CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 4
The Mediterranean and Middle East, The Mediterranean and Middle East, 2000–500
2000–500 BB..CC..EE..
I0.
I0. The CosThe Cosmopmopoliolitan tan MidMiddle dle EasEast, 1t, 1700700–1–1100100 BB..CC..EE..
A0
A0.. WWesestetern rn AsAsiaia 10.
10. In the souIn the southern pothern portion ortion of westerf western Asn Asia, the Kasia, the Kassites rusites ruled Babyled Babylonilonia during ta during thishis period. Babylonia did not pursue
period. Babylonia did not pursue territorial conquest. In the territorial conquest. In the north, the Assyriansnorth, the Assyrians had their origins in the northern Tigris area. They were involved in trade in had their origins in the northern Tigris area. They were involved in trade in tintin and silver.
and silver. 20.
20. The HitThe Hittites htites had their caad their capitapital in Anl in Anatolatolia, used hoia, used horse-drse-drawn charawn chariotriots, and hads, and had access to important copper, silver, and iron
access to important copper, silver, and iron deposits.deposits. 30
30.. DuDuriring tng the she sececonond mid millllenenniniumum BB..CC..EE. Mesopotamian political and cultural. Mesopotamian political and cultural
concepts spread across much
concepts spread across much of western Asia.of western Asia. B0
B0.. NeNew Kiw Kingngdodom Egm Egyyptpt 10.
10. The NeThe New Kingw Kingdom pedom period wriod was preas preceded ceded by the by the declidecline of thne of the Midde Middle Kinle Kingdomgdom and by the
and by the subsequent period of rule subsequent period of rule by the non-Egyptian Hyksos. A nativeby the non-Egyptian Hyksos. A native Egyptian dynasty overthrew the Hyksos to begin the New Kingdom period. This Egyptian dynasty overthrew the Hyksos to begin the New Kingdom period. This period was characterized by aggressive expansion into Syria-Palestine and into period was characterized by aggressive expansion into Syria-Palestine and into Nubia.
Nubia. 20.
20. InnoInnovativations durions during the New King the New Kingdom pngdom period ineriod include Qclude Queen Hatueen Hatshepusheput’t’s attemps attemptt to open direct trade with Punt and Akhenaten’s constru
to open direct trade with Punt and Akhenaten’s construction of a new ction of a new capital atcapital at Amarna. Akhenat
Amarna. Akhenaten also made Aten the supreme deity of en also made Aten the supreme deity of Egypt and carried out aEgypt and carried out a controversial reform program.
controversial reform program. 30.
30. The The gengeneraeral Hal Haremremhab shab seizeized ped poweower in 1r in 1323323 BB..CC..EE. and established a new. and established a new
dynasty
dynasty, the , the Ramessides. The Ramessides renewed the Ramessides. The Ramessides renewed the policy of conquest andpolicy of conquest and expansion neglected by Akhenaten and their greatest king,
expansion neglected by Akhenaten and their greatest king, Ramesses II (r. 1290– Ramesses II (r. 1290– 1224
1224BB..CC..EE.), dominated his age..), dominated his age.
C0
C0.. CComommmeerrcce ae annd Cd Coommmmuunniiccaattiioonn 10.
10. The SyThe Syria-Pria-Palestialestine area wane area was an impors an importantant crosst crossroads froads for the tror the trade in meade in metals. Fotals. For r this reason, the Egyptians and the Hittites fought battles and negotiated territorial this reason, the Egyptians and the Hittites fought battles and negotiated territorial agreements concerning control over S
agreements concerning control over S yria-Palestineyria-Palestine.. 20.
20. AccesAccess to mets to metals was vials was vital to altal to all bronzl bronze-age se-age statestates, but met, but metals, inals, includicluding copng copper per and tin for bronze, often had to be obtained from faraway places. The demand for and tin for bronze, often had to be obtained from faraway places. The demand for metals spurred the development of trade in
metals spurred the development of trade in copper from Anatolia and Cyprus, tincopper from Anatolia and Cyprus, tin from Afghanistan and Cornwall, silver from Anatolia, and gold f
from Afghanistan and Cornwall, silver from Anatolia, and gold f rom Nubia.rom Nubia. 30.
30. New moNew modes of trdes of transpoansportatirtation inton introduroduced durced during thing this periis period incod includeluded horsed horses,s, chariots, and camels.
chariots, and camels. II0.
II0. The The AegAegean Wean Worlorld, 200d, 2000—10—1100100BB..CC..EE..
A0
A0.. MiMinonoan an CrCretetee 10.
10. MinoMinoan civian civilizatlization is kion is known tnown throughrough legenh legendary acdary accouncounts of Kints of King Minosg Minos, the, the labyrinth beneath his palace,
labyrinth beneath his palace, and the Minotaur. Archaeoland the Minotaur. Archaeological evidence for ogical evidence for Minoan civilization includes excavated palace sites at Cnossus, Phaistos, and Minoan civilization includes excavated palace sites at Cnossus, Phaistos, and Mallia, and widely distributed remains of Cretan pottery and
Mallia, and widely distributed remains of Cretan pottery and other artifacts. Theother artifacts. The evidence suggests that Minoan civilization was
evidence suggests that Minoan civilization was influenced by the civilizations of influenced by the civilizations of Egypt, Syria, and Mesopotamia.
20.
20. MinoMinoan civian civilizatlization was dion was destroyestroyed, proed, probably by bably by MycenMycenaean Graean Greeks, abeeks, about 14out 145050
B B..CC..EE..
B0
B0.. MyMycecenanaeaean Grn Greeeecece 10.
10. The MyThe Mycenaecenaean Grean Greek peopek people are tle are thoughhought to be t to be descedescended fnded from a comrom a combinatbinationion of an indigenous population and
of an indigenous population and Indo-European invaders. The civilizationIndo-European invaders. The civilization developed suddenly around 1600
developed suddenly around 1600 BB..CC..EE..
20.
20. AlthAlthough ough it wait was firs first knst known oown only nly throuthrough thgh the accoe accounts unts of of The Iliad The Iliad andandTheThe Odyssey
Odyssey, the existence of M, the existence of M ycenaean civilization was proved by theycenaean civilization was proved by the
archeological expedition of Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at Mycenae in southern archeological expedition of Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at Mycenae in southern Greece. Schliemann and other archeologists have discovered shaft graves, gold Greece. Schliemann and other archeologists have discovered shaft graves, gold and silver jewelry
and silver jewelry, a palace , a palace complex, and other artifacts.complex, and other artifacts. 30.
30. LateLater Greek ler Greek legend exgend explainplains the devs the developmeelopment of Mynt of Mycenaeacenaean civiln civilizatiization as beion as beingng the result of immigration from Phoenicia or
the result of immigration from Phoenicia or liberation of the Greeks fromliberation of the Greeks from Minoan tyranny
Minoan tyranny. There is no . There is no archeological evidence to back up these legendaryarcheological evidence to back up these legendary accounts. The evidence does, however, indicate that
accounts. The evidence does, however, indicate that Mycenaean civilization wasMycenaean civilization was influenced by Minoan civilization and that the Mycenaeans rose to
influenced by Minoan civilization and that the Mycenaeans rose to power onpower on profits from trade
profits from trade and piracy.and piracy. 40.
40. MycenMycenaean sitaean sites share cees share certain comrtain common chamon characteracteristiristics inclucs including hiding hilltolltop citadp citadelsels with thick fortification walls that enclosed
with thick fortification walls that enclosed palaces and administrative buildings.palaces and administrative buildings. Also typical of Mycenaean civilization were luxury-filled tombs for departed Also typical of Mycenaean civilization were luxury-filled tombs for departed rulers, large houses for the aristocracy, and the use of Linear B
rulers, large houses for the aristocracy, and the use of Linear B writing. Linear Bwriting. Linear B was an early form
was an early form of Greek that used sof Greek that used s ymbols to represent syllables.ymbols to represent syllables. 50.
50. The MycThe Mycenaeaenaean state conn state controltrolled the ecoled the economynomy, organi, organizing grzing grain agriain agricultculture andure and wool production. However, we know little about
wool production. However, we know little about the Mycenaean political system,the Mycenaean political system, religion, society
religion, society, or , or particular historical events. The uniformity that particular historical events. The uniformity that isis
characteristic of the Mycenaean territory may have been due to some sort of characteristic of the Mycenaean territory may have been due to some sort of political unity
political unity, or it , or it may have been the may have been the result of extensive contact and trade.result of extensive contact and trade. 60.
60. EvidEvidence for loence for long-ding-distancstance contace contact and tradt and trade include includes wall paes wall paintiintings of shings of ships inps in Egypt and Thera and excavated remains of the
Egypt and Thera and excavated remains of the ships themselves. Other evidenceships themselves. Other evidence includes the widespread dispersal of Cretan and M
includes the widespread dispersal of Cretan and M ycenaean pottery and other ycenaean pottery and other goods around the Aegean world and in the Middle East. The evidence indicates goods around the Aegean world and in the Middle East. The evidence indicates that Cretan traders came first, and were later joined and then replaced by
that Cretan traders came first, and were later joined and then replaced by Mycenaeans.
Mycenaeans. 70.
70. In thiIn this trades trade, Crete an, Crete and Greecd Greece expore exported wited wine or oline or olive oil, wve oil, weaponeapons, craft gs, craft goodsoods,, slaves, and mercenaries. They
slaves, and mercenaries. They imported amber, ivoryimported amber, ivory, grain, , grain, and metals (gold,and metals (gold, copper, and tin). The fine line between trade and pirac
copper, and tin). The fine line between trade and pirac y can be seen in y can be seen in thethe strained relations between the Mycenaeans and the Hittites and in
strained relations between the Mycenaeans and the Hittites and in the siege of the siege of Troy.
Troy. C0.
C0. The The Fall Fall of Lof Late Bate Bronze ronze Age Age CivilCivilizatizationsions 10.
10. DestDestructiruction of on of Old COld Centerenters of Cs of Civilivilizatiization in on in the Mithe Middle ddle EastEast 20.
20. UnknUnknown inown invadervaders dests destroyed troyed the Hithe Hittite kitite kingdomngdom. Syria l. Syria likewikewise felise fell tol to invasions.
invasions. 30.
30. The EgyThe Egyptianptians batts battled invled invasioasions from tns from the sea in the sea in the northe north and loh and lost contst control of rol of Nubia in the south.
Nubia in the south. 40.
40. MycenMycenaean civaean civilizailization ftion fell due tell due to a combino a combination ation of intof internal dernal decliecline and exne and externaternall aggression. Ann
aggression. Annihilation of the trading ihilation of the trading routes of the routes of the eastern Mediterraneaneastern Mediterranean undermined the position of the Mycenaean elite and probably led
undermined the position of the Mycenaean elite and probably led to internalto internal unrest and collapse.
unrest and collapse. 50.
50. The coThe collapsllapse of Mycene of Mycenaean ciaean civilivilizatiozation demonn demonstrastrates the dtes the degree tegree to whico which theh the civilizations of the Late
civilizations of the Late Bronze Age were interdependent; their prosperity andBronze Age were interdependent; their prosperity and their very existence relied on the trade
access to natural resources, particularly metals. When this cosmopolitan world access to natural resources, particularly metals. When this cosmopolitan world collapsed, the Mediterranean and the Middle East entered a
collapsed, the Mediterranean and the Middle East entered a “Dark Age”—a“Dark Age”—a period of poverty, isolation, and loss of
period of poverty, isolation, and loss of knowledge.knowledge. III0.
III0. The The AssyAssyrian Empirian Empire, 91re, 911–611–6122 BB..CC..EE..
A0.
A0. BacBackgrkgrounound d and and LocLocatiationon 10.
10. The The AssyAssyrian homrian homeland weland was in noas in northerrthern Mesopn Mesopotamiotamia. It had ma. It had more rain aore rain and and a more temperate climate than Sumer
more temperate climate than Sumer and Akkad, but it was also more exposed toand Akkad, but it was also more exposed to raiders.
raiders. 20.
20. AssAssyryrian pian poweower revir revived ived in the nn the nintinth cenh centurytury BB..CC..EE. and the Assyrians built an. and the Assyrians built an
empire, expanding along trade routes westward toward the Mediterranean, north empire, expanding along trade routes westward toward the Mediterranean, north to modern Armenia, east to modern Iran, and south to
to modern Armenia, east to modern Iran, and south to Babylonia.Babylonia. B0
B0.. GGod od anand d KKiningg 10.
10. AssyAssyrian kirian kings werngs were regarde regarded as the ced as the center oenter of the unf the universiverse, chose, chosen by the gen by the gods asods as their surrogates in earth. Kings had secular and
their surrogates in earth. Kings had secular and religious duties.religious duties. 20.
20. The secThe secular dutular duties of kinies of kings inclgs included recuded receivieiving infong informatirmation, hearion, hearing and decng and decidinidingg on complaints, and carrying out diplomacy and military leadership. The religious on complaints, and carrying out diplomacy and military leadership. The religious duties of kings included supervision of the state religion, performance of
duties of kings included supervision of the state religion, performance of publicpublic and private rituals, and consulting and gaining the approval of the
and private rituals, and consulting and gaining the approval of the gods.gods. 30.
30. AssyAssyrian kirian kings werngs were celebre celebrated in pated in propagropaganda thanda that was deat was designsigned to pred to produceoduce feelings of awe and fear
feelings of awe and fear in the hearts of their in the hearts of their subjects. Such propaganda includedsubjects. Such propaganda included the public display of royal inscriptions relating to conquests and punishments the public display of royal inscriptions relating to conquests and punishments and artistic renderings of the kings as
and artistic renderings of the kings as large, muscular, and fierce men.large, muscular, and fierce men. C0
C0.. CoConqnqueuest st anand Cd Conontrtrolol 10.
10. At theAt their peakir peak, the , the AssyAssyrian armrian armies had ies had half a mihalf a milliollion troopn troops divis divided intded intoo functionally specialized units. The Assyri
functionally specialized units. The Assyrian troops used an troops used a variety of a variety of militarymilitary technologies, including iron weapons, cavalry
technologies, including iron weapons, cavalry, couriers, , couriers, signal fires, and signal fires, and spyspy networks.
networks. 20.
20. AssyAssyrian tecrian techniqhniques of conues of conquest iquest incluncluded terroded terror tacticr tactics and mass des and mass deportportation oation of f civilian populations
civilian populations. Mass deportation served a . Mass deportation served a dual purpose: to destroy thedual purpose: to destroy the morale of the enemy and to transfer needed laborers to the core area of the morale of the enemy and to transfer needed laborers to the core area of the empire.
empire. 30.
30. The AThe Assyrssyrians fouians found it diffind it difficult to contcult to control theirol their vast and diver vast and diverse terrirse territorytory. Their . Their level of control varied, being more effective at
level of control varied, being more effective at the core and less effective in the core and less effective in thethe peripheral parts of the empire.
peripheral parts of the empire. 40.
40. WiWithin ththin the empiree empire, the duti, the duties of Aes of Assyrssyrian offian officialicials were to cols were to collect trilect tribute andbute and taxes, to maintain law and order, to raise
taxes, to maintain law and order, to raise and provision troops, and to constructand provision troops, and to construct and maintain public works. The
and maintain public works. The central government included high-rankingcentral government included high-ranking officials and
officials and professionals.professionals. 50.
50. The cenThe central gotral governmevernment expnt exploitloited the weed the wealth analth and resoud resources of trces of the empihe empire for thre for thee benefit of the center, but also invested in provincial infrastructure, and so was benefit of the center, but also invested in provincial infrastructure, and so was
not entirely parasitic. not entirely parasitic. D0.
D0. AssAssyryrian ian SocSocietiety any and Cud Cultulturere 10.
10. AssyAssyrian sorian society hciety had thread three majoe major social sr social strattrata: free, laa: free, land-ond-owninwning citig citizens;zens;
farmers and artisans; and slaves. The Assyrian economy was based on agriculture farmers and artisans; and slaves. The Assyrian economy was based on agriculture but also included artisans and
but also included artisans and merchants.merchants. 20.
20. In the reIn the realm of knalm of knowleowledge and ldge and learniearning, the ng, the AssyAssyrianrians both prs both preserveserved theed the knowledge inherited from older Mesopotamian societies and made original knowledge inherited from older Mesopotamian societies and made original contributions to mathematics and
contributions to mathematics and astronomyastronomy. The Assyrian E. The Assyrian Empire maintainedmpire maintained libraries that were attached to temples in
libraries that were attached to temples in the cities, such as the the cities, such as the Library of Library of Ashurbanipal in Ninevah.
Ashurbanipal in Ninevah. IV0
A0.
A0. BacBackgrkgrounound d and and LocLocatiationon 10.
10. The IsThe Israeliraelite peopte people were nle were nomadiomadic herderc herders and cars and caravan dravan drivers wivers who deveho developed aloped a complex sedentary agricultural civilization
complex sedentary agricultural civilization. As they did so, their cult . As they did so, their cult of a desertof a desert god evolved into an
god evolved into an influential monotheistic religion.influential monotheistic religion. 20.
20. IsraeIsrael’l’s locats location makion makes it a croes it a crossrossroads for tads for trade. Horade. Howevewever, thr, the area has fe area has fewew natural resources.
natural resources. B0.
B0. OriOrigingins, Exs, Exoduodus, ans, and Setd Settletlemenmentt 10.
10. SourcSources for thes for the early he early histoistory of the Iry of the Israelsraelite peoite people inple includclude the Hebe the Hebrew Bibrew Bible,le, which is based in part on
which is based in part on oral traditions compiled in the fifth centuryoral traditions compiled in the fifth century BB..CC..EE., and., and
archeological excavations. archeological excavations. 20.
20. BiblBiblical acical accountcounts of the ors of the originigins of the Iss of the Israeliraelite peopte people inclle include thude the storie stories of es of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These stories may be a compressed account of the Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These stories may be a compressed account of the experiences of many generations of nomads. The story of
experiences of many generations of nomads. The story of Cain and Abel and theCain and Abel and the stories of the destruction of Sodom and
stories of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah reflect the tensions betweenGomorrah reflect the tensions between the nomadic Israelite people and settled agricultural people.
the nomadic Israelite people and settled agricultural people. 30.
30. The BiThe Biblicablical accoul account of thnt of the Egype Egyptian catian captiviptivity is noty is not confit confirmed by Ermed by Egyptgyptianian sources but may be linked to
sources but may be linked to the rise and fall of the rise and fall of the Hyksos rulers of Egypt. Thethe Hyksos rulers of Egypt. The period of Israelite slavery according to the
period of Israelite slavery according to the Bible corresponds to the period of Bible corresponds to the period of large-scale construction projects under Sethos I and Ramesses II, while large-scale construction projects under Sethos I and Ramesses II, while thethe Biblical account of the exodus may reflect the memories of a migration from Biblical account of the exodus may reflect the memories of a migration from Egypt and nomadic life in the
Egypt and nomadic life in the Sinai.Sinai. 40.
40. The culThe cult of Yt of Yahweh wahweh with its exith its exclusclusive devoive devotion to ontion to one god devee god developeloped during td during thehe period of nomadism in the Sinai.
period of nomadism in the Sinai. 50.
50. The BiThe Biblicablical accoul account of Isrnt of Israeliaelite settte settlemenlement in the lt in the land of Caand of Canaan saynaan says thats that Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan and destro
Joshua led the Israelites into Canaan and destro yed Jericho and other Canaaniteyed Jericho and other Canaanite cities. The archeological evidence of what probably happened is that the no
cities. The archeological evidence of what probably happened is that the no madicmadic Israelite tribes settled in the hills of Canaan,
Israelite tribes settled in the hills of Canaan, where they were joined bwhere they were joined by other y other groups and by refugees
groups and by refugees from a troubled from a troubled Canaanite societyCanaanite society.. C0
C0.. RiRise se of of ththe Me Mononararchychy 10.
10. WWars with thars with the Philie Philistinestines brougs brought abouht about the need fot the need for a strong cenr a strong central govtral governmenernment.t. Saul, the first king, established the Israelite monarchy. David, the second king, Saul, the first king, established the Israelite monarchy. David, the second king, completed the transition to
completed the transition to monarchymonarchy.. 20.
20. The IsThe Israeliraelite monte monarchy rarchy reacheeached the hd the height eight of its of its power power in thin the reign e reign of Kiof Kingng Solomon, who forged alliances and sponsored trade. Solomon also expanded the Solomon, who forged alliances and sponsored trade. Solomon also expanded the bureaucracy and the
bureaucracy and the armyarmy, and , and built the First Temple in Jerusalem. The tebuilt the First Temple in Jerusalem. The te mplemple priesthood sacrificed to Y
priesthood sacrificed to Yahweh, received a ahweh, received a portion of the agricultural portion of the agricultural tax, andtax, and became ver
became very wealthy.y wealthy. 30.
30. The weThe wealth analth and prestd prestige of thige of the temple pe temple priestriesthood wahood was indis indicaticative of the ive of the increancreasingsing gap between the rural and urban,
gap between the rural and urban, and the wealthy and the poor and the wealthy and the poor in Israeli societyin Israeli society.. 40.
40. IsraeIsraelite plite people leople lived iived in extenn extended famided families anlies and practd practiced ariced arrangeranged marrid marriage.age. Monogamy was the norm. Men
Monogamy was the norm. Men were allowed to have extramarital relations;were allowed to have extramarital relations; women were not.
women were not. 50.
50. In early In early IsraeIsrael, womel, women enjoyn enjoyed related relative equive equality wality with thith their hueir husbandsbands in socs in socialial life, but at the sa
life, but at the same time, they suffered certain legal disadvantages: women couldme time, they suffered certain legal disadvantages: women could not inherit property
not inherit property, nor , nor could they initiate divorce. The could they initiate divorce. The main occupations of main occupations of women were bearing and raising children, maintaining the household, and women were bearing and raising children, maintaining the household, and engaging in agriculture or herding. As society became more urbanized, some engaging in agriculture or herding. As society became more urbanized, some women began to work outside the home in
women began to work outside the home in a variety of occupations.a variety of occupations. 60.
60. TherThere are some are some recore records of wds of women eomen exercixercising sing polipolitical tical influinfluence. Eence. Examplxampleses include the story of Deborah and references
include the story of Deborah and references to “wise women.” However, theto “wise women.” However, the status of women declined
D0.
D0. FraFragmegmentantatiotion ann and Did Dispespersarsall 10.
10. After SAfter Solomolomon, Israon, Israel divel divided inided into two kto two kingdingdoms: Isoms: Israel in trael in the northe north (capih (capital:tal: Samaria), and Judah in the
Samaria), and Judah in the south (capital: Jerusalem). The two kingdoms weresouth (capital: Jerusalem). The two kingdoms were sometimes at peace with each other, and sometimes fought.
sometimes at peace with each other, and sometimes fought. 20.
20. TherThere were some e were some signsignificaificant relint religiougious devels developmentopments durs during thing the perioe period of d of fragmentation. The concept of monotheism was sharpened, but at the
fragmentation. The concept of monotheism was sharpened, but at the same time,same time, some Israelites were attracted to the
some Israelites were attracted to the worship of Canaanite gods.worship of Canaanite gods. 30.
30. PoliPolitical detical develovelopmentpments during ts during the periohe period of fragmend of fragmentatiotation inclun include the de the AssyAssyrianrian destruction of the northern kingdom (Israel) in 721
destruction of the northern kingdom (Israel) in 721 BB..CC..EE. and the fall of the. and the fall of the
southern kingdom (Judah) to the Babylonian monarch Nebuchadnezzar in 587 southern kingdom (Judah) to the Babylonian monarch Nebuchadnezzar in 587
B
B..CC..EE. Nebuchadnezzar deported a large number of . Nebuchadnezzar deported a large number of Jewish elites and craftsmen toJewish elites and craftsmen to
Babylon. This was the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. Babylon. This was the beginning of the Jewish Diaspora. 40.
40. DuriDuring the Diang the Diasporspora, the Jewia, the Jewish peopsh people develle developed inoped institstitutioutions to presns to preserve Jewerve Jewishish religion and culture. These developments continued even after some of the
religion and culture. These developments continued even after some of the Babylonian Jews were permitted to return to Jerusalem. Developments of Babylonian Jews were permitted to return to Jerusalem. Developments of thethe Diaspora included a stronger commitment to monotheism, strict dietary rules, Diaspora included a stronger commitment to monotheism, strict dietary rules, and veneration of the Sabbath.
and veneration of the Sabbath. V0.
V0. PhoenPhoenicia icia and and the the MeditMediterraneerranean, an, 12001200–500–500BB..CC..EE..
A0.
A0. ThThe Phe Phoenoeniciician Can City-ity-StaStatestes 10.
10. The PhoThe Phoenicienicians werans were the dese the descendacendants of tnts of the ancihe ancient inhent inhabitaabitants of Synts of Syria,ria, Lebanon, and Israel who were pushed into the
Lebanon, and Israel who were pushed into the strip of land between thestrip of land between the mountains and the sea in modern Lebanon b
mountains and the sea in modern Lebanon b y about 1100y about 1100 BB..CC..EE. There, the. There, the
Phoenicians established a number of small city-states that were deeply
Phoenicians established a number of small city-states that were deeply involvedinvolved in commerce. They also invented the first alphabetical writing system.
in commerce. They also invented the first alphabetical writing system. 20.
20. The majThe major Phoeor Phoenicianician cityn city-stat-states were Byes were Byblosblos, Berytu, Berytus, Sidos, Sidon, and Tn, and Tyre.yre. B0.
B0. ExpExpansansion iion intnto the Mo the Mediediterterranraneanean 10.
10. PhoenPhoenician exician expanspansion intion into the Medio the Mediterraterranean was canean was carried ourried out by Tt by Tyreyre, beginn, beginninging in the ninth century
in the ninth century BB..CC..EE. Colonies were established first on C. Colonies were established first on C yprus, then on theyprus, then on the
North African coast, the south and
North African coast, the south and southeast Spanish coast, Sardinia, Sicilsoutheast Spanish coast, Sardinia, Sicil yy, and, and Malta.
Malta. 20.
20. PhoenPhoenician eician expansxpansion inion into the Meto the Meditediterranearranean was thn was the work of a ce work of a combinaombination tion of of state and private enterprise.
state and private enterprise. Expansion was a response Expansion was a response to the Assyrian invasionsto the Assyrian invasions of Syria and Palestine, the
of Syria and Palestine, the shortage of agricultural land in Tyshortage of agricultural land in Tyre, and opportunitiesre, and opportunities for trade and access to resources.
for trade and access to resources. 30.
30. ExpanExpansion bsion broughrought the Phot the Phoenicienicians intans into confo conflict wilict with the Grth the Greeks, wheeks, who were alo were alsoso seeking resources and establishing colonies in
seeking resources and establishing colonies in the western Mediterranean duringthe western Mediterranean during this period. Conflict with Greece was most significant in the
this period. Conflict with Greece was most significant in the violent struggle for violent struggle for control of Sicily—a struggle in which the Phoenicians had the
control of Sicily—a struggle in which the Phoenicians had the upper hand by theupper hand by the mid-third century
mid-third century BB..CC..EE..
C0.
C0. CarCarthathage’ge’s Cos Commemmercircial Eal Empimpirere 10.
10. The ciThe city of Cartty of Carthage wahage was estabs establishelished on a nard on a narrow promrow promontoontory near mry near modern Todern Tunisunis around 814
around 814 BB..CC..EE. The walled city was governed b. The walled city was governed by two judges selected fromy two judges selected from
upper-class families and by a Senate that was
upper-class families and by a Senate that was dominated by the leading merchantdominated by the leading merchant families.
families. 20.
20. The naThe navy was thvy was the most impe most importanortant arm of Cart arm of Carthagithaginian ponian powerwer. Citiz. Citizens serens served asved as rowers and navigators of the fast,
rowers and navigators of the fast, maneuverable warships.maneuverable warships. 30.
30. CarthCarthaginaginian forian foreign peign policy aolicy and milnd military acitary activitivity were in ty were in the serthe service of tvice of trade anrade andd were deployed in enforcing a commercial
were deployed in enforcing a commercial monopoly in the Mediterranean andmonopoly in the Mediterranean and developing new trading opportunities. Carthaginian merchants were active developing new trading opportunities. Carthaginian merchants were active around the Mediterranean and
around the Mediterranean and traded with sub-Saharan Africa, along the Atlantictraded with sub-Saharan Africa, along the Atlantic coasts of Spain and France,
D0
D0.. WWar ar anand Rd Releligigioionn 10.
10. The CarThe Carthagthaginianinians made no as made no attempttempt to but to build a terild a territoritorial empirial empire; thre; their empeir empire wasire was an empire of trade
an empire of trade routes and ports. The Carthaginian military was subordinate toroutes and ports. The Carthaginian military was subordinate to the civilian government and consisted of mercenary soldiers commanded by the civilian government and consisted of mercenary soldiers commanded by Carthaginian officers.
Carthaginian officers. 20.
20. CarthCarthaginaginian reliian religion ingion involvvolved the wored the worship of caship of capricipricious godous gods that nees that needed to beded to be appeased by sacrifice, including the sacrifice of Carthaginian children. The appeased by sacrifice, including the sacrifice of Carthaginian children. The Greeks and Romans thought that the Carthaginians were a
Greeks and Romans thought that the Carthaginians were a hard, gloomy peoplehard, gloomy people who treated their
who treated their subjects harshlysubjects harshly.. VI0.
VI0. FailuFailure and Transre and Transformatiformation, 750–5on, 750–55050 BB..CC..EE..
A0.
A0. ConsConsequenequences ces of of the the AssyAssyrian rian ConquConquestest 10.
10. The The AssyAssyrian conrian conquest bquest broughrought about tht about the destre destructiouction of Israeln of Israel, deport, deportatioation of then of the Jewish population of Israel, and pressure on the
Jewish population of Israel, and pressure on the kingdom of Judah.kingdom of Judah. 20.
20. The The AssyAssyrian conrian conquest pquest put presut pressure on thsure on the Phoenie Phoeniciancians; Ass; Assyrisyrian threaan threats andts and Assyrian demands for tribute helped to spur the
Assyrian demands for tribute helped to spur the Phoenicians to establish coloniesPhoenicians to establish colonies in the western Mediterranean.
in the western Mediterranean. 30.
30. The The AssyAssyrian conrian conquest alquest also resuso resulted in thlted in the invase invasion and ocion and occupatcupation of Egyion of Egypt andpt and in Assyrian control over Babylonia and western
in Assyrian control over Babylonia and western Iran.Iran. 40.
40. As theiAs their empire grr empire grewew, the resou, the resources of the rces of the AssyAssyrians becrians became overame overextenextended andded and they had difficulty ruling over a large, ethnically complex territory with subjects they had difficulty ruling over a large, ethnically complex territory with subjects and neighbors who had
and neighbors who had come to hate Assyria.come to hate Assyria. 50.
50. The mThe major soajor sources ources of resisf resistance tance to the to the AssyAssyrian Emrian Empire wpire were the ere the Neo- Neo-Babylonian dynasty of Babylon and the kingdom of the
Babylonian dynasty of Babylon and the kingdom of the Medes in Iran. TheMedes in Iran. The Assyrian Empire was destroyed when
Assyrian Empire was destroyed when the Medes captured the Medes captured the Assyrianthe Assyrian homeland in northern Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia, and the homeland in northern Mesopotamia and eastern Anatolia, and the Neo-Babylonians took over much of the other
