item, matter and such.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(38) Topic 3 . . Theory of Ethics. LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1.. Explain the theories of Moral Development, Social and Humanistic;. 2.. Differentiate each level of children moral development;. 3.. Identify the elements used to measure moral behaviour; and. 4.. Demonstrate different theories of moral development in your everyday life.. . INTRODUCTION. This topic introduces several theories related to moral studies, starting with the theory of moral development followed by the theory of moral ethics. These theories are the foundation of the formation of individual with good personality traits. These moral theories are based on cognitive and social behaviours. You should understand these theories and able to identify the similarities and differences. Read further and try to relate the moral development in yourself and individuals around you.. 3.1 3.1.1. THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987). Humans go through physical and mental development from birth, along with moral development. Physical, mental, cognitive and intellect enable children to follow instructions, obey norms, traditions, customs and rules set by the authorities.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(39) TOPIC 3. THEORY OF ETHICS. . 23. It is important to understand the individual moral development as it is crucial in the formation of individual with good moral values within the society. Many theorists came out with different kinds of theories on children development. Lawrence Kohlberg, one of the theorists spent 20 years studying the cognitive and moral aspects of childrenÊs development. From his studies, he found out that there is a sequence in the childrenÊs development. It is divided into three levels and six stages. Every level has two stages as shown below. (a). Level One: Pre-conventional Stage one is also known as the Âobedience and punishmentÊ phase or obedience and punishment orientation phase. This means physical effects determine good or bad behaviour. In this phase, children behave or do good things to avoid punishment. They also want to get reward from people with superior physical power. Stage Two: Individualism and Counter-balance Stage two is also known as individualism and the counter-balance stage. Here, behaviour and action that can fulfil needs and necessities are considered good. In this stage, children are aware that good behaviour is a channel to satisfy the needs of their loved ones and themselves. They also start to notice that other people also have needs like they do. Therefore, children will refer to their loved ones to get what they want.. (b). Level Two: The Conventional Level The third stage in this theory is the agreement between individual or interpersonal observance orientations. Good behaviour is an act fulfilling the expectations of loved ones. At this stage, children do good things or morally correct things to obey their loved ones. The fourth stage is social norms/orientation instructions and law. Good or bad behaviours are determined by loyalty and social order by performing social duties and responsibilities. At this stage, children see other people as part of a social system which determines the roles and responsibilities of each individual. In this case, they are able to determine behaviours and actions based on the law they should obey.. (c). Level Three: Post-conventional Morality The fifth stage is related to social contract. Contract-legalistic social orientation is certain values agreed by a community which includes social rights and rules to achieve agreement and determine what is right. In this stage, children will be aware that each human being has different opinions.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(40) 24 . TOPIC 3. THEORY OF ETHICS. Nevertheless, there should be an agreement or consensus to determine what is fair in order to close the gap. The sixth stage is the highest stage in KohlbergÊs Theory of Moral Development. It is related to the principle of global ethics. In this stage, good behaviours are determined based on the principle of global ethics and its consistency. Humans do things based on the principle of justice, community welfare, equality, honour and not using others to get what you want. KohlbergÊs theory is a sequence of moral development that can help us to understand the pattern of childrenÊs moral development. This theory can be used as a guide to produce individuals with high morality through moral standards in a certain community. By understanding KohlbergÊs theory, we will be able to cultivate the ability to decipher good moral value and not just accept all moral standards set by our family, friends, culture, custom and community. We can also discuss, analyse and criticise these standards for collective benefit. KohlbergÊs Theory Criticism KohlbergÊs theory has several weaknesses as he focuses on moral development using hypothesis which means other types of moral development are left out. KohlbergÊs theory stressed on the development of moral reasoning related to individual intelligence. But intelligence does not guarantee that a person will know what to do when faced with a moral dilemma. Experience does not increase oneÊs insight on certain things such as moral dilemma. This element could not be found in KohlbergÊs theory as he used moral dilemma only in theory, neither does he really explain the emotional aspects of moral development. Theoretically, moral consistency in moral dilemma might not be very obvious compared to experience. Making decisions in real situations might trigger the emotion and behaviour to react. This situation could not be seen in moral consistency based on a hypothetical situation. KohlbergÊs studies will be more meaningful if he uses real situations rather than moral dilemmas based on theory.. ACTIVITY 3.1 In your opinion, what is the suitable age for every level of KohlbergÊs Moral Development Theory? Verify your opinion with your tutor.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(41) TOPIC 3. 3.1.2. THEORY OF ETHICS. . 25. Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Jean Piaget did a lot of research on ethics although he is well-known for childrenÊs cognitive development studies. He divided childrenÊs development into two moral-related levels based on the principle of controlled source which control the childrenÊs behaviour and thinking. This principle is known as internalisation which studies the source of childrenÊs thinking and behaviour and how the sources control their behaviour. For instance, children imitate the act of greetings from their parents. Meanwhile, parents control their children by instructing them to greet certain people (such as the elderly). Then, the children should be able to greet other people without being asked anymore. The first stage of PiagetÊs ethics development is based on the principle of internalisation which involves rules set out by superiors around them such as parents, older family members and teachers. This stage is also known as External Morality. Children see rules as something which is set out and controlled by their superiors. They will experience this stage until the age of 10 by observing and obeying rules. For example, the rules set out in school and home help children to behave, based on guidance from parents, family members and teachers. The second stage of is called „Autonomous Morality.‰ During this stage, children will create rational ideas about equality as a reversible process in their life. They try to control the behaviour of other people just as what they have been going through. For example, they create rules in their games and want other people to follow them. They also see justice as reversible in their life. They will expect others especially those under their supervision (such as younger sisters or brothers and peers) to do things just like they were instructed to do. Children begin to develop self-concern rather than having other people to stress on certain behaviour. Generally, Piaget divided cognitive development related to childrenÊs moral development into four stages ă motor-sensory, pre-operation, concrete operation and formal operation. For Piaget, childrenÊs moral development involved the development of their intellect through several consecutive stages. Children build their own world actively. They interact actively with their surroundings in order to develop their mental structure, intellect and morality. From this active interaction process, children will experience changes in their morality by observing changes in moral justice. For example, a child will be upset if he does not receive a birthday present from his parents like other children do. Let us now study the four stages of intellect development and their connection with moral development.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(42) 26 . TOPIC 3. THEORY OF ETHICS. (a). Motor-sensory Stage (Birth to 2 Years) At this stage, children manipulate physical elements in their surroundings to gain knowledge and adapt themselves. Nevertheless, their moral awareness is minimal, which is in the pre-moral stage. They perform repeatable habits based on frequency. For example, whenever they want to eat and drink, they will cry and raise their hands. Every time they feel hungry, they will repeat the act until they get to eat and drink. The behaviour does not contain moral elements and sometimes causes strain among themselves. Whenever they play, they follow the rules of the game reluctantly because the game is just a form of entertainment for them.. (b). Pre-operational Stage (2 to 7 Years) In this stage, children have a very high sense of curiosity. They experiment to get answers to the questions arising from their inner self. Apart from being egocentric, they have a very high imagination. They see things objectively, which means what happened is not the reason why it happened. Nevertheless, the rule of the authority, especially that of parents, still binds them. They see rules as sacred and unchangeable. These children are still experiencing pre-moral stages in transition to the heteronomy moral stage. External authority rules still control them in making a moral decision. In this stage, they will play games by following inherited rules. Egocentrism makes it difficult for them to accept other peopleÊs opinions and they are uncooperative. Nevertheless, they will start showing cooperative behaviour at the end of this stage.. (c). Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 Years) Children will show a sign of maturity at this stage. They show the ability to think logically, formally and in a stable matter. As their social scope widens, they will understand the necessity of being cooperative, especially with their peers. They still follow the rules without questioning but are able to discuss the procedures and the principles of a game they are playing when arguments arise. This indicates that their moral rules are rational rules that require them to respect, understand and have good communication with one another.. (d). Formal Operational Stage (11 Years and Above) This is the highest stage in cognitive development where children reach the perfect balance in their moral consideration. Egocentrism will fade and eventually disappear. They are experiencing the autonomous moral development stage. They unleash themselves from the bind of the authority in making moral decisions. Interaction and sense of cooperation with their peers will develop. They are able to master the rule of game and fair play. The rules could be changed based on agreement and interaction as these are no longer sacred. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(43) TOPIC 3. 3.1.3. THEORY OF ETHICS. . 27. Criticism of Piaget’s Moral Development Theory. Piaget only focuses on moral rules in childrenÊs games. Other rules of social morality are not given the same priority. Maybe this is because he focused on newborn babies up to children who are 12 years of age in his studies. At this stage, children start to show signs of natural social morals. It could be seen in the way they communicate, greet people, carry themselves, etc. Further studies should be carried out to give a clearer picture and more effective explanation. Another aspect that could be observed is motivation and sampling or external imitation. The aspect of imitating the images of artistes is a current reality trend that he could not explain. This indicates that popular artistes are effective moral agents. In this stage, PiagetÊs theory could not explain the phenomenon. Another criticism towards the theory is individual differences. Piaget did not focus on this although individual differences such as gender and social ranks will affect individual moral practice and decision-making.. 3.2. SOCIAL MORALITY DEVELOPMENT THEORY. Among the theorists who came out with a Social Morality Theory are Albert Bandura and Emile Durkheim. A popular theory by Bandura states that moral development is based on the observation of other peopleÊs behaviour. Bandura says there are three methods of imitation ă direct imitation, inhibition and noninhibition; and elicitation. Direct imitation: Direct imitation happens when a person imitates a behaviour that he or she sees in the media, pictures or by listening to explanations. For example, children imitate the behaviour of their loved ones or people they like ă the way they talk, their clothes and many other things. Inhibition and non-inhibition: This method might be suitable for one situation but not for another. It comes together with penalty and punishment. For example, the act of cheering in the field is clearly inappropriate for a formal event in a hall. If cheering is done during a formal speech in the hall, punishment will be imposed and individuals witnessing this will not imitate the act of cheering during formal events. But if there is no punishment for the act of cheering during formal events, it will be imitated and repeated the next time by individuals who witness it. Elicitation: It means imitating others because they know how to do something. For example when a person sees other people sing, he/she also wants to sing because he/she knows the lyrics. He or she sings the song because other people sing the song. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(44) 28 . 3.2.1. TOPIC 3. THEORY OF ETHICS. Criticism of Bandura’s Theory. Not all behaviours can be imitated. Some behaviours are cultivated by moral considerations. Children desire to do things they think about doing. They also want to do things according to their emotions. However, not all of their behaviours are a total imitation. Do penalty and punishment really prevent a person from imitating certain behaviours? If yes, what will happen if there are no penalty and punishment? Penalty and punishment-based behaviour are inconsistent unlike instinct-based behaviour which is more resistant and consistent where ethical aspect are clearly defined by the enforcement of the heart. All factors related to behavourial development should be considered in order to produce individuals with high morality.. 3.3 BEHAVOURIAL MORAL THEORY The Behavourial Moral Theory explains the importance of the involvement of parents and caregivers in childrenÊs moral development. ChildrenÊs behaviour is formed through three methods ă reward, abuse and observation. The formation of childrenÊs morality depends on the lessons given. They will show good behaviour if they receive suitable training, guidance and discipline. To make promote good behaviour, reward and punishment should be given to children. Wright (1978) suggested that caregivers created the foundation of their childrenÊs behaviour by using three methods ă reward, abuse and good examples in their routine. Caregivers or adults are the strengthening source of good or bad behaviour. They are best role models for children to adopt honourable behaviours. Children will show good behaviour if their in caregiver trains and disciplines them and is a good role model. Negative reinforcement will cause wariness and prevent them from wrongdoing. Positive strengthening will create a high possibility for children to repeat good behaviours.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM).

(45) TOPIC 3. THEORY OF ETHICS. . Come! Let us all smoke together with our teacher.. Figure 3.1: In this case, should the students imitate their teacherÊs behaviour?. ACTIVITY 3.2 Refer to Figure 3.1. In your opinion, what kind of preventive measure can the teacher adopt to avoid this situation? In a group of 2 or 3, discuss how the school administration can address this issue.. EXERCISE 3.1 It is difficult for a father to fulfil all his childrenÊs desires. Explain how he could make an exemplary decision that could be imitated by his children. Give an example.. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM). 29.

No results found