Arab slave trade
The main slave routes in Africa during theMiddle Ages.
Arab slave trade was the practice ofslaveryin theArab world, mainly inWestern Asia,North Africa,Southeast Africa, the Horn of Africaand certain parts ofEurope (such asIberia and Sicily) beginning during the era of the Arab conquests and continuing through the 19th century.[1]The trade was conducted throughslave
mar-kets in theMiddle East, North Africa and the Horn of Africa, with the slaves captured from Africa’s interior. During the 8th and 9th centuries of theFatimid Caliphate, most of those enslaved wereSaqalibaEuropeans captured during wars and along European coastlines.[2]Historians
estimate that between 650 and 1900, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders and taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across theRed Sea,Indian Ocean, andSaharadesert.
1
Scope of the trade
The trade of slaves across the Sahara and across the In-dian Ocean also has a long history, beginning with the control of sea routes byArabandSwahilitraders on the Swahili Coastduring the ninth century (seeSultanate of Zanzibar). These traders capturedBantu peoples(Zanj) from the interior in present-dayKenya,Mozambiqueand Tanzaniaand brought them to the littoral.[3][4]There, the
slaves gradually assimilated in the rural areas, particularly on theUngujaandPemba islands.[5] The captives were
sold throughout theMiddle East. This trade accelerated as superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour onplantationsin the region. Eventually, tens of thousands of captives were being taken every year.[5][6][7]
19th-century European engraving of Arab slave-trading caravan transporting African slaves across theSahara
TheIndian Oceanslave trade was multi-directional and changed over time. To meet the demand for menial labor, Bantu slaves bought by Arabslave traders from south-eastern Africa were sold in cumulatively large numbers over the centuries to customers in Egypt, Arabia, the Persian Gulf, India, theFar East, theIndian Ocean is-lands,Ethiopiaand Somalia.[8][9]
Slave labor in East Africa was drawn from the Zanj, Bantu peoples that lived along the East African coast.[4][10]
The Zanj were for centuries shipped as slaves by Arab traders to all the countries bordering the Indian Ocean. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs recruited many Zanj slaves as soldiers and, as early as 696, we learn of slave revolts of the Zanj against their Arab enslavers in Iraq (see Zanj Rebellion). Ancient Chinese texts also mention ambassadors from Java presenting the Chinese emperor with two Seng Chi (Zanj) slaves as gifts, and Seng Chi slaves reaching China from the Hindu king-dom of Srivijayain Java.[11] The Zanj Rebellion, a
se-ries of uprisingsthat took place between 869 and 883 AD near the city ofBasra(also known as Basara), situ-ated in present-dayIraq, is believed to have involved en-slaved Zanj that had originally been captured from the African Great Lakes region and areas further south in East Africa.[12]It grew to involve over 500,000 slaves and
free men who were imported from across theMuslim em-pireand claimed over “tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq”.[13]The Zanj who were taken as slaves to theMiddle
Eastwere often used in strenuous agricultural work.[14]
As theplantation economy boomed and theArabs be-came richer,agricultureand other manual labor work was thought to be demeaning. The resulting labor shortage led to an increased slave market.
2 1 SCOPE OF THE TRADE
It is certain that large numbers of slaves were exported from easternAfrica; the best ev-idence for this is the magnitude of the Zanj re-volt in Iraq in the 9th century, though not all of the slaves involved were Zanj. There is little ev-idence of what part of eastern Africa the Zanj came from, for the name is here evidently used in its general sense, rather than to designate the particular stretch of the coast, from about 3°N. to 5°S., to which the name was also applied.[15]
TheZanjwere needed to take care of:
the Tigris-Euphrates delta, which had be-come abandoned marshland as a result of peas-ant migration and repeated flooding, [which] could be reclaimed through intensive labor. Wealthy proprietors “had received extensive grants of tidal land on the condition that they would make it arable.”Sugar canewas promi-nent among the products of their plantations, particularly inKhūzestān Province. Zanj also worked the salt mines ofMesopotamia, espe-cially aroundBasra.[16]
Their jobs were to clear away the nitrous topsoil that made the land arable. The working conditions were also considered to be extremely harsh and miserable. Many other people were imported into the region, besides Zanj.[17]
European and American historians assert that between the 8th and 19th century, 10 to 18 million people were bought by Arab slave traders and taken from Africa across theRed Sea,Indian Ocean, andSaharadesert.[18][19]
Arabs also enslaved Europeans. According to Robert Davis, between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were captured between the 16th and 19th centuries by Barbary corsairs, who were vassals of theOttoman Em-pire, andsold as slaves.[20][21][22]These slaves were
cap-tured mainly from seaside villages from Italy, Spain, Por-tugal and also from more distant places like France or England, the Netherlands, Ireland and evenIceland. They were also taken from ships stopped by the pirates.[23]
The effects of these attacks were devastating: France, England, and Spain each lost thousands of ships. Long stretches of the Spanish and Italian coasts were almost completely abandoned by their inhabitants, because of frequent pirate attacks. Pirateraids discouraged settle-ment along the coast until the 19th century.[24][25]
Periodic Arab raiding expeditions were sent fromIslamic Iberiato ravage the Christian Iberian kingdoms, bringing back booty and slaves. In a raid againstLisbonin 1189, for example, theAlmohadcaliph,Abu Yusuf Yaqub al-Mansur, took 3,000 female and child captives, while his governor ofCórdoba, in a subsequent attack uponSilves in 1191, took 3,000 Christian slaves.[26]
A femaleBantuslave in Mogadishu (1882–1883).
TheOttoman wars in Europeand Tatar raids(although not Arabic themselves) brought large numbers of Euro-pean Christian slaves into theMuslim world.[27][28][29]In
1769 a last major Tatar raid saw the capture of 20,000 Russian and Polish slaves.[30]
The “Oriental” or “Arab” slave trade is sometimes called the“Islamic” slave trade, butPatrick Manningstates that a religious imperative was not the driver of the slavery. However, if a non-Muslim population refuses to pay the jizyaprotection/subjugation tax, that population is con-sidered to be at war with the Muslim "ummah" (nation), and it becomes legal under Islamic law to take slaves from that non-Muslim population. Usage of the terms “Islamic trade” or “Islamic world” has been disputed by some Muslims as it treats Africa as outside Islam, or a negligible portion of theIslamic world.[31] According to
European historians, propagators ofIslam in Africa of-ten revealed a cautious attitude towards proselytizing be-cause of its effect in reducing the potential reservoir of slaves.[32]
The subject merges with the Oriental slave trade, which followed two main routes in theMiddle Ages:
• Overland routes across the Maghreband Mashriq deserts (Trans-Saharanroute)[33]
• Sea routes to the east of Africa through the Red Sea
and Indian Ocean (Oriental route)[34][35]
The Arab slave trade originated before Islam and lasted more than a millennium.[36][37][38]To meet the demand
2.1 7th century to 20th century 3
for plantation labor, these captured Zanj slaves were shipped to the Arabian peninsula and the Near East, among other areas.[39]
2
Sources and historiography of
the slave trade
The Arab trade ofZanj(Bantu) slaves in Southeast Africa is one of the oldest slave trades, predating the European transatlantic slave trade by 700 years.[4][10][40]Male slaves
were often employed as servants, soldiers, or laborers by their owners, while female slaves, including those from Africa, were long traded to the Middle Eastern countries and kingdoms by Arab and Oriental traders asconcubines and servants. Arab, African and Oriental traders were involved in the capture and transport of slaves northward across the Sahara desert and the Indian Ocean region into the Middle East, Persia and the Far East.[4][10]
The most significant Jewish involvement in the slave-trade was inAl-Andalus, as Islamic Spain was called.[41]
According to historian Alan W. Fisher, there was a guild of Jewish slave traders in Constantinople, the capital of the Ottoman Empire. The guild had about 2000 members.[30] The city was a major center of the slave
trade in the 15th and later centuries. By 1475 most of the slaves were provided byTatar raidson Slavic villages.[30]
Until the late 18th century, theCrimean Khanate main-tained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Poland-Lithuania and Russia over the period 1500– 1700.[42]
2.1
7th century to 20th century
Arab captors and Zanzibar workers
Main article:Slavery in contemporary Africa
From the 7th century until around the 1960s, the Arab
slave trade continued in one form or another. Histori-cal accounts and references to slave-owning nobility in Arabia,Yemenand elsewhere are frequent into the early 1920s.[40]
In 641 during theBaqt, a treaty between the Christian state of Makuria and the Muslim rulers of Egypt, the Nu-bians agreed to give Arab traders more privileges of trade in addition to a share in their slave trading.[43]
In the Ottoman Empire during the mid-14th century, slaves were traded in special marketplaces called “Esir” or “Yesir” that where located in most towns and cities. It is said that SultanMehmed II“the Conqueror” estab-lished the first Ottoman slave market in Constantinople in the 1460s, probably where the former Byzantine slave market had stood. According toNicolas de Nicolay, there were slaves of all ages and both sexes, they were displayed naked to be thoroughly checked by possible buyers.[44]
Domestic slavery was not as common as military slavery.[45] On the basis of a list of estates belonging
to members of the ruling class kept in Edirnebetween 1545 and 1659, the following data was collected: out of 93 estates, 41 had slaves.[46] However rural slavery
was largely a phenomenon endemic to theCaucasus re-gion, which was carried to Anatolia and Rumelia after theCircassian migrationin 1864.[47]Conflicts frequently
emerged within the immigrant community and the Ot-toman Establishment intervened on the side of the slaves at selective times.[48]
TheCrimean Khanatemaintained a massive slave trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East until the early eighteenth century. In a process called “harvesting of the steppe”, Crimean Tatars enslavedSlavicpeasants. The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealthand Russia suf-fered a series ofTatar invasions, the goal of which was to loot, pillage, and capture slaves into "jasyr".[49] The
borderland area to the south-east was in a state of semi-permanent warfare until the 18th century. It is estimated that up to 75% of the Crimean population consisted of slaves or freed slaves.[50]
In Somalia, the inhabiting Bantus are descended from Bantu groups that had settled in Southeast Africa after the initial expansion from Nigeria/Cameroon, and whose members were later captured and sold into the Arab slave trade.[51] From 1800 to 1890, between 25,000–
50,000 Bantu slaves are thought to have been sold from the slave market of Zanzibar to the Somali coast.[52]
Most of the slaves were from the Majindo, Makua, Nyasa,Yao,Zalama,ZaramoandZiguaethnic groups of Tanzania,MozambiqueandMalawi. Collectively, these Bantu groups are known as Mushunguli, which is a term taken from Mzigula, the Zigua tribe’s word for “peo-ple” (the word holds multiple implied meanings including “worker”, “foreigner”, and “slave”).[53]
Bantu adult and children slaves (referred to collectively as
jareer by their Somali masters[54]) were purchased in the
plan-4 2 SOURCES AND HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SLAVE TRADE
tation grounds.[54]They were made to work inplantations
owned by Somalis along the southernShebelleandJubba rivers, harvesting lucrative cash crops such as grain and cotton.[55] Bantu slaves toiled under the control of and
separately from their Somali patrons.[54]
In terms of legal considerations, Bantu slaves were de-valued. Somali social mores strongly discouraged, cen-sured and looked down upon any kind of sexual contact with Bantu slaves. Freedom for these plantation slaves was also often acquired through escape.[54]
As part of a broader practice then common among slave owners inNortheast Africa, some Somali masters in the hinterland nearMogadishureportedly used tocircumcise their female slaves so as to increase the latter’s perceived value in the slave market. In 1609, the Portuguese mis-sionaryJoão dos Santosreported that one such group had a “custome to sew up their females, especially their slaves being young to make them unable for conception, which makes these slaves sell dearer, both for their chastitie, and for better confidence which their masters put in them.”[56]
The Italian colonial administration abolished slavery in Somalia at the turn of the 20th century. Some Bantu groups, however, remained enslaved well until the 1930s, and continued to be despised and discriminated against by large parts of Somali society.[57]
Historical routes of the Ethiopian slave trade.
In Ethiopia, during the second half of the 19th century and early 20th century, slaves shipped from there had a high demand in the markets of the Arabian peninsula and elsewhere in the Middle East. They were mostly domestic servants, though some served as agricultural labourers, or as water carriers, herdsmen, seamen, camel drivers, porters, washerwomen, masons, shop assistants and cooks. The most fortunate of the men worked as the officials or bodyguards of the ruler and emirs, or as business managers for rich merchants. They enjoyed sig-nificant personal freedom and occasionally held slaves of their own. BesidesJavaneseand Chinesegirls brought in from the Far East, “red” (non-black) Ethiopian young
females were among the most valued concubines. The most beautiful ones often enjoyed a wealthy lifestyle, and became mistresses of the elite or even mothers to rulers.[58] The principal sources of these slaves, all of
whom passed through Matamma,MassawaandTadjoura on the Red Sea, were the southwestern parts of Ethiopia, in the Oromo andSidamacountry.[59]
The most important outlet for Ethiopian slaves was un-doubtedly Massawa. Trade routes fromGondar, located in the Ethiopian Highlands led to Massawa via Adwa. Slave drivers from Gondar took 100-200 slaves in a single trip to Massawa, the majority of whom were female.[59]
A small number of eunuchs were also acquired by the slave traders in the southern parts of Ethiopia.[60]Mainly
consisting of young children, they led the most privileged lives and commanded the highest prices in the Islamic global markets because of their rarity. They served in theharemsof the affluent or guarded holy sites.[58]Some
of the young boys had become eunuchs due to the bat-tle traditions that were at the time endemic to parts of southern Ethiopia. However, the majority came from the Badi Folia principality in theJimmaregion, situated to the southeast ofEnarea. The local Oromo/Galla rulers were so disturbed by the custom that they drove out of their kingdoms all who practiced it.[60]
In the Central African Republic, during the 16th and 17th centuries Muslim slave traders began to raid the region as part of the expansion of the Saharan and Nile River slave routes. Their captives were slaved and shipped to the Mediterranean coast, Europe, Arabia, the Western Hemisphere, or to the slave ports and factories along the West and North Africa or South the Ubanqui and Congo rivers.[61][62]
The Arab slave trade in the Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Mediterranean Sea long predated the arrival of any significant number of Europeans on the African continent.[40][63]
Purchase of Christian captives by Catholic monks in theBarbary states
Some descendants of African slaves brought to the Mid-dle East during the slave-trade still live there today, and
2.2 Medieval Arabic sources 5
are aware of their African origins. Some men were cas-trated to beeunuchsin domestic service.[64][65]
TheNorth Africanslave markets traded also inEuropean slaves. The European slaves were acquired byBarbary pirates in slave raids on ships and by raids on coastal towns from Italy to Spain, Portugal, France, England, the Netherlands, and as far afield asIceland. Men, women, and children were captured, to such a devastating extent that vast numbers of sea coast towns were abandoned. Ohio State University history Professor Robert Davis de-scribes the white slave trade as minimized by most mod-ern historians in his book Christian Slaves, Muslim
Mas-ters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500-1800 (Palgrave Macmillan). Davis
estimates that 1 million to 1.25 million WhiteChristian Europeans were enslaved in North Africa, from the be-ginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th, by slave tradersfrom Tunis, Algiers, and Tripoli alone (these numbers do not include the European people which were enslaved by Morocco and by other raiders and traders of the Mediterranean Sea coast),[66] and roughly 700
Americanswere held captive in this region as slaves be-tween 1785 and 1815.[67]16th- and 17th-century customs
statistics suggest that Istanbul’s additional slave import from theBlack Seamay have totaled around 2.5 million from 1450 to 1700.[68]In the 1800s, the slave trade from
Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly. When the European slave trade ended around the 1850s, the slave trade to the east picked up significantly only to be ended with European colonization of Africa around 1900.[69]
In 1814, Swiss explorerJohann Burckhardtwrote of his travels inEgyptandNubia, where he saw the practice of slave trading: “I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity.”[70]
David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade in the African Great Lakesregion, which he visited in the mid-nineteenth century: "To overdraw its evils is a simple
im-possibility ... We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path. [Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead ... We came upon a man dead from starvation ... The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken hearted-ness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves.”[71] [72] Livingstone estimated that 80,000
Africans died each year before ever reaching the slave markets ofZanzibar.[34][35][73][74]Zanzibar was once East
Africa’s main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.[75]
Livingstone wrote in a letter to the editor of theNew York Herald:
And if my disclosures regarding the terrible Ujijian slavery should lead to the suppression of the East Coast slave trade, I shall regard that as a greater matter by far than the discovery of all the Nile sources together.[76]
As recently as the 1950s, Saudi Arabia's slave popula-tion was estimated at 450,000 — approximately 20% of the population.[77]During theSecond Sudanese Civil War
people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.[78]Slavery in Mauritania
was legally abolished by laws passed in 1905, 1961, and 1981.[79] It was finally criminalized in August 2007.[80]
It is estimated that up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of Mauritania's population, are currently in conditions which some consider to be “slavery”, namely, many of them used asbonded labourdue to poverty.[81]
In 1953, slaves accompaniedsheikhsfromQatar attend-ing the coronation ofQueen Elizabeth IIand they did so again on another visit five years later.[82]
2.2 Medieval Arabic sources
These are given in chronological order. Scholars and geographersfrom the Arab world had been travelling to Africa since the time ofMuhammadin the 7th century.
1816 illustration of Christian slaves inAlgiers
• Al-Masudi (died 957), Muruj adh-dhahab or The Meadows of Gold, the reference manual for geog-raphers and historians of the Muslim world. The author had travelled widely across the Arab world as well as the Far East.
• Ya'qubi(9th century), Kitab al-Buldan or Book of
Countries
• Abraham ben Jacob(Ibrahim ibn Jakub) (10th cen-tury), Jewish merchant from Córdoba[41]
6 2 SOURCES AND HISTORIOGRAPHY OF THE SLAVE TRADE
• Al-Bakri, author of Kitāb al-Masālik wa'l-Mamālik orBook of Roads and Kingdoms, published in Cór-doba around 1068, gives us information about the Berbersand their activities; he collected eye-witness accounts on Saharancaravan routes.
• Muhammad al-Idrisi(died circa 1165), Description
of Africa and Spain
• Ibn Battuta(died circa 1377),Moroccangeographer who travelled to sub-Saharan Africa, toGaoand to Timbuktu. His principal work is called A Gift to
Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling.
• Ibn Khaldun(died in 1406), historian and philoso-pher from North Africa. Sometimes considered as the historian of Arab, Berber and Persian societies. He is the author ofMuqaddimahorHistorical
Prole-gomena and History of the Berbers.
• Al-Maqrizi(died in 1442), Egyptian historian. His main contribution is his description ofCairo mar-kets.
• Leo Africanus(died circa 1548), author of
Descrit-tione dell’ Africa or Description of Africa, a rare de-scription of Africa.
• Rifa'a al-Tahtawi(1801–1873), who translated me-dieval works on geography and history. His work is mostly about Muslim Egypt.
• Joseph Cuoq, Collection of Arabic sources concern-ing Western Africa between the 8th and 16th centuries (Paris 1975)
A slave market inKhartoum, Sudan, c. 1876
2.3
European texts (16th–19th centuries)
• João de Castro, Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa (1538)• James Bruce, (1730–1794), Travels to Discover the
Source of the Nile (1790)
• René Caillié, (1799–1838), Journal d'un voyage à
Tombouctou
• Robert Adams, The Narrative of Robert Adams
(1816)
• Mungo Park, (1771–1806), Travels in the Interior of
Africa (1816)
• Johann Ludwig Burckhardt, (1784–1817), Travels
in Nubia (1819)
• Heinrich Barth, (1821–1865), Travels and
Discov-eries in North and Central Africa (1857)
• Richard Francis Burton, (1821–1890), The Lake
Regions of Central Africa (1860)
• David Livingstone, (1813–1873), Travel diaries (1866–1873)
• Henry Morton Stanley, (1841–1904), Through the
Dark Continent (1878)
Arab slave traders and their captives along theRuvuma Riverin Mozambique
2.4 Other sources
• Historical manuscripts such as theTarikh al-Sudan, theAdaliteFutuh al-Habash, the AbyssinianKebra Nagast, and various Arabic andAjamdocuments
• Africanoral tradition
• KilwaChronicle (16th century fragments)
• Numismatics: analysis of coins and of theirdiffusion
• Archaeology: architecture of trading posts and of
towns associated with the slave trade
• Iconography: Arab and Persianminiaturesin major libraries
• European engravings, contemporary with the slave
trade, and some more modern
3.2 Arab views on African people 7
The Slave Market (c. 1884), painting byJean-Léon Gérôme.
3
Historical and geographical
con-text
3.1
The Islamic world
See also: Muslim world, Muslim conquests, Islamic economics in the worldandIslamic views on slavery
The islamic law allowed slavery but prohibited slavery in-volving other pre-existing Muslims; as a result, the main target for slavery were the people who lived in the frontier areas of Islam in Africa.[83] The conquests of theArab
armies and the expansion of the Islamic state that fol-lowed have always resulted in the capture of war prison-ers who were subsequently set free or turned into slaves or Raqeeq (قيقر) and servants rather than taken as pris-oners as was the Islamic tradition in wars. Once taken as slaves, they had to be dealt with in accordance with theIslamic lawwhich was the law of the Islamic state, especially during the Umayyadand Abbasideras. Ac-cording to that law, slaves were allowed to earn their living if they opted for that, otherwise it is the owner’s (master) duty to provide for that. They also could not be forced to earn money for their masters unless with an agreement between the slave and the master. This concept is called (mukhārajah) (Lane: “And هُجَرَاخَ He made an agreement with him, namely, his slave that he (the latter) should pay him a certain impost at the expiration of every month; the slave being left at liberty to work: in which case the slave is termed دٌبْعَ
جٌرِاخَمُ") in Islamic law. If slaves agree to that and they would like the money they earn to be counted toward their emancipation, then this has to be written in the form of a contract between the slave and the master. This is called (mukataba) inIslamic jurisprudencewhich is only, by consensus, a recommendation,[84]and accepting
a request for a mukataba from slaves is thus not obliga-tory for masters.[85]Although the owner did not have to
comply with it, was considered praiseworthy to do so[86]
The framework of Islamic civilization was a well-developed network of towns and oasis trading centers with the market (souq,bazaar) at its heart. These towns were inter-connected by a system of roads crossing semi-arid regions or deserts. The routes were traveled by con-voys, and slaves formed part of thiscaravantraffic. In contrast to the Atlantic slave trade, where the male-female ratio was 2:1 or 3:1, the Arab slave trade in-stead usually had a higher female-to-male ratio. This sug-gests a general preference for female slaves.Concubinage and reproduction served as incentives for importing fe-male slaves (often Caucasian), though many were also im-ported mainly for performing household tasks.[87]
3.2 Arab views on African people
From the Islamic literature, manifestations of racial dis-crimination followed within the Islamic world.[1]For
ex-ample, an Arab poet in the 7th century wrote: “The blacks do not earn their pay by good deeds, and are not of good repute; The children of a stinking Nubian black - God put no light in their complexions!"[88]
Ethnic prejudicesdeveloped among Arabs for at least two reasons: 1) their extensive conquests and slave trade;[1]
and 2) the influence of Aristotle's idea of final causes which argues that slaves are slaves by nature.[89] A
re-finement of Aristotle’s view was put forward byMuslim philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna, partic-ularly in regards to Turkic and black peoples;[1] and
the influence of ideas from the early mediaeval Geonic academies regarding divisions among mankind between the threesons of Noah. However, ethnic prejudice among some elite Arabs was not limited to darker-skinned peo-ple, but was also directed towards fairer-skinned “ruddy people” (including Persians, Turks and Europeans), while Arabs referred to themselves as “swarthy people”.[90]The
concept of anArab identityitself did not exist until mod-ern times.[91]According toArnold J. Toynbee: “The
ex-tinction of race consciousness as between Muslims is one of the outstanding achievements of Islam and in the con-temporary world there is, as it happens, a crying need for the propagation of this Islamic virtue.”[92]
By the 14th century, an overwhelming number of slaves came from sub-Saharan Africa, leading to prejudice against black people in the works of severalArabic histo-riansand geographers. For example, theEgyptian histo-rian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) wrote: “It is said that when
8 3 HISTORICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL CONTEXT
the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hun-gry, he steals.”[93]
Egyptian slavemaster andWaswahilislave.
Ibn Battutawho visited the ancientkingdom of Maliin the mid-14th century recounts that the local inhabitants view with each other in the number of slaves and servants they have, and was himself given a slave boy as a “hospi-tality gift.”[94]
Mistranslations of Arab scholars and geographers from this time period have led many to attribute certain racist attitudes that weren't prevalent until the 18th and 19th century to writings made centuries ago.[95]
3.3
Africa: 8th through 19th centuries
In April 1998, Elikia M’bokolo, wrote inLe Monde diplo-matique. “The African continent was bled of its hu-man resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth).” He continues: “Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through theSwahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine mil-lion along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the At-lantic Ocean”[96]In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails.
• The Sahara was thinly populated. Nevertheless,
since antiquity there had been cities living on atrade in salt, gold, slaves, cloth, and on agriculture enabled by irrigation: Tiaret, Oualata, Sijilmasa, Zaouila, and others.
• In the Middle Ages, the general Arabic term bilâd as-sûdân (“Land of the Blacks”) was used for the
vastSudan region(an expression denotingWestand Central Africa[97]), or sometimes extending from
the coast of West Africa toWestern Sudan.[98]). It
provided a pool of manual labour for North and Sa-haran Africa. This region was dominated by certain states and people: the Ghana Empire, the Empire of Mali, theKanem-Bornu Empire, theFulaniand Hausa.
AZanjslave gang inZanzibar(1889).
• In the Nile Valley,Nubiahad been a “supply zone” for slaves since antiquity.
• In the Horn of Africa, the coasts of theRed Sea andIndian Oceanwere controlled by local Somali and other Muslims, and Yemenis and Omanis had merchant posts along the coasts. The Ethiopian coast, particularly the port ofMassawaandDahlak Archipelago, had long been a hub for the expor-tation of slaves from the interior by theKingdom of Aksumand earlier polities. The port and most coastal areas were largely Muslim, and the port it-self was home to a number of Arab and Indian merchants.[99] The Solomonic dynastyof Ethiopia
often exportedNiloticslaves from their western bor-derland provinces, or from newly conquered south-ern provinces.[100] The Somali and Afar Muslim
sultanates, such as theAdal Sultanate, also exported Nilotic slaves that they captured from the interior, as well as some vanquished foes.[101]
4.2 Routes 9
• In the African Great Lakes region, Omani and Yemeni traders set up slave-trading posts along the southeastern coast of the Indian Ocean; most no-tably in the archipelago of Zanzibar, along the coast of present-day Tanzania. TheZanjregion orSwahili Coastflanking the Indian Ocean continued to be an important area for the Oriental slave trade up un-til the 19th century. Livingstoneand Stanley were then the first Europeans to penetrate to the interior of theCongo Basinand to discover the scale of slav-ery there. The Arab Tippu Tip extended his influ-ence there and captured many people as slaves. Af-ter Europeans had settled in theGulf of Guinea, the trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. In Zanzibar, slavery was abolished late, in 1897, under SultanHamoud bin Mohammed.
4
Geography of the slave trade
4.1
“Supply” zones
Photograph of a slave boy inZanzibar. 'An Arab master’s pun-ishment for a slight offence. ' c. 1890.
There is historical evidence of North African Muslim slave raids all along the Mediterranean coasts across Christian Europe and beyond to even as far north as the British Islesand Iceland (see the book titled White Gold byGiles Milton).[102]The majority of slaves traded across
the Mediterranean region were predominantly of Euro-pean origin from the 7th to 15th centuries.[103]The
Bar-bary pirates continued to capture slaves from Europe and, to an extent, North America, from the 16th to 19th cen-turies.
Slaves were also brought into the Arab world via Central Asia, mainly of Turkic orTartarorigin. Many of these slaves later went on to serve in the armies forming an elite rank.
• At sea, Barbary pirates joined in this traffic when
they could capture people by boarding ships or by incursions into coastal areas, mainly in Southern Eu-rope as well as other EuEu-ropean coasts.
• Nubia and Ethiopia were also “exporting” regions:
in the 15th century, Ethiopians sold slaves from western borderland areas (usually just outside the realm of theEmperor of Ethiopia) orEnnarea,[104]
which often ended up in India, where they worked on ships or as soldiers. They eventually rebelled and took power (dynasty of theHabshiKings in Bengal 1487-1493).
• The Sudan region and Saharan Africa formed
an-other “export” area, but it is impossible to estimate the scale, since there is a lack of sources with figures.
• Finally, the slave traffic affected eastern Africa, but
the distance and local hostility slowed down this sec-tion of the Oriental trade.
4.2 Routes
According to professor Ibrahima Baba Kaké there were four main slavery routes to the Arab world, from east to west of Africa, from the Maghrebto the Sudan, from Tripolitaniato central Sudan and from Egypt to the Mid-dle East.[105] Caravan trails, set up in the 9th century,
went past the oasis of the Sahara; travel was difficult and uncomfortable for reasons of climate and distance. Since Roman times, long convoys had transported slaves as well as all sorts of products to be used forbarter. To protect against attacks from desert nomads, slaves were used as an escort. Any who slowed down the progress of the car-avan were killed.
Historians know less about the sea routes. From the ev-idence of illustrated documents, and travellers’ tales, it seems that people travelled on dhows or jalbas, Arab ships which were used as transport in the Red Sea. Cross-ing the Indian Ocean required better organisation and more resources than overland transport. Ships coming from Zanzibar made stops on Socotra or at Aden be-fore heading to the Persian Gulf or to India. Slaves were sold as far away as India, or even China: there was a colony of Arab merchants inCanton. Serge Bilé
10 4 GEOGRAPHY OF THE SLAVE TRADE
Dhowswere used to transport goods to Oman.
cites a 12th-century text which tells us that most well-to-do families in Canton had black slaves whom they re-garded as savages and demons because of their physi-cal appearance. Although Chinese slave traders bought slaves (Seng Chi i.e. the Zanj[11]) from Arab
inter-mediaries and “stocked up” directly in coastal areas of present-day Somalia, the local Somalis—referred to as
Baribah and Barbaroi (Berbers) by medieval Arab and
ancientGreekgeographers, respectively (seePeriplus of the Erythraean Sea),[10][106][107]and no strangers to
cap-turing, owning and trading slaves themselves[108]—were
not among them:[109]
One important commodity being trans-ported by the Arab dhows to Somalia was slaves from other parts of East Africa. During the nineteenth century, the East African slave trade grew enormously due to demands by Arabs, Portuguese, and French. Slave traders and raiders moved throughout eastern and central Africa to meet the rising demand for enslaved men, women, and children. Somalia did not supply slaves -- as part of the Islamic world Somalis were at least nominally pro-tected by the religious tenet that free Muslims cannot be enslaved -- but Arab dhows loaded with human cargo continually visited Somali ports.
—Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling Somalia: Race, Class, and the Legacy of Slavery[110]
4.3
Barter
Slaves were often bartered for objects of various kinds: in the Sudan, they were exchanged for cloth, trinkets and so on. In the Maghreb, they were swapped for horses. In the desert cities, lengths of cloth, pottery,Venetian glass slave beads, dyestuffs and jewels were used as payment. The trade in black slaves was part of a diverse commer-cial network. Alongside gold coins, cowrie shellsfrom
Cowryshells were used as money in the slave trade
the Indian Ocean or the Atlantic (Canaries,Luanda) were used as money throughout sub-saharan Africa (merchan-dise was paid for with sacks of cowries).[111]
4.4 Slave markets and fairs
13th-century slave market in Yemen
Enslaved Africans were sold in the towns of the Arab World. In 1416, al-Maqrizi told how pilgrims com-ing from Takrur (near the Senegal River) had brought 1,700 slaves with them to Mecca. In North Africa, the main slave markets were in Morocco,Algiers,Tripoliand Cairo. Sales were held in public places or insouks. Po-tential buyers made a careful examination of the “mer-chandise": they checked the state of health of a person who was often standing naked with wrists bound together.
11
In Cairo, transactions involving eunuchs and concubines happened in private houses. Prices varied according to the slave’s quality. Thomas Smee, the commander of the British research ship Ternate, visited such a market in Zanzibar in 1811 and gave a detailed description:
'The show' commences about four o'clock in the afternoon. The slaves, set off to the best advantage by having their skins cleaned and burnished with cocoa-nut oil, their faces painted with red and white stripes and the hands, noses, ears and feet ornamented with a profusion of bracelets of gold and silver and jewels, are ranged in a line, commencing with the youngest, and increasing to the rear accord-ing to their size and age. At the head of this file, which is composed of all sexes and ages from 6 to 60, walks the person who owns them; behind and at each side, two or three of his domestic slaves, armed with swords and spears, serve as guard.
Thus ordered the procession begins, and passes through the market-place and the prin-ciple streets... when any of them strikes a spec-tator’s fancy the line immediately stops, and a process of examination ensues, which, for minuteness, is unequalled in any cattle market in Europe. The intending purchaser having as-certained there is no defect in the faculties of speech, hearing, etc., that there is no disease present, next proceeds to examine the person; the mouth and the teeth are first inspected and afterwards every part of the body in succes-sion, not even excepting the breasts, etc., of the girls, many of whom I have seen handled in the most indecent manner in the public mar-ket by their purchasers; indeed there is every reasons to believe that the slave-dealers almost universally force the young girls to submit to their lust previous to their being disposed of. From such scenes one turns away with pity and indignation.[112]
4.5
Towns and ports involved in the slave
trade
5
A recent topic
The history of the slave trade has given rise to numerous debates amongst historians. For one thing, specialists are undecided on the number of Africans taken from their homes; this is difficult to resolve because of a lack of re-liable statistics: there was no census system in medieval Africa. Archival material for the transatlantic trade in the 16th to 18th centuries may seem useful as a source, yet these record books were often falsified. Historians have
to use imprecise narrative documents to make estimates which must be treated with caution: Luiz Felipe de Alen-castro states that there were 8 million slaves taken from Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along the Ori-ental and theTrans-Saharanroutes.[113]
Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau has put forward a figure of 17 million African people enslaved (in the same pe-riod and from the same area) on the basis of Ralph Austen’s work.[114] Ronald Segal estimates between
11.5 and 14 million were enslaved by the Arab slave trade.[115][116][117]
6 See also
• Slavery in 21st century Islamism
• Slavery in modern Africa
• Slavery in antiquity
• Black orientalism
7 References
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12 7 REFERENCES
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13
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Class, and the Legacy of Slavery, (University of
Pennsyl-vania Press: 1999), pp. 83-84
[55] Henry Louis Gates, Africana: The Encyclopedia of the
African and African American Experience, (Oxford
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[68] The Cambridge World History of Slavery: Volume 3, AD 1420–AD 1804
[69] Manning, Patrick (1990). Slavery and African Life:
Oc-cidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades. London:
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[70] Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt
[71] Kwame Anthony Appiah; Henry Louis Gates (2005).
Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African-American Experience 5-Volume Set. Oxford University Press. p. 295.ISBN 0195170555.
[72] David Livingstone (2006). "The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death". Echo Library. p.46.ISBN 1-84637-555-X
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[76] Stanley Henry M., How I Found Livingstone; travels,
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[78] “Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan”. US Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 20 March 2014.
[79] “Slavery still exists in Mauritania”
[80] Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law
[81] “The Abolition season”, BBC World Service
[82] Gareth Wilson (2010). "The Plain Truths of Religion". AuthorHouse. p.328.ISBN 978-1-4520-0474-7
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[85] Lewis, Bernard(1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle
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[86] Murray Gordon (1989). Slavery in the Arab World.
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[87] Ehud R. Toledano (1998), Slavery and abolition in the
Ot-toman Middle East,University of Washington Press, pp. 13–4,ISBN 0-295-97642-X
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14 8 FURTHER READING
[89] Aristotle,Politics, Book I.
[90] Bernard Lewis (1992), Race and slavery in the Middle
East: an historical enquiry,Oxford University Press, pp. 18–9,ISBN 0-19-505326-5
[91] Lindsay, James E. (2005), Daily Life in the Medieval
Is-lamic World, Greenwood Publishing Group, pp. 12–5,
ISBN 0-313-32270-8
[92] A. J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, New York, 1948, p. 205
[93] Lewis, Bernard(2002), Race and Slavery in the Middle
East, Oxford University Press, p. 93,ISBN 0-19-505326-5
[94] Noel King (ed.), Ibn Battuta in Black Africa, Princeton 2005, p. 54
[95] Translation and the Colonial Imaginary: Ibn Khaldun Ori-entalist, by Abdelmajid Hannoum 2003 Wesleyan Univer-sity.
[96] Please note : The numbers occurring in the source, and repeated here onWikipediainclude both Arab and Euro-pean trade. M’bokolo, Elikia (April 1998).“A Hundred And Fifty Years After France Abolished Slavery: The im-pact of the slave trade on Africa”.http://mondediplo.com''. Le Monde diplomatique. Retrieved 3 June 2015.
[97] International Association for the History of Religions (1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131, West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks’, of the Arabs
[98] Nehemia Levtzion, Randall Lee Pouwels, The History of Islam in Africa, (Ohio University Press, 2000), p.255. [99] Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in
Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century (Asmara, Eritrea: Red Sea Press, 1997), pp.416
[100] Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.432 [101] Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.59 & 435 [102] Conlin, Joseph (2009), The American Past: A Survey
of American History,Boston,MA: Wadsworth, p. 206,
ISBN 978-0-495-57288-6, retrieved 10 October 2010 [103] McDaniel, Antonio (1995), Swing low, sweet chariot: the
mortality cost of colonizing Liberia in the nineteenth cen-tury, University of Chicago Press, p. 11, ISBN 0-226-55724-3
[104] Emery Van Donzel, “Primary and Secondary Sources for Ethiopian Historiography. The Case of Slavery and Slave-Trade in Ethiopia,” in Claude Lepage, ed., Études
éthiopi-ennes, vol I. France: Société française pour les études
éthiopiennes, 1994, pp.187-88.
[105] Doudou Diène (2001). From Chains to Bonds: The Slave Trade Revisited. Berghahn Books. p. 16. ISBN 1571812652. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
[106] Mohamed Diriye Abdullahi, Culture and Customs of
So-malia, (Greenwood Press: 2001), p.13
[107] James Hastings, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part
12: V. 12, (Kessinger Publishing, LLC: 2003), p.490
[108] Henry Louis Gates, Africana: The Encyclopedia of the
African and African American Experience, (Oxford
Uni-versity Press: 1999), p.1746
[109] David D. Laitin, Politics, Language, and Thought: The
Somali Experience, (University Of Chicago Press: 1977),
p.52
[110] Catherine Lowe Besteman, Unraveling Somalia: Race,
Class, and the Legacy of Slavery, (University of
Pennsyl-vania Press: 1999), p. 51
[111] Jan Hogendorn and Marion Johnson (1986). The Shell Money of the Slave Trade. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-versity Press.ISBN 9780521541107. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
[112] Moorehead, Alan (1960), The White Nile, New York: Harper & Brothers, pp. 11–12,ISBN 9780060956394
[113] Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, “Traite”, in Encyclopædia
Uni-versalis (2002), corpus 22, page 902.
[114] Ralph Austen, African Economic History (1987) [115] Quoted inRonald Segal’s Islam’s Black Slaves
[116] Adam Hochschild (Mar 4, 2001). “Human Cargo”. New
York Times. Retrieved Dec 20, 2012.
[117] Ronald Segal (2002), Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other
Black Diaspora, Farrar, Straus and Giroux,ISBN 978-0374527976
8 Further reading
• Edward A. Alpers, The East African Slave Trade
(Berkeley 1967)
• Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, trans. F. Rosen-thal, ed. N. J. Dawood (Princeton 1967)
• Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World (New York 1989)
• Habeeb Akande, Illuminating the Darkness: Blacks and North Africans in Islam (Ta Ha 2012)
• Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East (OUP 1990)
• Patrick Manning, Slavery and African Life:
Occi-dental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades
(Cam-bridge 1990)
• Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformations in Slavery: A His-tory of Slavery in Africa (Cambridge 2000)
15
• Allan G. B. Fisher, Slavery and Muslim Society in Africa, ed. C. Hurst (London 1970, 2nd edition
2001)
• The African Diaspora in the Mediterranean Lands of Islam (Princeton Series on the Middle East) Eve
Troutt Powell (Editor), John O. Hunwick (Editor) (Princeton 2001)
• Ronald Segal, Islam’s Black Slaves (Atlantic Books,
London 2002)
• Robert C. Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800 (Palgrave Macmillan,
London 2003)ISBN 978-1-4039-4551-8
• Doudou Diène(2001).From Chains to Bonds: The
Slave Trade Revisited. Berghahn Books. ISBN
1571812652. Retrieved 26 May 2015.
9
External links
• Robert Davis. “British Slaves on the Barbary Coast”.BBC. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
• “Slavery in Islam”.BBC. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
• “Encyclopædia Britannica’s Guide to Black His-tory”. www.britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britan-nica. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
• iAbolish.ORG! American Anti-Slavery Group (AASG) - particular focus on North African slaves
16 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
10
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
10.1 Text
• Arab slave trade Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_slave_trade?oldid=666585002Contributors: The Anome, Ed Poor, Shii,
Stev-ertigo, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Jahsonic, Paul A, Bogdangiusca, Charles Matthews, Ed g2s, Wereon, Fudoreaper, Tom harrison, Zeeb, Thincat, Gscshoyru, Esperant, Discospinster, Dbachmann, Iranian86Footballer, Enric Naval, Shenme, Netparrot, Irishpunktom, Anthony Appleyard, Carbon Caryatid, Collounsbury, Axeman89, Scarykitty, Woohookitty, Jeff3000, Tickle me, Toussaint, Paxsimius, Mandarax, Malangthon, Padraic, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Bhadani, Ian Pitchford, Gurch, Merhawie, DVdm, Bgwhite, Roboto de Ajvol, YurikBot, Russ-Bot, Netscott, CambridgeBayWeather, Mike18xx, Grafen, Bestofmed, Aldux, Ezeu, Hakeem.gadi, Wknight94, AjaxSmack, Igiffin, König Alfons der Viertelvorzwölfte, NielsenGW, ArielGold, SaveTheWhales, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Jagged 85, Delldot, Kintetsubuf-falo, Edgar181, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Kitrus, TimBentley, Full Shunyata, Alan Parmenter, Apeloverage, Colonies Chris, Hon-gooi, Darth Panda, Mimson, Trekphiler, OrphanBot, Bolivian Unicyclist, Arab Hafez, Pondster123, Yom, Rossp, Shadowcaster~enwiki, Mukadderat, AAA765, MilborneOne, Filosofaster~enwiki, Neddyseagoon, Halaqah, Hectorian, HJMG, Toira~enwiki, Karel leermans, Gil Gamesh, Disambiguator, JForget, CmdrObot, Hemlock Martinis, Beh-nam, Cydebot, Travelbird, Pascal.Tesson, Doug Weller, Christian75, Jjfad, Duhon~enwiki, Arb, Hypnosadist, Wandalstouring, Barticus88, Ishdarian, Lopakhin, S710, Sturm55, Heroeswithmetaphors, Bridge-player, Mrabcx, Marwan123, Yalens, Sluzzelin, Leroy65X, Scythian1, Arch dude, Wimstead, Frofrol, Yahel Guhan, Magioladitis, Ling.Nut, Bigdan201, Orionist, Gmflash, Gahughes, Max The Dog, Joe hill, Sectori, JaGa, Jdorwin, Gun Powder Ma, MartinBot, Learningwiki, TheEgyptian, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, DBlomgren, Trusilver, Arrow740, Skumarlabot, Thaurisil, Ryan Postlethwaite, Alexb102072, Ratednr, Iulus Ascanius, Gemini1980, The Behnam, Medicineman84, Le viper, VolkovBot, BoogaLouie, Philip Trueman, Java7837, DavidYork71, Mardhil, Taharqa, Staka, Ethiohistorian, Philmac, Piratedan, MJWillett, Jazzpizazz, Alcmaeonid, The Last Melon, Allebor-goBot, Aph1ruderman, Malc82, Lylefor, Matthew Yeager, Yintan, GlassCobra, Keilana, FunkMonk, H4mza, JD554, Atari400, DevOhm, Harry~enwiki, Goustien, Filiusvita, Tombomp, Fratrep, Longweekend, Belligero, Gr8opinionater, Naturiste, Curieux~enwiki, ClueBot, Ibn Kofi, The Thing That Should Not Be, Banasta, XPTO, Alfonsino2, Boing! said Zebedee, Patecatetl, Nanuck, Blanchardb, Parkwells, Ryou-kun16, Idnawutnum, Solar-Wind, LeilaStar, Ashashyou, Spark240, 63rd, 62rd, Flooreast, Yarkod, Audaciter, Criticalthinkerguy, Al-Andalusi, Rui Gabriel Correia, PCHS-NJROTC, DumZiBoT, Life of Riley, Wally Tharg, Auto469680, Jonxwood, TFOWR, Addbot, Altetendekrabbe, Causteau, Lysippos, Fyrael, Betterusername, GargoyleBot, Fieldday-sunday, MrOllie, Download, Debresser, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, Wxsfhynd, Soupforone, Tide rolls, Musliman08, CountryBot, Middayexpress, Yobot, Matanya, Abdullah Alk-endy, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, VX, Law, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, E2eamon, NurseryRhyme, LilHelpa, The Fiddly Leprechaun, NisarPakistani, MrOakes, ChildofMidnight, EgyptianWikipedian, BritishWatcher, Aa77zz, WebCiteBOT, Nit-pyck, Amethystus, FrescoBot, Sunjata321, MuhammedAkbarKhan, Tobby72, Markellion, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, Lit-tleWink, ObersterGenosse, Zoroab, Tamsier, Webistrator, Comancheros, LightOfWisdom, Callanecc, SeoMac, Bluefist, Marbod Egerius, Lichina2000, Oger92, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Richmondian, RjwilmsiBot, EuroBorg, Lemonjuicer, AndrewAfresh, EmausBot, Look2See1, Abdallah19, Syncategoremata, RA0808, Sindbad mughal, Slightsmile, Wikipelli, Thecheesykid, Italia2006, Geosutter, ZéroBot, Omar-Toons, Figureofnine, Labnoor, Donner60, $1LENCE D00600D, ClamDip, Stud1989, Knowledge246, Wadaad, Aojiakor, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, , Ownmanship, Catlemur, Jakeybean, Bullbull1986, O.Koslowski, Logos384, Runehelmet, Widr, Delivernews, Helpful Pixie Bot, Prince jasim ali, BG19bot, Suitcivil133, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, Layali.elkhameesi, The Almightey Drill, Gibbja, Saeed15, Optimusprime3, Jason from nyc, Justincheng12345-bot, Khazar2, BlueLupine, Winkelvi, Dexbot, Cwobeel, Webclient101, Mogism, Ab-brickman, Inayity, Shoshi.shmuluvitz, Lugia2453, Esthea, Khatary1, Heybells2004, SteenthIWbot, KahnJohn27, Rajmaan, Rupert loup, Peacefrog1, BreakfastJr, Skorpius83, VoiceOfTheCommons, Hazelares, AcidSnow, Kohelet, AzizthePoet, Ginsuloft, Duniyaduniya, Dar-renrichardsso, Sossooooooooo, Bladesmulti, Andrewwilliamkelley, Andajara120000, Frances3654, ShulMaven, Khaliftut, ParanoidLem-mings, Kaiger, Omo Obatalá and Anonymous: 324
10.2 Images
• File:Africa_satellite_orthographic.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/21/Africa_satellite_orthographic.jpg Li-cense: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:African_slave_trade.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/African_slave_trade.pngLicense: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:File:Traite_musulmane_medievale.svgOriginal artist:Runehelmetderived fromAliesin
• File:Allah-green.svg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svgLicense: Public domain Contribu-tors: Converted to SVG fromImage:Islam.png, originally fromen:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia byMr100percenton 4 February 2003. Originally described as “Copied from Public Domain artwork”. Original artist: ?
• File:Ambox_important.svg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svgLicense: Public
do-main Contributors: Own work, based off ofImage:Ambox scales.svgOriginal artist:Dsmurat(talk·contribs)
• File:Ambox_rewrite.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svgLicense: Public domain Contributors: self-made in Inkscape Original artist:penubag
• File:Arabslavers.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Arabslavers.jpgLicense: Public domain Contribu-tors: Image accessible here:http://uk.encarta.msn.com/media_461543653_761572628_-1_1/Arab_Slave_Traders.html
Original artist: Uploaded byDavidYork71at en.wikipedia
• File:Boutre_indien.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Boutre_indien.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:http://www.marine-marchande.net/Original artist: Hervé Cozanet
• File:Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/ Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.archive.org/details/ crueltiesofalger00crokuoftOriginal artist: Walker Croker
• File:Different_cowries.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpgLicense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Egyptian_Slavemaster_and_Slave.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/57/Egyptian_Slavemaster_and_ Slave.jpgLicense: PD-US Contributors:
10.3 Content license 17
Original publication: UK
Immediate source:http://thecivilisingmission.com/2010/08/27/the-arab-slave-trade-in-east-africa/Original artist:
Unknown (Life time: 1900s)
• File:Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Flag_of_the_Arab_League.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist:Flad
• File:Geromeslavemarket.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Geromeslavemarket.jpgLicense: Public
domain Contributors:http://www.orientalist-art.org.uk/gerome13.htmlOriginal artist: Unknown
• File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/ 9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.pngLicense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: TropenmuseumOriginal artist: ?
• File:Map_Slave_Routes_Ethiopia.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/61/Map_Slave_Routes_Ethiopia.jpg Li-cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Imaging software
Original artist:
26oo
• File:Myths-slavery.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a0/Myths-slavery.jpgLicense: CC-BY-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/ 06/Purchase_of_Christian_captives_from_the_Barbary_States.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: “Le Commerce des Captifs”
Wolfgang Kaiser Original artist: Anonymous 17th century
• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svgLicense: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based onImage:Question book.pngcreated byUser:EquazcionOriginal artist:
Tkgd2007
• File:Servant_or_slave_woman_in_Mogadishu.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Servant_or_slave_ woman_in_Mogadishu.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: http://expositions.bnf.fr/socgeo/grand/244.htmOriginal artist:Georges Révoil
• File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Slave_market_Khartoum_ 19th_c.pngLicense: Public domain Contributors: J Ewing Ritchie (1876-79) The life and discoveries of David Livingstone (Pictorial ed.),
London: A. Fullarton /http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/id?807797Original artist: Artist unknown
• File:Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Slaves_ Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Slaves_ruvuma.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Slaves_ruvuma.jpg License: Public do-main Contributors:http://hitchcock.itc.virginia.edu/Slavery/details.php?categorynum=3&categoryName=&theRecord=2&recordCount= 43Original artist: Unknown
• File:Slavezanzibar2.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Slavezanzibar2.JPGLicense: Public domain Contributors:http://www.untoldlondon.org.uk/news/ART38118.html
Original artist: Unknown photographer
• File:Zanzslgwch.jpg Source:https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpgLicense: Public domain Contribu-tors:London News, 1889 Original artist: W.A. Churchill
