2.4 Materials Design and Teaching

(1)

Materials Design

and Teaching

Yueh-chiu Helen Wang Yueh-chiu Helen Wang

Associate professor Associate professor

(2)

Introduction to

Instructional Design

Process

 The role of instructional design: The role of instructional design: Instructional design is based on Instructional design is based on

what we know about learning what we know about learning

theories, information technology, theories, information technology,

systematic analysis (objective systematic analysis (objective

(3)

The factors that influence

learning outcomes

 . The instructional design approach . The instructional design approach

considers instruction from the perspective considers instruction from the perspective

of the learner rather than from the of the learner rather than from the

perspective of the content. perspective of the content.

 * What level of readiness do individual * What level of readiness do individual students need for accomplishing the students need for accomplishing the

objectives? objectives?

 *What instructional strategies are most *What instructional strategies are most appropriate in terms of objectives and appropriate in terms of objectives and

(4)

 * What media or other resources are * What media or other resources are most suitable?

most suitable?

 *What support is needed for successful *What support is needed for successful learning?

learning?

 * How is achievement of the objectives * How is achievement of the objectives determined?

determined?

 * What revisions are necessary if a * What revisions are necessary if a

tryout of the program does not match

expectations?

(5)

Key elements of the

instructional design

process

 1. For whom is the program developed? 1. For whom is the program developed?

(characteristics of learners or trainees?) (characteristics of learners or trainees?)

 2. What do you want the learners or 2. What do you want the learners or

trainees to learn or demonstrate? trainees to learn or demonstrate?

(objectives) (objectives)

 3. How is the subject content or skill best 3. How is the subject content or skill best

learned? (instructional strategies) learned? (instructional strategies)

 4. How do you determine the extent to 4. How do you determine the extent to

which learning is achieved? (evaluation which learning is achieved? (evaluation

(6)

 These four fundamental componentsThese four fundamental components

—

—learners, objectives, methods, and _{learners, objectives, methods, and} evaluation

evaluation——form the framework for _{form the framework for} systematic instructional planning.

systematic instructional planning.  These components are interrelated These components are interrelated

and could make up an entire and could make up an entire

(7)

The complete instructional

design plan

 Nine elements in a comprehensive Nine elements in a comprehensive

instructional design plan: instructional design plan:

 1. Identify instructional problems, and 1. Identify instructional problems, and

specify goals for designing an instructional specify goals for designing an instructional

program. program.

 2. Examine learner characteristics that 2. Examine learner characteristics that

should receive attention during planning. should receive attention during planning.

 3. Identify subject content, and analyze task 3. Identify subject content, and analyze task

components related to stated goals and components related to stated goals and

(8)

 4. State instructional objectives for the 4. State instructional objectives for the learner.

learner.

 5. Sequence content within each 5. Sequence content within each

instructional unit for logical learning. instructional unit for logical learning.

 6. Design instructional strategies so that 6. Design instructional strategies so that each learner can master the objectives. each learner can master the objectives.  7. Plan the instructional message and 7. Plan the instructional message and

delivery. delivery.

 8. Develop evaluation instruments to 8. Develop evaluation instruments to assess objectives.

assess objectives.

 9. Select resources to support instruction 9. Select resources to support instruction and learning activities.

(9)

topic _{objectives instruction}

revision

(10)

General curriculum

planning

 As background information for As background information for

second and foreign language course second and foreign language course

designers, Taba

designers, Taba’’s (1962:12) of the _{s (1962:12) of the} steps which a course designer must steps which a course designer must

work through to develop subject work through to develop subject

matter courses has become the matter courses has become the

foundation for many other writers foundation for many other writers’’

(11)

 The list of The list of ‘‘curriculum processescurriculum processes’’ includes the following:

includes the following:  1. diagnosis of needs1. diagnosis of needs

 2. formulation of objectives2. formulation of objectives

 3. selection of content3. selection of content

 4. organization of content4. organization of content

(12)

 6. Organization of learning 6. Organization of learning experiences

experiences

 7. Determining of what to evaluate, 7. Determining of what to evaluate, and the means to evaluate.

(13)

A framework of course

development processes

 assessing needsassessing needs

 Conceptualizing content formulating Conceptualizing content formulating

goals goals

 Organizing the course developing Organizing the course developing

material material

 Course DesignCourse Design

 designing an assessment plandesigning an assessment plan

 Defining the context articulating Defining the context articulating

(14)

Materials development

 Materials development refers to Materials development refers to

anything which is done by writers,

teachers or learners to provide sources

of language input and to exploit those

sources in ways which maximize the

likelihood of intake: the supplying of

information about and/or experience of

the language in ways designed to

promote language learning.

(15)

 Teaching can be direct (in that it Teaching can be direct (in that it

transmits information overtly to the transmits information overtly to the

learners) or it can be indirect (in learners) or it can be indirect (in

that it helps the learners to discover that it helps the learners to discover

(16)

 Language learning is normally considered Language learning is normally considered to be a conscious process which consists

to be a conscious process which consists

of the committing to memory of

information relevant to what is being

learned. Language learning can be

explicit (i.e. the learners are aware of

when and what they are learning) or it

can be implicit (i.e. the learning can also

be of declarative knowledge (i.e.

knowledge of how the language is used).

(17)

 Explicit learning of both declarative Explicit learning of both declarative and procedural knowledge is of

and procedural knowledge is of value in helping learners to pay value in helping learners to pay

attention to salient features of attention to salient features of

language input and in helping them language input and in helping them

to participate in planned discourse to participate in planned discourse

(i.e. giving situations such as giving (i.e. giving situations such as giving a talk or writing a story which allow a talk or writing a story which allow

(18)

Materials should achieve

impact

 Impact is achieved when materials Impact is achieved when materials have a noticeable effect on learners,

have a noticeable effect on learners,

that is when the learners

that is when the learners’’ curiosity, _curiosity,

interest and attention are attracted.

 Materials can achieve impact through:Materials can achieve impact through:

 a) novelty (e.g. unusual topics, a) novelty (e.g. unusual topics,

illustrations and activities); b) variety

(e.g. breaking up the monotony of a

unit routine with an unexpected

activity)

(19)

 c) attractive presentation (e.g. use of c) attractive presentation (e.g. use of attractive colors; lots of white space; attractive colors; lots of white space;

use of photographs); use of photographs);

 d) appealing content (e.g. topics of d) appealing content (e.g. topics of

interest to the target learners; topics interest to the target learners; topics which offer the possibility of learning which offer the possibility of learning

something new; engaging stories; something new; engaging stories;

(20)

Materials should help

learners to feel at ease

 Materials can help learners to feel at ease Materials can help learners to feel at ease in a number of ways:

in a number of ways:

 --feel more comfortable with materials --feel more comfortable with materials

with lots of white space than they do with

materials in which lots of different

activities are crammed together on the

same page;

 --are more at ease with texts and --are more at ease with texts and

illustrations that they can relate to their

own culture than they are with those

which are culturally exotic;

(21)

 --are more relaxed with materials which are --are more relaxed with materials which are

obviously trying to help them to learn than they

are with materials which are always testing

them. Feeling at ease can also be achieved

through a

through a ‘‘voicevoice’’ which is relaxed and which is relaxed and

supportive, through content and activities which

encourage the personal participation of the

learners, through materials which relate the

world of the book to the world of the learner and

through the absence of activities which could

threaten self-esteem and cause humiliation.

(22)

Factors to consider in

defining the context

 People : students (how many, age, gender, People : students (how many, age, gender,

culture, other languages, purposes, culture, other languages, purposes,

education, profession, experience) education, profession, experience)

 Other stakeholders: school administrators, Other stakeholders: school administrators,

parents, founders, and community parents, founders, and community

 Physical setting: location of school: Physical setting: location of school:

convenience, setting, classroom( size, convenience, setting, classroom( size,

furniture, light, and noise) Always same furniture, light, and noise) Always same

(23)

Nature of course and

institution

 Type/purpose of courseType/purpose of course

 Mandatory, open enrollmentMandatory, open enrollment

 Relation to current/previous coursesRelation to current/previous courses

 Prescribed curriculum or not Prescribed curriculum or not

(24)

Teaching resources

 Materials availableMaterials available

 Required text?Required text?

 Develop your own materials?Develop your own materials?

 Equipment: cassettes, video, Equipment: cassettes, video,

(25)

Time

 How many hours total over what How many hours total over what span of time

span of time

 How often class meetsHow often class meets

 For how long each timeFor how long each time

 Day of week, time of dayDay of week, time of day

 Where fits in schedule of studentsWhere fits in schedule of students

(26)

Why is it important to

define one

’

s context?

_{s context?}

 The The ““givensgivens”” of one of one’’s context are the s context are the resources and constraints that guide resources and constraints that guide

our decisions. Knowing how long a our decisions. Knowing how long a

course is, its purpose, who the course is, its purpose, who the

students are, and how it fits in with students are, and how it fits in with

other aspects of the curriculum other aspects of the curriculum

helps us to make decisions about helps us to make decisions about

(27)

 A clearer understanding of what is possible A clearer understanding of what is possible within a given amount of time will allow us within a given amount of time will allow us

to be realistic about what we

to be realistic about what we——teacher and _{teacher and} students

students——can accomplish. Knowing what _{can accomplish. Knowing what} equipment or support is available will help equipment or support is available will help

us make choices about how much and what us make choices about how much and what

kind of material to prepare. Information kind of material to prepare. Information

about time, for example, can help us make about time, for example, can help us make

decisions about how many areas of content decisions about how many areas of content we can realistically address within the time we can realistically address within the time

(28)

 Information about teaching resources will Information about teaching resources will

help us make decisions about how many help us make decisions about how many

areas of content we can realistically address areas of content we can realistically address

within the time frame of the course. within the time frame of the course.

Information about teaching resources will Information about teaching resources will help us make decisions about the kinds of help us make decisions about the kinds of

materials we choose or develop. The materials we choose or develop. The

relationship of the course to other courses relationship of the course to other courses will help us make decisions about content, will help us make decisions about content,

(29)

 Expectations of the students and Expectations of the students and

stakeholders can help us make stakeholders can help us make

decisions about what is appropriate decisions about what is appropriate

to cover and how students will be to cover and how students will be

assessed. assessed.

 The more information you have about The more information you have about

your context the more able you will your context the more able you will

be to make decisions and to plan an be to make decisions and to plan an

(30)

 Defining oneDefining one’’s context can also be viewed s context can also be viewed as part of pre-course needs assessment.

as part of pre-course needs assessment.

Information about the students and about

the curriculum is clearly related to

students

students’’ learning needs. Other _{learning needs. Other}

information, such as time and setting,

does not necessarily help define students

does not necessarily help define students’’

language learning needs, but has to be

taken into account in order to design a

course that can focus on the needs within

the givens of the context.

(31)

Three pieces of advice

 Try to get as much information as possible Try to get as much information as possible

by asking for it specifically or by trying to by asking for it specifically or by trying to

find others who have taught in that context. find others who have taught in that context.

If available, printed materials prepared for If available, printed materials prepared for

the students (brochures, catalogues) is a the students (brochures, catalogues) is a

helpful source of information since students helpful source of information since students’’

expectations may be based on what they expectations may be based on what they

find there. Talk to students who have taken find there. Talk to students who have taken

the course or teachers who have taught it. the course or teachers who have taught it.

(32)

 Information as though you were a Information as though you were a

student. The second is to design the student. The second is to design the

course with a similar group in mind, if course with a similar group in mind, if

you have knowledge of such a group, so you have knowledge of such a group, so

that you are not stymied when making that you are not stymied when making

decisions. For example, you can develop decisions. For example, you can develop

a menu of possibilities (topics, tasks, a menu of possibilities (topics, tasks,

materials) from which to choose as you materials) from which to choose as you

know your students are your context know your students are your context

(33)

 Many teachers teach with a syllabus Many teachers teach with a syllabus that is part of a set curriculum

that is part of a set curriculum

within a specified period of time. within a specified period of time.

While the teacher may not be able to While the teacher may not be able to

design the blueprint for the course, design the blueprint for the course,

she/he can learn to adapt it or some she/he can learn to adapt it or some

aspect of it to the particular needs of aspect of it to the particular needs of

(34)

Materials should help

learners to develop

confidence.

 Relaxed and self-confident learners learn Relaxed and self-confident learners learn

faster. (Duley, Burt and Krashen, 1982) faster. (Duley, Burt and Krashen, 1982)

 Most materials developers recognize the Most materials developers recognize the

need to help learners to develop need to help learners to develop

confidence but many of them attempt to confidence but many of them attempt to

do so through a process of simplification. do so through a process of simplification.

They try to help the learners to feel They try to help the learners to feel

successful by asking them to use simple successful by asking them to use simple

(35)

 The value of engaging the learnersThe value of engaging the learners’’

minds and utilizing their existing skills

seems to be becoming increasingly in

countries which have decided to

produce their own materials through

textbook projects rather than to rely

on global coursebooks which seem to

underestimate the abilities of their

learners.

(36)

What is being taught should be

perceived by learners as relevant and

useful.

 Most teachers recognize the need to Most teachers recognize the need to make the learners aware of the

make the learners aware of the

potential relevance and utility of the potential relevance and utility of the

language and skills they are language and skills they are

(37)

Materials should require

and facilitate learner

self-investment.

investment.

 Materials help them to achieve this Materials help them to achieve this by providing them with choices of by providing them with choices of

focus and activity, by giving them focus and activity, by giving them

topic control and by engaging them topic control and by engaging them

in learner-centered discovery in learner-centered discovery

(38)

Learners must be ready to

acquire the points being

taught.

 It is important to remember that the It is important to remember that the learner is always in charge and that learner is always in charge and that

‘

‘in the final analysis we can never _{in the final analysis we can never}

completely control what the learner completely control what the learner

(39)

Materials should expose the

learners to language in

authentic use.

 Materials can provide exposure to Materials can provide exposure to

authentic input through the advice they

give, the instructions for their activities

and the spoken and written texts they

include. They can also stimulate

exposure to authentic input through the

activities they suggest (e.g. interviewing

the teacher, doing a project in the local

community, listening to the radio, etc.)

(40)

 Materials should provide the Materials should provide the

learners with opportunities to use learners with opportunities to use

the target language to achieve the target language to achieve

communicative purposes. In communicative purposes. In

addition, communicative negotiation addition, communicative negotiation

of opportunties for use are of opportunties for use are interactive and encourage interactive and encourage

negotiation of meaning (Allwright, negotiation of meaning (Allwright,

(41)

 Materials should take into account that the Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually

positive effects of instruction are usually

delayed.

 Research into the acquisition of language Research into the acquisition of language shows that it is a gradual rather than an

shows that it is a gradual rather than an

instantaneous process and that this is equally

true for instructed as well as informal

acquisition. Acquisition results from the

gradual and dynamic process of internal

generalization rather than from instant

adjustments to the learners

(42)

 Materials should take into account Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning

that learners differ in learning styles. A learner

styles. A learner’’s preference for a _{s preference for a} particular learning styles is variable particular learning styles is variable

and depends on what is being and depends on what is being

learned, where it is being learned, learned, where it is being learned,

who it is being learned with and who it is being learned with and

(43)

 Materials should take into account Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective

that learners differ in affective

attitudes. Ideally, language learners attitudes. Ideally, language learners

should have strong and consistent should have strong and consistent

motivation and they should also have motivation and they should also have

positive feelings towards the target positive feelings towards the target

language, their teachers, their fellow language, their teachers, their fellow

learners and the materils they are learners and the materils they are

(44)

 Materials should permit a silent period at Materials should permit a silent period at

the beginning of instruction. It has been the beginning of instruction. It has been

shown that it can be extremely valuable to shown that it can be extremely valuable to

delay L2 speaking at the beginning of a delay L2 speaking at the beginning of a

course until learners have gained sufficient course until learners have gained sufficient

exposure to the target language and exposure to the target language and

sufficient confidence in understanding it. sufficient confidence in understanding it.

The silent period can facilitate the The silent period can facilitate the

development of an effective internalized development of an effective internalized

grammar which can help learners to achieve grammar which can help learners to achieve

proficiency when they eventually start to proficiency when they eventually start to

(45)

 Materials should maximize learning Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging

potential by encouraging

intellectual, aesthetic and emotional intellectual, aesthetic and emotional

involvement which stimulates both involvement which stimulates both

(46)

 Materials should not rely too much Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice.

on controlled practice. ““Controlled _Controlled practice appears to have little long practice appears to have little long

term effect on the accuracy with term effect on the accuracy with

which new structures are which new structures are

performed

performed”” (Ellis, 1990, p. 192) and _{(Ellis, 1990, p. 192) and}

“

“have little effect on fluency_{have little effect on fluency}”” (Ellis _(Ellis and Rathbone, 1987).

(47)

 Materials should provide Materials should provide

opportunities for outcome feedback. opportunities for outcome feedback.

Feedback which is focused first on Feedback which is focused first on

the effectiveness of the outcome the effectiveness of the outcome

rather than just on the accuracy of rather than just on the accuracy of

the output can lead to output the output can lead to output

becoming a profitable source of becoming a profitable source of

(48)

Course Design for Business

English

 1. Course objective: based on learners1. Course objective: based on learners’’

language level, target learners, and age language level, target learners, and age

levels. levels.

 2. class activities: one-on-one advice or 2. class activities: one-on-one advice or

group discussion, and etc. group discussion, and etc.

 3. methods of learning: informal lecture 3. methods of learning: informal lecture

s, seminars, and workshops s, seminars, and workshops

 4. topics: course content and process4. topics: course content and process

(49)

 The criterion of grading: quiz & The criterion of grading: quiz &

homework (30%), Mid-term (30%), homework (30%), Mid-term (30%),

and Final Exam (40%) and Final Exam (40%)  Course syllabus: Course syllabus:

(50)

Lesson Plan

 Based upon your course design, you Based upon your course design, you may do a lesson plan such as what may do a lesson plan such as what

your today

your today’’s topic is, what your _{s topic is, what your} learners have learned, how their learners have learned, how their

language competence is achieved, language competence is achieved,

whether your topic is related to their whether your topic is related to their

previous experience or learning, and previous experience or learning, and

further detect what their class further detect what their class

(51)

The format of your

lesson plan

 I. Target learners:I. Target learners:

 II. Your topic:II. Your topic:

 III. The Methods of Teaching: III. The Methods of Teaching:

Communicative Language Teaching, Communicative Language Teaching,

Grammar-Translation Approach, Grammar-Translation Approach,

Audiolingual Method, and etc. Audiolingual Method, and etc.  IV. Instructional Media:IV. Instructional Media:

(52)

How is the class going?

 A. Warm-up activityA. Warm-up activity

 B. course content:B. course content:

 C. pre-teaching, during-teaching, C. pre-teaching, during-teaching, and post-teaching

and post-teaching

 D. StudentsD. Students’’ feedback feedback

 E. formative evaluation: detect E. formative evaluation: detect students

(53)

 VI. Your assessment: your VI. Your assessment: your assignment

(54)

Multiple intelligences

 MI refers to a learner-based philosophy MI refers to a learner-based philosophy

that characterizes human intelligences that characterizes human intelligences

as having multiple dimensions that must as having multiple dimensions that must

be acknowledged and developed in be acknowledged and developed in

education. MI is based

education. MI is based on the work of on the work of

Howard Gardner of the Harvard Graduate School Howard Gardner of the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Gardner notes that traditional IQ of Education. Gardner notes that traditional IQ

tests measure only logic and language, yet the brain tests measure only logic and language, yet the brain has other equally important types of intelligence.

(55)

 Gardner argues that Gardner argues that all human beings all human beings have these intelligences. He believes that all

have these intelligences. He believes that all

of them can be enhanced through training and

practice. MI belongs to a group of instruction

perspectives that focus on differences between

learners and the need to recognize learner

differences in teaching. Learners are viewed

as possessing individual learning styles,

preferences, or intelligences.

(56)

 Gardner posits eight native Gardner posits eight native

“

“intelligences,_{intelligences,}”” which are _{which are}described as described as follows:

follows:

 1. Linguistic: the ability to use language in 1. Linguistic: the ability to use language in special and creative ways

special and creative ways

 2. Logical/mathematical: the ability to think 2. Logical/mathematical: the ability to think rationally

(57)

 3. Spatial: the ability to 3. Spatial: the ability to form mental form mental models of the world

models of the world

 4. Musical: a good ear for music4. Musical: a good ear for music

 5. Bodily/Kinesthetic: having a well-5. Bodily/Kinesthetic: having a well-coordinated body

coordinated body

 6. Interpersonal: the ability to work well with 6. Interpersonal: the ability to work well with people

(58)

 7. Intrapersonal: the ability to 7. Intrapersonal: the ability to

understand oneself and apply one

understand oneself and apply one’’s _s talent successfully

talent successfully

 8. Naturalist: the ability to 8. Naturalist: the ability to

understand and organize the understand and organize the

(59)

Syllabus design

 Stage 1: Stage 1: Awaken the Intelligence: Through Awaken the Intelligence: Through multisensory experiences-touching, smelling,

multisensory experiences-touching, smelling,

tasting, seeing, and so on—learners can be

sensitized to the many faceted properties of

objects and events in the world that surrounds

them.

(60)

 Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence. Stage 2: Amplify the Intelligence. Students strengthen and improve Students strengthen and improve

the intelligence by volunteering the intelligence by volunteering

objects and events of their own objects and events of their own

choosing and defining with others choosing and defining with others

the properties and contexts of the properties and contexts of

experiences of these objects and experiences of these objects and

(61)

 Stage 3: Teach with/for the Stage 3: Teach with/for the

Intelligence. At this stage the Intelligence. At this stage the

intelligence is linked to the focus of intelligence is linked to the focus of

the class, that is, to some aspect of the class, that is, to some aspect of

language learning. This is done via language learning. This is done via

worksheets and small-group projects worksheets and small-group projects

(62)

 Stage 4: Transfer of the Intelligence. Stage 4: Transfer of the Intelligence. Students reflect on the learning

Students reflect on the learning experiences of the previous three experiences of the previous three

stages and relate these to issues and stages and relate these to issues and

(63)

 The MI classroom is one designed to The MI classroom is one designed to support development of the

support development of the ““whole _whole person,

person,”” and the environment and its _{and the environment and its} activities are intended to enable

activities are intended to enable students to become more students to become more

well-rounded individuals and more rounded individuals and more

(64)

 ““The more awareness students have The more awareness students have of their own intelligences and how of their own intelligences and how

they work, the more they will know they work, the more they will know

how to use that intelligence to how to use that intelligence to

access the necessary information access the necessary information

and knowledge from a lesson and knowledge from a lesson””

(65)

 Multiple Intelligences is an Multiple Intelligences is an

increasingly popular approach to increasingly popular approach to

characterizing the ways in which characterizing the ways in which

learners are unique and to learners are unique and to

developing instruction to respond to developing instruction to respond to