J D U R N A L O F T H E E L E C T R O C H E M I C A L S O C I E T Y
R E V I E W S A N D NEWS,,,, JANUARY
1978
Report of the Electrolytic Industries for the Year 19762
F. B. Leitz*
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colorado 80225
and C. J. Harke*
Heooker Chemicals Canada Limited, North Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V7H 1S4
ChlorinemCaustic Soda
I. Production and capacity. Total chlorine p r o d u c - tion i n the U n i t e d States a n d C a n a d a for 1976 was 11,374,000 tons. This was an increase of 12.7% over the 1975 figure b u t 4.8% below the record high of 11,942,000 tons i n 1974. B r e a k d o w n of chlorine a n d caustic p r o d u c t i o n figures are as follows (1, 2, 57) : Chlorine p r o d u c t i o n
First half of 1976 Second half of 1976 Total i n 1976 Caustic p r o d u c t i o n
(liquid a n d solid) 1976 (100% NoOK basis)
U n i t e d States C a n a d a 5,077,000 tons 486,000 tons 5,290,000 tons 521,000 tons 10,367,000 tons 1,007,000 tons
U n i t e d States C a n a d a 10,147,000 tons 922,000 tons 9 A l t h o u g h p r o d u c t i o n for the y e a r was up consider- ably, the i n d u s t r y was still below the t r a d i t i o n a l rates of capacity use. Both the U n i t e d States a n d C a n a d a had increases i n the capacity use rate; i n the U n i t e d States this increased from 72% in 1975 to 80% i n 1976, while in C a n a d a the rate w e n t up from 68% to 75%.
D u r i n g 1976, n e w or e x p a n d e d facilities s t a r t e d up at seven locations i n the U n i t e d States. One n e w facility w e n t on s t r e a m i n Mexico, n o n e in Canada.
P r o d u c t i o n capacity will be increased c o n s i d e r a b l y over the n e x t 2.years. A n u m b e r of large expansions a n d n e w p l a n t s are in various stages of e n g i n e e r i n g a n d construction. (See T a b l e 1A a n d 1B)
T h e r e has b e e n no a p p r e c i a b l e change i n chlorine capacity b y p r o d u c t i o n method, viz (9) :
U n i t e d States C a n a d a D i a p h r a g m a n d m e m -
b r a n e cells 73.7 % 68.0 %
M e r c u r y cells 21.4% 32.0 %
Other 4.9 % None
II. Prices a n d m a r k e t s . - - C h l o r i n e p r o d u c t i o n i n - creased c o n s i d e r a b l y d u r i n g the y e a r but, over-all, the i n d u s t r y did not f u l l y recover from the recession i n 1975. P r o d u c t i o n dropped in several c h l o r i n a t e d hydrocarbons, a n d there were no indications that this t r e n d will be reversed. Chlorine producers were faced w i t h h i g h e r e n e r g y prices a n d other o p e r a t i n g costs.
Chlorine prices in the U n i t e d States were r e l a t i v e l y stable in 1976. Late in the f o u r t h quarter, G u l f Coast
1 T h i s r e p o r t is s p o n s o r e d b y t h e I n d u s t r i a l E l e c t r o l y t i c D i v i s i o n o f T h e E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l S o c i e t y . I t p r e s e n t s a s u m m a r y of pub- l i s h e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n p r o d u c t i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s i n t h e c h l o r - a l k a l i a n d r e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s aild on o t h e r e l e c t r o l y t i c i n d u s t r i e s . T h e m a t e r i a l p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n h a s b e e n g a t h e r e d f r o m m a n y s o u r c e s , as n o t e d in t h e r e f e r e n c e list, and d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e p r e s e n t t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h e a u t h o r s .
* E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l S o c i e t y A c t i v e M e m b e r .
prices were raised $10 to $135 per ton. Prices i n o t h e r regions, which r a n g e d from $135 to $150, r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d (10).
There were no m a j o r changes i n m a r k e t s or usage of chlorine,
e.g.,
v i n y l chloride, p r o p y l e n e oxide, sol- vents, i n o r g a n i c chemicals, p u l p a n d paper, a n d w a t e r a n d w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t . Significant increases i n chlorine d e m a n d g r o w t h will be r e q u i r e d over the n e x t 2 years to b a l a n c e p r e s e n t u n u s e d p r o d u c t i o n capacity plus the large i n c r e m e n t s of n e w capacity.T h e impact of n e w air emission s t a n d a r d s o n the plastic i n d u s t r y is u n k n o w n . F l u o r o - c h l o r o c a r b o n p r o - ducers m a y e x p e r i e n c e f u r t h e r declines i n d e m a n d . Chlorine used in p u l p bleaching, which accounts for about 13% of chlorine p r o d u c t i o n i n the U n i t e d States, has h a d a g r o w t h rate of o n l y 3.5% d u r i n g the last few years. This could drop to 2% if changes i n b l e a c h i n g are accepted (11).
The d e m a n d for caustic d u r i n g the y e a r was w e a k e r t h a n for chlorine, a n d producers i n m a n y locations were faced w i t h high inventories. A n economic s l u m p i n the a l u m i n u m i n d u s t r y followed b y a slow r e c o v e r y affected the c h l o r i n e - c a u s t i c b a l a n c e in 1976. A l t h o u g h a l u m i n u m m e t a l p r o d u c t i o n is up considerably, t h e r e was a lag i n caustic d e m a n d as the a l u m i n u m i n d u s t r y was g r a d u a l l y r e d u c i n g high i n v e n t o r i e s of a l u m i n a . Caustic prices in the U n i t e d States fluctuated d o w n - wards slightly a n d at y e a r e n d were i n the $140-$160 per t o n range. I m p o r t e d b u l k caustic i n the G u l f Coast regions was r u n n i n g c o n s i d e r a b l y b e l o w p u b l i s h e d prices. The s i t u a t i o n i n Europe was s i m i l a r as p r o - ducers were faced w i t h e x t r e m e l y high i n v e n t o r i e s due to below n o r m a l activity i n a l u m i n a p r o d u c t i o n
(12, 13).
The p a t t e r n of caustic c o n s u m p t i o n s r e m a i n e d e s s e n t i a l l y u n c h a n g e d a n d m a i n m a r k e t s were i n the following areas: organic chemicals, p u l p a n d paper, i n o r g a n i c chemicals, soaps a n d detergent, a l u m i n a , petroleum, rayon, a n d cellulose. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 10%
of caustic p r o d u c t i o n was exported. G r o w t h of a l u m - i n u m d e m a n d in automobiles, containers, etc., a n d a m o u n t of recycle w i l l have a b e a r i n g on caustic demand. A n o t h e r u n k n o w n is i n the p u l p a n d p a p e r i n d u s t r y w h e r e c o m p e t i t i o n f r o m soda ash is possible.
I n c r e a s i n g t h e recycle of p u l p i n g chemicals will r e d u c e usage of caustic. D e m a n d for c e r t a i n a g r i c u l t u r a l chemicals is high (7, 14).
There were no changes in chlorine or caustic m a r - kets i n C a n a d a w h e r e the i n d u s t r y is h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t on the pulp a n d p a p e r economy. Over 50% of the total chlorine p r o d u c t i o n is c o n s u m e d i n p u l p bleaching.
Second largest usage of chlorine is v i n y l chloride.
Caustic i m p o r t s accounted for 12% of the total 1,042,000 tons consumed in 1976. B r e a k d o w n of the caustic usage p a t t e r n i n C a n a d a for the year was as follows:
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6 C
J. Electrochem. Soc.:
R E V I E W S A N D N E W S Table 1A. Changes in current chlorine operations (3-6, 8, 9)January 1978
Capacity, t o n s /
Producer and location Cell type/change day chlorine Completion date
1. Vulcan Materials Co.
Geismar, La.
2. Diamond Shamrock Corp.
Painesville, Ohio 3. Kaiser A l u m i n u m and
Chemical Corp.
Gramercy, La.
4. Stauffer Chemical Co.
Henderson, Nev.
8. General Electric Co.
Mr. Vernon~ Ind.
6. Mobay Chemica~ Co.
Baytown, Texas 7. Dow Chemical Company
Plaquemine, La.
8. Georgia Pacific Corp.
B e l l i n g h a m , Wash.
9. P e n n w a l t del Pacifico
Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
10. A l c a n Smelters and Chemicals
Jonquiere, Que., Canada
Diamond MDC-55 (diaphragm) 600 November 1976
Shutdown of facility (diaphragm) 250 September 1976
Hooker (diaphragm) 37 May 1976
Expansion
Modernization, Diamond MDC-29 320 November 1976
(diaphragm) (unchanged)
Hooker H-2A (diaphragm} - - November 1976
Uhde (HC1} 1OO March 1976
Expansion
Dow (diaphragm) 500 1976
Expansion
DeNora (mercury) - - 1976
20% expansion
Diamond DS45 (diaphragm) -- May 1976
Shutdown (mercury) ~ June 1976
Table 1B. New or expanded chlorine plants ptanned or under construction (7, 9)
Capacity, tons/
Produced and location Cell type day chlorine Status Completion date
1. Olin Corp. Hooker H,4 (diaphragm) 1,0OO Engineering 1st Quarter 1978
McIntosh, Ala.
2. BASF Wyandotte Corp. Diamond (diaphragm) - - Underway 2nd Quarter 1977
Geismar~ La. Modest expansion
3. BASF Wyandotte Corp. DeNora (mercury) - - Underway 2nd Quarter 1977
Port Edward, Wis. Modest expansion
4. PPG Industries, Inc. Glanor| 1144 (diaphragm) 750 Underway 3rd Quarter 1977
Lake Charles, La.
5. Hooker Chemicals and Hooker H-4 (diaphragm) 450 Engineering 1st Quarter 1978
Plastics Corp.
Niagara Falls, N.Y.
6. Hooker Chemicals and Expansion 4 0 0 - 6 7 5 Engineering Mid 1979
Plastics Corp.
Tacoma, Wash.
7. Pennwalt Corp. Diamond (diaphragm) 200 Building 1st Quarter 1977
Portland, Ore. kxpansion
8. E.I. du Pont de Nemours Diamond IVlDC 55 (diaphragm) 1,OOO Underway 2nd Quarter 1977
Corpus Christi, Texas
9. Dow Chemical Co. Dow (diaphragm} 500 Underway 1977
Freeport, Texas Expansion
1O. Dow Chemical Co. Dew (diaPhragm) 500 - - 1978
Freeport, Texas Expansion
11. Dew Chemical Co. Dew (diaphragm) 1,O0O -- 1979
Freeport, Texas Expansion
12. Dew Chemical Co. Dow (diaphragm) 500 - - 1977
Plaquemme, La. Expansion
13. Dow Chemical of Canada Dow (diaphragm) 900 Approved 3rd Quarter 1977
Fort Saskatchewan, Alta., Expansion
Canada
14. Cloro de Tehuantepec SA Glanor| 1144 (diaphragm) 506 Underway 1st Quarter 1977
Pajaritos, Veracruz, lvlexico
15. Industrias Quimicos de Diamond MDC 55 (diaphragm) l Engineering 2rid Quarter 1977
lstomo SA
Parjaritos, Veracruz, Mexico
P u l p a n d p a p e r 62%
P r o p y l e n e o x i d e 10%
A l u m i n a 7 %
S o a p s a n d c l e a n e r s 6%
I n o r g a n i c s 5%
R a y o n , c e l l u l o s e 2%
O t h e r u s e s 8 %
C a u s t i c d e m a n d w a s d e p r e s s e d d u e to a s l o w d o w n i n p u l p a n d p a p e r p r o d u c t i o n a n d a p r o l o n g e d s t r i k e i n t h e a l u m i n u m i n d u s t r y . E x p a n s i o n s p l a n n e d i n t h e p l a s t i c i n d u s t r y w i l l a l t e r t h e u s e p a t t e r n o f b o t h c h e m i c a l s a n d c h l o r i n e - c a u s t i c b a l a n c e . A l t h o u g h i m - p o r t s w i l l d r o p , C a n a d a is e x p e c t e d t o r e m a i n a n e t i m p o r t e r o f c a u s t i c (2, 15).
S t e a d y g r o w t h o f 5% a n n u a l l y t h r o u g h 1985 w a s p r e d i c t e d f o r c h l o r i n e a n d c a u s t i c b y o n e m a j o r U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o d u c e r . T h i s w a s b a s e d o n a d e q u a t e e n e r g y a n d a b a l a n c e d d e m a n d f o r b o t h p r o d u c t s . V i n y l c h l o r i d e w h i c h is ~ilso t h e l a r g e s t o u t l e t w a s s t a t e d as t h e s t r o n g e s t m a r k e t f o r c h l o r i n e w h e r e a s p u l p a n d p a p e r w a s t h e w e a k e s t . F o r c a u s t i c , o r g a n i c c h e m i c a l s w e r e p r e d i c t e d as h a v i n g s t r o n g m a r k e t s a n d a l u m i n a a w e a k m a r k e t d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d (7).
C h a n g e s i n d e m a n d f o r b o t h c h e m i c a l s a n d l o w e r g r o w t h r a t e s w e r e p r e d i c t e d f o r t h e n e x t d e c a d e , a c c o r d i n g t o a U n i t e d S t a t e s m a r k e t c o n s u l t a n t . U n - c e r t a i n t i e s i n f u t u r e d e m a n d f o r c h l o r i n e i n c h l o r i n a t e d c o m p o u n d s , i n c r e a s i n g c o s t a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e n e r g y ,
a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l - r e l a t e d c o s t s w e r e g i v e n as f a c t o r s t h a t c o u l d a f f e c t f u t u r e g r o w t h (16).
III. M e m b r a n e e e l l s . - - W o r l d w i d e i n t e r e s t a n d e f f o r t i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i o n - e x c h a n g e m e m b r a n e s a n d c o m m e r c i a l t e s t i n g o f c e l l s y s t e m s is c o n t i n u i n g a t a h i g h l e v e l o f a c t i v i t y . M a j o r i n c e n t i v e s f o r c h l o r i n e - c a u s t i c p r o d u c e r s to t e s t n e w m e m b r a n e s a n d e v a l u a t e m e m b r a n e cell t e c h n o l o g y a r e : l o w e r o v e r - a l l e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n , h i g h p u r i t y p r o d u c t s , r e p l a c e m e n t f o r a s b e s t o s , m e r c u r y c e l l c o n v e r s i o n s .
C o m m e r c i a l o p e r a t i o n o f a m e m b r a n e p l a n t , r a t e d a t 40,000 m e t r i c t o n s p e r y e a r o f c a u s t i c s o d a , w a s a n n o u n c e d b y A s a h i C h e m i c a l I n d u s t r y C o m p a n y o f J a p a n . T h i s p l a n t h a s b e e n i n o p e r a t i o n s i n c e A p r i l 1975, a t N o b e o k a o n K y u s h u I s l a n d . I n i t i a l l y , c o m m e r - cial t e s t i n g w a s d o n e w i t h d u P o n t ' s N a f i o n | m e m - b r a n e s b u t m o r e r e c e n t l y a p e r f l u o r o c a r b o x y l i c a c i d m e m b r a n e d e v e l o p e d b y A s a h i C h e m i c a l is b e i n g s u b - s t i t u t e d f o r t h e d u P o n t m e m b r a n e s . T h e m a j o r a d v a n - t a g e c l a i m e d w i t h t h e i r o w n m e m b r a n e is b e t t e r c u r - r e n t e f f i c i e n c y w h i c h is o v e r 90% f o r c a u s t i c c o n c e n - t r a t i o n s u p to 40%. E l e c t r o l y z e r s a r e l a r g e a n d a s i n g l e u n i t is c a p a b l e o f p r o d u c i n g I0,000 m e t r i c t o n s p e r y e a r of c a u s t i c s o d a . A l o n g w i t h t h e m e m b r a n e cell, A s a h i C h e m i c a l d e s i g n e d a s p e c i a l h e a t - r e c o v e r y e v a p o r a t o r (17).
A n o t h e r J a p a n e s e f i r m , A s a h i Glass, r e p o r t e d p r o - d u c i n g 200 m e t r i c t o n s p e r m o n t h of c a u s t i c s o d a s i n c e
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R E P O R T O F E L E C T R O L Y T I C I N D U S T R I E S 7C S e p t e m b e r 1975, at Osaka City. P e r f o r m a n c e disclosedafter 6 m o n t h s of testing was 90-92% c u r r e n t efficiency w i t h 40-41% caustic, p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n of 3300 k W - h r per metric ton of caustic soda. The type of m e m b r a n e is not k n o w n (18).
More recently, T o k u y a m a Soda a n n o u n c e d s t a r t u p b y J a n u a r y 1977, of a 1,000 metric tons p e r m o n t h of caustic soda pilot p l a n t at T o k u y a m a City. Both du P o n t ' s a n d their o w n m e m b r a n e will be tested in the commercial size cells (19).
D i a m o n d S h a m r o c k Corporation a n n o u n c e d s t a r t u p of a m e m b r a n e cell circuit at its Muscle Shoals p l a n t i n A l a b a m a . T h e cells will replace m e r c u r y cells n o w operated at this location. The m e m b r a n e used will be D i a m o n d ' s modification of du P o n t ' s Nation@. P r o d u c - t i o n of 30-40% caustic at 85% c u r r e n t efficiency was stated (20).
Toyo Soda plans to construct a n e w 2,000 m e t r i c tons per m o n t h caustic soda p l a n t at its S a k a t a factory w i t h p r o v i s i o n . f o r 50% expansion. Hooker MX| m e m - b r a n e cells will be used (21).
Asahi Chemical has licensed its m e m b r a n e cell tech- nology to D e n k i K a g a k u Kogyo for a 40,000 metric tons per year caustic soda p l a n t at Omi (22).
The first m e m b r a n e cell p l a n t i n Europe will be at Uddeholms pulp and p a p e r complex i n Skoghall, Sweden. Cells used will be D i a m o n d Shamrocks' n e w m e m b r a n e celI. T h e plant, r a t e d at 20,000 m e t r i c tons per y e a r of chlorine, is scheduled to start up b y the e n d of 1977 (23).
du P o n t is proceeding w i t h e n g i n e e r i n g for a p l a n t to m a n u f a c t u r e Nation| or perfluorosulfonic acid p r o d - ucts. No date has b e e n set for start of commercial p r o d u c t i o n (24).
M a r u z e n Oil C o m p a n y i n J a p a n wilI start r e g u l a r p r o d u c t i o n of its n e w i o n - e x c h a n g e m e m b r a n e in the fall of 1976. U n l i k e du P o n t ' s a n d other m e m b r a n e s of t h e fluorine type, M a r u z e n ' s m e m b r a n e is suitable for use i n " t h r e e - c e l l " type of electrolyzers (25).
IV. D e v e l o p m e n t s . - - T h e B u r e a u of Mines is s t u d y - ing the feasibility of r e c o v e r i n g chlorine a n d iron oxide f r o m ferric chloride. D u r i n g a test w i t h low d e n s i t y ferric chloride, the chlorine product reached a concen- t r a t i o n of 92% with the b a l a n c e being oxygen. Eco- nomics were not discussed b u t the process indicates feasibility of p r o d u c i n g chlorine from recycle (26).
T h e J a p a n Soda I n d u s t r y Association is sponsoring d e v e l o p m e n t work at Kyoto U n i v e r s i t y on fused salt electrolysis u s i n g the E - a l u m i n a d i a p h r a g m method.
C u r r e n t efficiency on l a b o r a t o r y scale tests was almost 100%. Cell voltage at 50 A / d m 2 was given as 3.18V
(27, 28).
Asahi Glass C o m p a n y has developed a m e t h o d for r e m o v i n g salt f r o m the d i a p h r a g m cell caustic process.
This m e t h o d is capable of r e d u c i n g salt to less t h a n 0.1% i n 50% caustic, a n d costs were g i v e n as o n e - t h i r d of those for existing methods. The c o m p a n y is w o r k i n g o n technology which will reduce the salt c o n t e n t to less t h a n 0.02% in 50% caustic (29).
D i a m o n d S h a m r o c k Corporation has acquired r e - search facilities, patents, a n d other assets in the field of i n d u s t r i a l e l e c t r o c h e m i s t r y p r e v i o u s l y owned b y E l e c t r o n o r Corporation (31).
S u p p o r t e d b y the N a t i o n a l Science F o u n d a t i o n , t h e U n i v e r s i t y of N o r t h Carolina is d e v e l o p i n g chemical modification techniques for electrodes. Reactive mol- ecules were c o v a l e n t l y b o n d e d to the surface of a n electrode. Such molecules did n o t i n t e r f e r e with the electrochemical effectiveness of the electrode b u t c a n be used to p e r f o r m reactions in t a n d e m w i t h the electrochemical ones at the electrode. They can provide a more f a v o r a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t for the electrochemical reactions or p a r t i c i p a t e themselves as i n t e r m e d i a t e s in electrochemical reactions occurring at the surface of the electrode. Research workers are s e a r c h i n g for a r e v e r s i b l e electroactive surface molecule which could be b o u n d selectively to electrodes to assist the electro- chemical r e a c t i o n (32).
Researchers at P e n n s y l v a n i a State U n i v e r s i t y claim that iodine m a y replace chlorine as a s w i m m i n g pool disinfectant. Iodine is more effective a g a i n s t organic matter, does n o t i r r i t a t e the eyes, a n d is easier to monitor. One d r a w b a c k is its ineffectiveness against algae (33).
New d e v e l o p m e n t s i n ozone g e n e r a t o r s for sewage a n d w a t e r t r e a t m e n t have resulted i n significant r e - ductions in the cost of p r o d u c i n g ozone. Ozonation as a r e p l a c e m e n t for c h l o r i n a t i o n is g a i n i n g i n interest.
The city of St. Johns, N e w f o u n d l a n d , is i n s t a l l i n g U n i o n Carbide's ozonator for t r e a t m e n t of t h e i r ii million-gal/day potable water supply. A joint devel- o p m e n t b y Accelerators, Incorporated, Austin, Texas, and R. P. Industries, Incorporated, Hudson, Massachu- setts, has produced a generator which can produce ozone at energy-consumption cost of less than 10 cents per pound. This n e w approach produces ozone f r o m untreated air in an electron b e a m generator. A proto- type system is being installed at Marlboro, Massachu- setts, to treat 1 million gal/day of water discharged from a sewage plant (34).
V. M e r c u r y Cells.--There w e r e no n e w m e r c u r y cell plants in the planning or construction stage in the United States or C a n a d a during 1976. T h e 80 tons per day chlorine plant, Prince Albert Pulp C o m p a n y , Sas- katoon, Saskatchewan, will be converted f r o m m e r c u r y cells to m e m b r a n e cells supplied by Asahi Chemical Industry, Osaka City. D i a m o n d S h a m r o c k at their Muscle Shoals, Alabama, site announced conversion of mercury cells to m e m b r a n e cells of their o w n design.
Capacity w a s not reported (20, 35).
Conversion f r o m mercury cells to other types of cells in Japan has been further delayed. At the end of September 1975, the original goal of 64.6% conversion set by the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) w a s not reached as only 34.5%
w a s converted to mercury-free methods. T h e M a r c h 1978 date for completion of the second-phase conver- sion p r o g r a m is also seriously lagging, and the goals will have to be revised. B y April 1976, only 59.3% w a s converted. Delays w e r e attributed to the severe re- cession, difficulties in raising capital, equipment deliv- eries, uncertainties with respect to diaphragm cell vs.
m e m b r a n e cell technology and low rate of capacity utilization (36, 37).
Efforts are c o n t i n u i n g t o w a r d f u r t h e r r e d u c t i o n i n the level of m e r c u r y discharge f r o m plants. Osaka Soda a n d O k a y a m a Chemical carried out i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a n d process modifications at t h e i r plants a n d reported achieving less t h a n 1.5g m e r c u r y p e r t o n of NaOH i n a n e w p l a n t a n d less t h a n 2.5g in an older t y p e p l a n t (38). A closed m e r c u r y cell process developed b y K a s h i m a Chlorine a n d A l k a l i will be used b y D i a m o n d Shamrock in t h e i r U n i t e d States plants. R e q u i r e m e n t s of l g m e r c u r y per t o n of chlorine were reported. (39).
N e w i o n - e x c h a n g e resins, ImacTMl%| developed b y Akzo Chemie, Netherlands, are reported to be more selective t h a n other resins i n m e r c u r y r e m o v a l from effluent streams. Levels i n c h l o r - a l k a l i p l a n t effluent have b e e n reduced to 5 ppb m e r c u r y w i t h the n e w resins, compared to 0.1-1 p p m for other resins a n d methods (40).
U n i t e d States p r o d u c t i o n of p r i m a r y m e r c u r y i n 1976 totaled 20,000 flasks (76 lb). This was produced in four mines, three in California and one i n Nevada which was s t a r t i n g to s u p p l y a l a r g e r share of the market. S e c o n d a r y p r o d u c t i o n dropped 53% below t h a t produced in 1975. The G e n e r a l Services A d m i n i s t r a t i o n established a n e w strategic stockpile goal of 54,004 flasks a n d at year e n d the stock pile c o n t a i n e d 191,407 flasks. Stocks of 28,500 flasks held b y producers, con- sumers, a n d dealers at y e a r end were o n l y slightly below 1975 y e a r - e n d stocks (41).
C o n s u m p t i o n of m e r c u r y for 1976 was estimated at 65,000 flasks, a 25% increase over the previous year.
Usage by c h l o r i n e - c a u s t i c producers was e s s e n t i a l l y u n c h a n g e d from the reported 15,2.00 flasks i n 1975 (41).
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8C
J. Electrochem. Soc.:
R E V I E W S A N D N E W SJanuary 1978
World p r o d u c t i o n of m e r c u r y dropped about 3% to2~2,300 flasks i n 1976. P r o d u c e r s in Mexico a n d I t a l y r e d u c e d or completely s h u t d o w n m e r c u r y m i n i n g o p e r - ations. C a n a d i a n m i n i n g operations which closed d o w n i n 1975, because of the poor economy, did not reopen i n 1976. T h e r e w e r e reports t h a t producers i n Spain, Italy, a n d U.S.S.R. dropped out of i n t e r n a t i o n a l m a r - k e t i n g of m e r c u r y (41).
EGAM, a m e r c u r y p r o d u c e r i n Italy, shut down i n October for 3 1/2 years to u p g r a d e facilities a n d i m - prove o p e r a t i n g economics (42).
VI. H e a l t h and e n v i r o n m e n t . - - T h e r e is a n i n c r e a s i n g t e n d e n c y to equate chemicals, p a r t i c u l a r l y c h l o r i n a t e d organics, with carcinogens. However, t h e r e is no agree- m e n t o n how to establish safe levels of exposure or on w h a t constitutes a n acceptable risk. Methods in use today p r o v i d e o n l y q u a l i t a t i v e i n d i c a t i o n s i n m a n y instances a n d test results are difficult to express on a q u a n t i t a t i v e basis. More l o n g - t e r m t e s t i n g is believed to be necessary, a n d it will be some time i n t h e f u t u r e before test results can be t r a n s l a t e d into " m e a n i n g f u l a n d practical r e g u l a t i o n s " (43-45).
A s p o k e s m a n for the S y n t h e t i c Organic Chemical M a n u f a c t u r e r s Association predicts carcinogens as a l o n g - t e r m p r o b l e m for the chemical i n d u s t r y . The science of toxicology, a l r e a d y complex, is f u r t h e r com- plicated b y a n u m b e r of g o v e r n m e n t a l agencies w i t h different philosophies. T h e Occupational Safety a n d H e a l t h A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (OSHA) is expected to a n - n o u n c e n e w s t a n d a r d s for chemical carcinogens i n 1977 or early 1978. The n e w r e g u l a t i o n s a n d sequence of testing for carcinogens c a n have f a r - r e a c h i n g i m p l i - cations (46).
Two c h l o r i n a t e d organics, t r i c h l o r e t h y l e n e a n d chloroform, have b e e n singled out b y t h e N a t i o n a l Cancer i n s t i t u t e as p r o b a b l e causes of cancer in h u m a n s . Based on a n i m a l tests, the findings w e r e considered definitive for animals, b u t the e x t e n t of risk i n h u m a n s c a n n o t be predicted. However, it can serve as a w a r n - ing o n possible carcinogenicity i n h u m a n s (47).
T h e Toxic S u b s t a n c e Control Bill is expected to become l a w on J a n u a r y 1, 1977. A l l chemical producers will be s u b j e c t to t e r m s of this bill. T h e m a i n f e a t u r e of this legislation is t h a t m a n u f a c t u r e r s will n o t be able to commercialize n e w chemicals w i t h o u t n o t i f y i n g the G o v e r n m e n t . Producers of chemicals w h i c h have b e e n l i n k e d w i t h h e a l t h hazards such as c h l o r i n a t e d organics c a n expect closer scrutiny~ The U.S. E n v i r o n - m e n t a l P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y ( E P A ) , u n d e r this bill, will r e q u i r e 90 days notice before m a n u f a c t u r e a n d d i s t r i - b u t i o n of chemicals t h a t m a y be considered as risks in p u b l i c h e a l t h or to the e n v i r o n m e n t (48).
T i g h t e r controls are b e i n g imposed on the plastics industry, as i n - p l a n t control of v i n y l chloride m o n o m e r (VCM) emission was e x t e n d e d to cover the i n d u s t r i a l c o m m u n i t y . W i t h a u t h o r i t y u n d e r the Clean A i r Act, the E P A has declared VCM as a hazardous air p o l l u - tant. Air emission s t a n d a r d s proposed w o u l d reduce VCM e n t e r i n g the air w i t h i n a 5 mile radius of the p l a n t b y more t h a n 90% w h e n compared to emission s t a n d a r d s i n 1974. These n e w standards, a n n o u n c e d October 21, allow p l a n t s only 90 days to comply w i t h the regulations. V i n y l chloride, e t h y l e n e dichloride, a n d p o l y v i n y l chloride producers a r e p r e s e n t l y seeking extensions of up to 2 years i n order to install control e q u i p m e n t . H i g h e r PVC prices are a n t i c i p a t e d as a result of a d d i t i o n a l control e q u i p m e n t and higher operating costs (49, 50).
E n v i r o n m e n t C a n a d a is proposing to reduce a t m o - spheric emissions of m e r c u r y to 5.3g per day for each 1000 kg of chlorine production. T o t a l atmospheric r e - lease from m e r c u r y cell p l a n t s is expected to drop from the c u r r e n t 12 tons to 2 tons m e r c u r y per year.
Some plants, p a r t i c u l a r l y older facilities, will r e q u i r e f u r t h e r capital e x p e n d i t u r e s (51).
Recognition of the p o t e n t i a l dangers from a i r b o r n e asbestos emissions is increasing. The proposed r e g u - l a t i o n u n d e r discussion w o u l d reduce the l i m i t to 0.5
fiber per cubic c e n t i m e t e r i n a time weighted 8 h r average. E s t a b l i s h m e n t of a dose-response level has b e e n difficult. Medical s u r v e i l l a n c e a n d studies on workers exposed to asbestos emissions are c o n t i n u i n g in m a n y countries. OSHA has emphasized the com- p l e x i t y of the r e g u l a t o r y process w h i c h results i n a long lapse of time from issuing a proposed s t a n d a r d to p u b l i c a t i o n of a regulation. A g a i n s t a b a c k g r o u n d of strict emission limitations, J o h n s - M a n v i l l e indicated that the s u p p l y is l a g g i n g the d e m a n d a n d the i n d u s - t r y is 2-3 years a w a y from s t a r t i n g n e w asbestos mihes (52).
The N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e for Occupational Safety a n d H e a l t h (NIOSH) has r e c o m m e n d e d to OSHA t h a t e x - posure of w o r k e r s to chlorine be reduced. NIOSH proposed a n exposure limit of 0.5 p p m for periods of n o t more t h a n 15 min. The p r e s e n t s t a n d a r d is 1 p p m for a t i m e - w e i g h t e d a v e r a g e 8 h r p e r d a y (53).
The Food a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n (FDA) is asking for i n f o r m a t i o n on the safety a n d use of chlorine i n food processing. T h e exposure of a wide v a r i e t y of foods to chlorine w h e n used as processing aids is coming u n d e r closer scrutiny. Safety data to j u s t i f y such uses will be r e v i e w e d b y the F D A a n d g e n e r a l guidelines covering the safe use of chlorine i n food processing will e v e n t u a l l y be p u b l i s h e d (54).
B u r n i n g of PVC plastics c a n release significant a m o u n t s of m e t h y l chloride w h i c h is capable of dis- sociating into chlorine atoms a n d d e s t r o y i n g the ozone l a y e r i n the stratosphere. The two m a i n sources of m a n - m a d e m e t h y l chloride were cited as c o m b u s t i o n of PVC plastics in wastes a n d fires i n b u i l d i n g s con- t a i n i n g PVC m a t e r i a l s of construction. Unless c o m b u s - tion of PVC is r i g i d l y controlled, release of m e t h y l chloride is expected to rise a s a r e s u l t of g r e a t e r use of PVC m a t e r i a l s (55).
T h e E P A is u r g i n g a w o r l d w i d e approach to the con- trol of fluorocarbon emissions i n the air b y r e g u l a t i n g emissions a n d c o n d u c t i n g atmospheric research. E P A is p r e p a r i n g a 10 y r research b u d g e t for stratospheric research (5,6).
Other Alkaline or Chlorine Compounds
I. Caustic p o t a s h . - - P r o d u c t i o n of caustic potash i n 1976 was 226,800 tons as 88-92% liquid. This is a n i n - crease of 6% over the previous y e a r (57).
The caustic potash m a r k e t i m p r o v e d s o m e w h a t d u r - ing the year b u t p r o d u c t i o n p l a n t s w e r e still r u n n i n g well below capacity. Total U n i t e d
capacity of 335,000 tons p e r y e a r is producers, viz. (59) :
States p r o d u c t i o n m a d e up from six
IMC 95,000
D i a m o n d S h a m r o c k 87,000
Monsanto 55,000
Hooker 53,000
P e n n w a l t 25,000
P P G 2.0,000
The price of caustic potash r e m a i n e d at $7.50 p e r 100 lb, 45% basis, t h r o u g h o u t 1976. I n November, a n e w price of $8.00 was a n n o u n c e d a n d this will become effective J a n u a r y 1, 1977 (59).
U n i t e d States p r o d u c t i o n of m a r k e t a b l e potassium salts dropped slightly from 2.5 m i l l i o n i n 1975, to 2.4 m i l l i o n tons i n 1976, expressed as K20 e q u i v a l e n t . A b o u t 2 m i l l i o n tons or 82% of the p r o d u c t i o n came from New Mexico w i t h the b a l a n c e f r o m U t a h a n d California. P o t a s s i u m m u r i a t e from C a n a d a constituted n e a r l y 3.8 m i l l i o n tons as K 2 0 e q u i v a l e n t or 96% of total imports (58).
The price of s t a n d a r d b u l k p o t a s s i u m m u r i a t e f r o m C a n a d a a n d N e w Mexico dropped to 55-70 cents per u n i t of K20 (20 lb of K20) d u r i n g the J u n e t h r o u g h A u g u s t period. Prices for the fall season ( S e p t e m b e r t h r o u g h J a n u a r y ) were quoted at 70-75 cents per unit.
Prices for the spring season ( F e b r u a r y t h r o u g h May) of 1977 are expected to increase b y 5 cents p e r u n i t
(60, 61).
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Vol. 125, No. 1
R E P O R T O F E L E C T R O L Y T I C I N D U S T R I E S 9C D u r i n g the second h a l f of 1976, t h e r e w e r e i n d i c a -tions t h a t t h e p o t a s h m a r k e t was s l o w l y i m p r o v i n g as i n v e n t o r i e s d r o p p e d a n d s h i p m e n t s increased. Based on r e p o r t s f r o m t h e first W o r l d F e r t i l i z e r Conference, g r o w t h in p o t a s h can be e x p e c t e d as i n c r e a s e d con- s u m p t i o n of f e r t i l i z e r s w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y to assist in m e e t i n g the w o r l d ' s food p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . A w o r l d p o t a s h d e m a n d of 31 m i l l i o n tons was p r e - d i c t e d b y 1980 (62, 63).
A d e g r e e of u n c e r t a i n t y w i t h r e s p e c t to r a w m a t e r - ials exists as t h e r e s u l t of t h e S a s k a t c h e w a n g o v e r n - m e n t ' s first m o v e to n a t i o n a l i z e t h e p o t a s h i n d u s t r y . D u v a l C o r p o r a t i o n ' s 1.5 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r p l a n t was p u r c h a s e d b y P o t a s h C o r p o r a t i o n of S a s k a t c h e - wan, a C r o w n company. T h e $128.5 m i l l i o n p u r c h a s e p r i c e was s h o r t of the $150 m i l l i o n p r i c e sought b y Duval. E n g i n e e r i n g is p r o c e e d i n g w i t h a 25% e x p a n - sion of t h e mine. N e g o t i a t i o n s are in p r o g r e s s for the p u r c h a s e of two m o r e p o t a s h companies. The G o v e r n - m e n t is p l a n n i n g to b u y a 51% i n t e r e s t in the p o t a s h i n d u s t r y and o n l y use e x p r o p r i a t i o n if p u r c h a s e a g r e e m e n t s c a n n o t be n e g o t i a t e d . A l t h o u g h the G o v - e r n m e n t has given a s s u r a n c e of u n r e s t r i c t e d supplies w i t h no m a n i p u l a t i o n of prices, t h e r e is some s k e p t i - cism in the U n i t e d S t a t e s b y g o v e r n m e n t and i n d u s t r y . A b o u t 70% of the S a s k a t c h e w a n p o t a s h is m a r k e t e d in the U n i t e d S t a t e s (63-65).
I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i n e r a l s and C h e m i c a l C o r p o r a t i o n ( C a n a d a ) is e n g a g e d in a p o t a s h e x p l o r a t i o n p r o j e c t in the S a l t S p r i n g s r e g i o n of N e w B r u n s w i c k . The c o m p a n y is e n c o u r a g e d b y core d a t a w h i c h a r e s h o w - ing p o t a s h a v e r a g i n g 28-32% KeO. It is too e a r l y to d e t e r m i n e t h e economic f e a s i b i l i t y of t h e project. Core t e s t i n g is e x p e c t e d to continue for 1 to 1 1/2 years.
T h e c o m p a n y is also e n g a g e d in e x p l o r a t i o n of p o t a s h deposits in N o r t h e r n Ontario. F i r s t - p h a s e d r i l l i n g tests i n d i c a t e d y i e l d s of a b o u t 24 m i l l i o n tons of r e c o v e r a b l e potash. H o w e v e r , c o m m e r c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t of the d e - posit cannot be justified u n d e r c u r r e n t economic con- d i t i o n s (66, 67).
II. S o d a a s h . - - D o m e s t i c p r o d u c t i o n of soda ash i n - c r e a s e d 7.6% f r o m 7.13 m i l l i o n tons in 1975 to 7.6 m i l - lion tons in 1976 (68). N a t u r a l soda ash ( t r o n a ) i n - c r e a s e d f r o m 4.33 to 5.19 m i l l i o n tons (69), w h i l e s y n t h e t i c ( S o l v a y process) soda ash d e c r e a s e d f r o m 2.80 to 2.42 m i l l i o n tons.
E x p a n s i o n in c a p a c i t y for n a t u r a l soda ash continues.
T o t a l c a p a c i t y was e s t i m a t e d to be 7.3 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r at the end of 1976 a n d is e x p e c t e d to be 8.8 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r b y the end of 1977.
Most n a t u r a l s o d a ash is m i n e d in W y o m i n g . F M C C o r p o r a t i o n ' s 0.75 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r e x p a n s i o n of the G r e e n River, W y o m i n g , soda ash p l a n t w i l l m a k e it the w o r l d ' s l a r g e s t at 2.5 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r (70).
Texasgulf, I n c o r p o r a t e d , j o i n e d o t h e r W y o m i n g p r o - d u c e r s w h e n a 1 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r p l a n t s t a r t e d p r o d u c t i o n in October; this p l a n t is e x p a n d a b l e to t w i c e its p r e s e n t p r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y (71, 72). A b o u t 1.8 tons of ore w e r e m i n e d for each ton of soda ash p r o d u c e d . Stauffer C h e m i c a l C o m p a n y was a d d i n g 0.2 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r to the c o m p a n y ' s e x i s t i n g 1.35 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r capacity. A l l i e d Chemical C o r - p o r a t i o n has 2.2 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r capacity. N u m - erous o t h e r c o m p a n i e s h e l d t r o n a leases in the G r e e n R i v e r area. The G r e e n R i v e r f o r m a t i o n contains an e s t i m a t e d r e s e r v e of 50 b i l l i o n tons of ore (73).
N a t u r a l soda ash is also p r o d u c e d at S e a r l e s Lake, California, b y c a r b o n a t i o n of l a k e brines. This process has p r o d u c e d a b o u t 400,000 tons p e r y e a r for t h e p a s t s e v e r a l years. K e r r - M c G e e is e x p a n d i n g t h e i r f a c i l i t y f r o m 0.145 to 1.3 m i l l i o n tons p e r y e a r at a cost of $175 million, the e x p a n s i o n to be c o m p l e t e d in 1977 (74).
The n u m b e r of s y n t h e t i c p l a n t s d e c r e a s e d f r o m f o u r to t h r e e w i t h a total c a p a c i t y s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n 2 m i l l i o n tons (75, 76). D i a m o n d S h a m r o c k s h u t d o w n its 800,000 tons p e r y e a r P a i n e s v i l l e , Ohio, p l a n t a t y e a r end. Reasons cited for closing t h e plant, s t a r t e d up in 1912, w e r e the p l a n t ' s age, s t r i n g e n t p o l l u t i o n - c o n t r o l s t a n d a r d s , e s c a l a t i n g e n e r g y costs, a n d c o m p e t i t i o n
f r o m n a t u r a l soda ash. The r e m a i n i n g s y n t h e t i c p r o - d u c e r s a r e A l l i e d at Syracuse, N e w York, B A S F W y a n d o t t e at W y a n d o t t e , Michigan, and P P G I n d u s - tries at Corpus Christi, Texas.
C o n s u m p t i o n in the U n i t e d S t a t e s was e s t i m a t e d to be 7.0 m i l l i o n tons in 1976, an i n c r e a s e of a p p r o x - i m a t e l y 7% o v e r 1975 (68). A p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e - h a l f is used in glass m a k i n g , a n o t h e r q u a r t e r is used in f o r m u - l a t i o n of d e t e r g e n t s , a n d t h e r e s t in m i s c e l l a n e o u s uses.
E x p o r t s and i m p o r t s a r e a s m a l l c o m p o n e n t of t h e soda ash m a r k e t . Exports, p r i m a r i l y of refined m a t e r - ial, i n c r e a s e d to an e s t i m a t e d 502,000 tons, 7.6% of production. I m p o r t s for c o n s u m p t i o n w e r e n e g l i g i b l e at 1,000 tons.
A v e r a g e prices of soda ash in 1976 w e r e up 19% f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r (77). List prices on D e c e m b e r 31, 1976, r a n g e d f r o m $57 to $71 p e r ton. In general, s y n t h e t i c soda ash is $15 to $20 p e r ton m o r e e x p e n - sive, f.o.b, plant, t h a n the n a t u r a l product.
III. S o d i u m c h l o r a t e . - - - S o d i u m c h l o r a t e p r o d u c t i o n in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s for 1976 was a r e c o r d 196,400 tons.
This r e p r e s e n t s a 17% i n c r e a s e over the 1975 t o t a l of 167,700 tons (57).
P r o d u c t i o n c a p a c i t y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s is 253,500 tons p e r y e a r w i t h facilities at 12 locations. I n Canada, s o d i u m c h l o r a t e is p r o d u c e d in 11 facilities for a t o t a l c a p a c i t y of 226,000 tons p e r y e a r (78, 79).
D e m a n d for s o d i u m c h l o r a t e r e m a i n e d s t r o n g t h r o u g h o u t the y e a r w i t h t i g h t s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g on the w e s t coast. By m i d y e a r , c h l o r a t e c a p a c i t y in N o r t h A m e r i c a was sold. P u l p b l e a c h i n g r e m a i n s the p r i n c i p a l m a r k e t for s o d i u m chlorate.
M o r e c h l o r i n e dioxide, d e r i v e d f r o m s o d i u m chlorate, p r o b a b l y w i l l be r e q u i r e d as p u l p m i l l s i n c r e a s e c h e m - ical recycle. P u l p a n d p a p e r p r o d u c e r s a r e f o r e c a s t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of c o n t i n u i n g s h o r t s u p p l y s i t u a t i o n s in 1977 (80, 81).
Effective J u l y 1976, t h e price of b u l k s o d i u m chlo- r a t e was r a i s e d f r o m $250 to $280 p e r ton. I n D e c e m b e r , f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s b r o u g h t the p r i c e of b u l k up to $300-
$310 p e r ton. S i m i l a r price i n c r e a s e s w e r e e x p e r i e n c e d in C a n a d a w h e r e end of y e a r prices for b u l k s o d i u m c h l o r a t e w e r e $25.0-$256 p e r ton (82-85).
The ERCO I n d u s t r i e s division of A l b r i g h t and Wilson, L i m i t e d , w i l l e x p a n d c h l o r a t e o u t p u t at s e v e r a l locations. A t B u c k i n g h a m , Quebec, a 12,000 ton p e r y e a r e x p a n s i o n is s c h e d u l e d for A p r i l 1977. A n a d d i - t i o n a l 15,000 tons p e r y e a r is s l a t e d for the first q u a r t e r of 1978. This w i l l b r i n g ERCO's c a p a c i t y at this l o c a - tion to n e a r l y 77,000 tons p e r year. A t the V a n c o u v e r location, modifications to e l e c t r i c a l e q u i p m e n t and elec- t r o l y z e r s a r e e x p e c t e d to add 6,000 to 10,000 tons p e r year. The c o m p a n y ' s t o t a l c a p a c i t y in C a n a d a s h o u l d r e a c h 125,000 tons p e r y e a r in 1978. A 50,000 ton p e r y e a r s o d i u m c h l o r a t e p l a n t on t h e G u l f Coast was a n n o u n c e d b y ERCO. The first p h a s e of 20,000 tons is s c h e d u l e d for the first q u a r t e r of 1979 (86, 87).
More r e c e n t l y ERCO I n d u s t r i e s , L i m i t e d , a n n o u n c e d p l a n s to b u i l d a new c h l o r a t e p l a n t at T h u n d e r Bay, Ontario. I n i t i a l c a p a c i t y of 25,000 tons p e r y e a r w i l l consist of 15,000 in the first stage for e a r l y 1979 c o m - p l e t i o n and 10,000 in the second stage (88).
I n N o v e m b e r , Dow C h e m i c a l s canceled its p l a n n e d f a c i l i t y at T h u n d e r Bay. The p l a n t was to h a v e an i n i t i a l c a p a c i t y of 30,000 tons p e r y e a r and was s c h e d - u l e d to go o n s t r e a m in 1977 (89).
P e n n w a l t C o r p o r a t i o n w i l l c o n s t r u c t a n e w s o d i u m c h l o r a t e p l a n t at its T a c o m a p l a n t site. C a p a c i t y was not disclosed. F i r s t p h a s e is e x p e c t e d to go o n s t r e a m in e a r l y 1978 (90).
The E l e c t r o c h e m i c a l Division of I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i n - erals and Chemical C o r p o r a t i o n p l a n s to b u i l d a 40,000 ton p e r y e a r s o d i u m c h l o r a t e p l a n t at its Orrington, Maine, p l a n t site. S t a r t up is s c h e d u l e d for mid-1978
(91).
Olin a n n o u n c e d c o n s t r u c t i o n of a 6,000 tons p e r y e a r p l a n t at its c h l o r - a l k a l i p l a n t s i t e in N i a g a r a Falls, New York. S t a r t up is s c h e d u l e d for l a t e 1977, w i t h t w o - t h i r d s of p r o d u c t i o n going to c a p t i v e use (92).
) unless CC License in place (see abstract).
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10C
J. Electrochem. Soc.:
R E V I E W S A N D N E W S Table 2. Summary of new or expanded sodium chlorate plantsJanuary I978
P r o d u c e r C a p a c i t y , t o n s p e r y e a r C o m p l e t i o n
1. ERCO I n d u s t r i e s
Buckingham. Que. Canada
B u c k i n g h a m , Q u e . , C a n a d a N o r t h Vancouver, B. C. C a n a d a T h u n d e r Bay, Ont., C a n a d a
Gulf Coast, U.S.
2. Pennwalt Corp.
Tacoma, W a s h .
3. I n t e r n a t i o n a l M i n e r a l s a n d
Chemical C o r p . O r r i n g t o n , M e . 4. O l i n Corp.
N i a g a r a F a l l s , N.Y.
Stanchem, Beauharnois, Quebec, increased p r o d u c - tion to 33,000 tons p e r year, a 10% increase, b y i n s t a l - ling m e t a l anodes developed b y K e m a - N o r d a n d P P G I n d u s t r i e s (78).
N e w or f u t u r e e x p a n s i o n s of sodium chlorate plants i n the U n i t e d States a n d C a n a d a are s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 2.
Metals
I. A l m m i n u m . - - U n i t e d States p r o d u c t i o n of p r i m a r y a l u m i n u m was 4,249,000 tons i n 1976. A l t h o u g h this r e p r e s e n t s a 9.3% increase over the 1975 figure, p r o - d u c t i o n for 1976 was still 13.5% below the record y e a r of 1974. Total a l u m i n u m s u p p l y for 1976, was 6,370,000 tons which was a 14% increase over the previous y e a r b u t still well below the 7.3 m i l l i o n total for 1974. S e c o n d a r y recovery of a l u m i n u m for 1975, totaled 1,451,000 tons. This was a 23% increase over the previous year (93). Recovery from the 1975 r e - cession i n the a l u m i n u m i n d u s t r y was slow. At the start of 1976, p r i m a r y a l u m i n u m producers w e r e o p e r - ating at a 75% rate a n d b y m i d - M a r c h the rate was still o n l y 76%. However, p r o d u c t i o n g r a d u a l l y i m - proved to 85% b y m i d y e a r a n d by y e a r e n d had climbed f u r t h e r to 94% of capacity. C a n a d i a n producers o p e r a t - ed at 80% at the b e g i n n i n g of the year, dropped to 42% d u r i n g the strike, a n d b y y e a r end were at 71%
(94, 95).
W i t h prospects for i m p r o v e m e n t s i n a l u m i n u m d e m a n d and due to lower inventories, idle cal~acity was r e s t a r t e d at various locations (96-98). A n o t h e r reason for b r i n g i n g on idle capacity was the A l c a n strike i n Canada. The 5 m o n t h strike crippled n e a r l y 600,000 tons per year capacity a n d full p r o d u c t i o n will be d e l a y e d a n o t h e r 3 m o n t h s due to d a m a g e d potlines
(99, 100).
I m p o r t s of crude, semicrude, a n d scrap a l u m i n u m were up b y about 55% over the previous year. Exports of crude and s e m i c r u d e increased by 20% compared to 1975. Total m e t a l i n v e n t o r i e s of a l u m i n u m decreased g r a d u a l l y b y a b o u t 10% d u r i n g the y e a r (101).
U n i t e d States a l u m i n u m producers raised the price of p r i m a r y ingot from 41 to 44 cents per p o u n d i n April. A f u r t h e r increase to 48 cents w e n t into effect in A u g u s t (102, 103). Tight supplies i n early 1977 were predicted b y economists, a n d this could result i n f u r t h e r escalations i n price (104).
The slow economic recovery in the a l u m i n u m i n d u s - t r y resulted in p o s t p o n e m e n t or c a n c e l l a t i o n of a n u m - ber of n e w a l u m i n a projects, viz. (105-108) :
1. The 880,000 tons per y e a r refinery i n I r e l a n d pro- posed b y A l c a n a n d two partners.
2. West Pacific A l u m i n a ' s 800,000 metric tons p e r y e a r refinery on M i n d a n a o i n the Philippines.
3. A 400,000 m e t r i c tons p e r y e a r refinery p l a n n e d for B i n t a n I s l a n d i n I n d o n e s i a b y S u m i t o m o Chemical, Showa Denko, a n d N i p p o n Light Metal.
4. P a c m i n e x ' s option to b u i l d a 1.2 m i l l i o n m e t r i c tons per y e a r refinery i n West Australia.
5. Comalco's 320,000 m e t r i c tons p e r y e a r at G l a d - stone, Australia.
6. A l c a n ' s 200,000 tons per y e a r s m e l t e r i n Quebec.
New projects i n different stages of p l a n n i n g or con- s t r u c t i o n were a n n o u n c e d , viz. (101, 109-113):
E x p a n s i o n - - 12,000 E x p a n s i o n - - 15,000 Expansion - - 6,000-10,000
N e w - - 1st p h a s e - - 15,000 2 n d p h a s e - - 10,000
N e w - - 1st p h a s e - - 20,000 2 n d p h a s e - - 30,000 N e w - - 1st p h a s e - - N e w - - 40,000
N e w - - 6,000
A p r i l 1977 I s t Q u a r t e r 1978 1977
1st Q u a r t e r 1979 1st Q u a r t e r 1979 1st Quarter 1978
M i d 1978
4 t h Q u a r t e r 1977
I. A 1 m i l l i o n m e t r i c tons per year plant, b u i l t b y a c o n s o r t i u m i n c l u d i n g F r a n c e ' s PUK, will be located on the Black Sea i n Russia.
2. Russia will assist I n d o n e s i a with a 600,000 m e t r i c tons p e r year refinery on B i n t a n Island.
3. Reynolds Metals a n d p a r t n e r s are p l a n n i n g a 1 m i l l i o n tons per y e a r refinery i n Wagerup, Australia.
4. A n a l u m i n u m project a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n Brazil a n d J a p a n will i n c l u d e a 320,000 metric tons per y e a r s m e l t e r at Belem.
5. Completion of a second 70,000 tons per y e a r potline at New Madrid, Missouri, was a n n o u n c e d b y Noranda.
6. The feasibility of a d d i n g a n a d d i t i o n a l p o t l i n e at Alcoa, Texas, is being studied by Alcoa.
The U.S. B u r e a u of Mines expects the U n i t e d States d e m a n d for a l u m i n u m to grow a b o u t 6% p e r y e a r u n t i l 1985, a n d t h e n relax to a g r o w t h of 4.5% p e r y e a r over the n e x t 15 years. A m a j o r u n c e r t a i n t y is usage of a l u m i n u m i n the a u t o m o b i l e i n d u s t r y . Recycled a l u m - i n u m is expected to show steady growth. By 1989, 40%
of the U n i t e d States r e q u i r e m e n t s could be met by secondary a l u m i n u m (114, 115).
A l u m i n u m producers i n the Pacific Northwest, who have a 31% capacity of U n i t e d States total, m a y be faced with a power crisis i n the mid-1980's. B o n n e v i l l e P o w e r m a y not be able to r e n e w t h e i r power contracts which are based on cheap hydroelectric power. P o w e r from other sources will be more expensive (116).
A t r e n d towards m o r e a l u m i n u m in a u t o m o t i v e use i n order to i m p r o v e fuel economy is predicted. P r e s e n t usage of 87 ib per car is estimated to increase up to 9~-100 ]b for 1977. Forecast figures are 150-300 lb for 1980, a n d b y 1985, this is expected to rise to 200-425 lb per car. A n o t h e r reason for increased use in a u t o m o - biles is Aloca's d e v e l o p m e n t of n e w sheet alloys which offer scrap c o m p a t a b i l i t y and other i m p r o v e d charac- teristics (117-120). A n e w a l u m i n u m r a d i a t o r was developed b y U n i o n Carbide (121).
The i n d u s t r y ' s goal of r e d u c i n g e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n b y 10% from 1972 to 1980 appears to be possible. Since 1972, the i n d u s t r y has achieved a 6.5% r e d u c t i o n (122).
B a u x i t e p r o d u c t i o n i n the U n i t e d States, an increase of about 11%, was 2 m i l l i o n tons i n 1976. I m p o r t s of dried a n d calcined b a u x i t e were about 13 m i l l i o n tons, up slightly from 1975, b u t below 1974 imports. Jamaica, Guinea, a n d S u r i n a m r e m a i n e d the m a i n sources of bauxite. A l u m i n a imports, which l a r g e l y came from Australia, were about the same as 1975 (101).
Alcoa a n d the J a m a i c a n G o v e r n m e n t reached an 8 year a g r e e m e n t on levies a n d a 40 year a g r e e m e n t on ownership of J a m a i c a ' s b a u x i t e m i n i n g a n d refining facilities (123). Separate s e t t l e m e n t s b e t w e e n J a m a i c a a n d Reynolds a n d Kaiser were reported to be v e r y close to final a g r e e m e n t s (124). Disputes b e t w e e n Revere a n d J a m a i c a over the g o v e r n m e n t ' s b a u x i t e p r o d u c t i o n levy have not been resolved (125).
P r e s e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of k n o w n b a u x i t e reserves is estimated as follows (126) :
Africa 38%
A u s t r a l i a 25%
A m e r i c a 22 %
Europe 8%
Asia 7 %
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