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A B S T R AC T

No r wa l k V

i

r u s

(

N V

)

a nd o t he r h uma n e n t e r

i

c v

i

r u se s

i

n

f e c al l

y

c o n t a m

i

n a t ed wa t e r s

p

o s e a hu ma n he a l t h r

i

s k t ha t

i

s

i n ade qu a t e l y ch a r a c t e r i ze d du e t o t he l

i

m i t a t

i

o n s o f c u r r e n t

v

i

r us d et ec t

i

o n met ho d s . St a nda r d me t hod s f o r v i r u s

c o n c e nt r a t

i

o n f r om wa t e r u s

i

n

g

e

l

e c t r o

p

o s

i

t

i

v e a d s o r be nt

f

i

l t e r s hav e n o t be e n t e s t e d f o r N V r e c o v e r y be c a u s e t he r e

i

s

n o c o n v e n

i

e n t i nf ec t

i

v

i

t y a s s ay s ys t em a nd be c a us e t he b e ef

e x t r a c t

(

B E

/

G

)

u s ed t o e l u t e t h e ad s o r be d v

i

r us e s

i

n h

i

b

i

t s

v

i

r u s de t e c t

i

o n b

y

r e v e r s e t r a n s c r

i p

t as e -

p

o l y me r a se ch a

i

n

r e a c t

i

o n

(

R T- P C R

)

am

p

l

i

f

i

c at

i

o n . He n c e , we t e st e d f

i

v e

a

l

t e r n at

i

v e e l u e n t s c om p a t

i

b l e w

i

t h R T - P C R

(

t he am

i

n o ac

i

ds

a r

g i

n

i

n e , a s

p

a r ag

i

n e , g l

y

c

i

n e , l

y

s

i

n e , o r t hr e o n

i

n e

)

f o r

e l u t

i

o n o f N V a s we l l as po l

i

o v

i

r us t y p e 1

(

P V l

)

a n d

c o l

i p

ha

g

e M S 2

(

M S 2

)

. A l l t hr e e v

i

r us e s s e eded

i

n t o

d ec h l o r

i

n a t ed t a

p

wa t e r we r e a d so r be d t o V i r os o r b I MDS

f

i

l t e r s a nd t he n e l u t ed w

i

t h e

i

t he r B E

/

G o r a n al t e r n a t

i

v e

e l u e n t t o ac h

i

e v e a 1 0 0-

f

o l d v ol ume c o n c e nt r at

i

o n . A l

l

t hr e e

v

i

r us es we r e a s s a

y

e d b y e nd

p

o

i

n t d

i

l u t

i

o n R T- P C R a n d P V l a nd

M S 2 we r e a s s ay e d b y i n f e c t

i

v

i

t y u s

i

n g t he p l aqu e t ec hn

i

qu e a s

we l l . W

i

t h al l o f t he am

i

n o ac

i

ds e x c e

pt t hr e o n

i

n e , el u t i o n

e f f

i

c

i

e n c

y

f o r al l t hr e e v

i

r u s e s wa s c om

p

a r ab l e t o o r

g

r e a t e r

t h a n t h a t b y B E

/

G. V

i

r us r e c o v e r

y e f f

i

c

i

e nc

i

es we r e 5 0 - 7 5 %

o v e r a

p

H r a n

g

e of 7 . 0 - 9 . 8 . V

i

r u s e s we r e c o n c e n t r a t ed

an o t he r 1 0- f o l d b y po l y e t h y l e n e

g l y c o l

p

r e c

i p

i t a t i o n , w h i c h

(2)

gav e r ec o v e r y e f f i c i e n c i e s o f 1 0- 100 %. T h es e r e s u l t s

i

nd

i

c a t e t ha t mo d

i

f

i

e d f

i

l t e r ad s o r

p

t

i

o n - e l u t

i

o n me t h o ds

u s

i

n

g

am

i

n o a c i d e l u e n t s a nd sub se

q

u e n t s e c o nda r y

c o n c e n t r a t

i

o n b y

p

o l ye t h y l e n e

g

l y c o l

p

r e c

i

p

i

t a t

i

o n

p

r o v

i

de

e f f

i

c

i

e n t c o n ce n t r a t

i

o n o f NV a nd o t he r v

i

r u s e s

i

n wa t e r f o r

(3)

AC K HO WL E D G E M E N T S

I wo u l d l

i

k e t o g

i

v e a s pe c

i

a l t ha nk s t o D r . Ma r k D .

So b s e y , m y adv

i

s o r a nd me n t o r . H e ac c e

p

t ed me

i

n t o h

i

s

l abo r a t o r y a nd

g

a ve me t h e

g

u

i

d a n c e a nd su p po r t n e c e s s a r

y

t o

mak e t h

i

s r epo r t p os s

i

b l e

-I wo u l d l

i

k e t o t h a nk D r . Y . - S . Ca r o l S h

i

eh f o r he r

i

n v al u ab l e as s

i

s t a n c e , t e c hn

i

c al s u

p p

o r t ,

f

r

i

e nd s

h i p

, a nd

c o m

m

e n t s . An d a

l

s o , t ha nk s t o Dr . Ra l

p

h S . Ba r

i

c f o r h

i

s

c o n t r

i

b u t i o n s a nd c c ara ne n t s t o t h

i

s r ep o r t .

I am

i

n de bt ed t o Do ug Wa

i

t a nd D o r o t h

y

T hom

p

s o n f o r

t he

i

r he l

p

t hr o ug h o ut t he c o u r s e o f t h

i

s r e se a r c h a nd t o a l

l

o f m y c ol l e agu es

i

n o u r l abo r at o r y . A s

pe c

i

al t ha n k s

i

s

de se r v ed b y m y t wo l ab pa r t n e r s a nd f r

i

e nd s , Dav

i

d Ba t t

i

ge l l

i

a nd Fu - C h

i

h Hsu . We ha v e wo r k ed t o

g

et he r , s omet

i

me s l e a r n

i

n

g

an d so me t i mes t e ac h

i

n g .

I wo ul d a l s o l

i

ke t o t ha nk a l l o f m y f r

i

e nd s he r e

i

n

Cha

p

e l H

i

l l ,

i

n c l ud

i

ng Fr ed , T

i

m, Da v e , a n d a l l o f t he

g

u ys

a t 4 0 7 Me r r

i

t t M

i

l l . I w

i

l l n e v e r f o r

g

e t o u r b a s k e t b a

l

l ,

du c k hu nt

i

n

g

, a n

d

f l y f

i

s

h i

n

g

a dv e nt u r e s .

F

i

n a l l y , I wo u l d l

i

k e t o t ha nk m y f am

i

l y . M y mo t h e r a nd

f a t he r ha v e l o v ed a n d su p

p

o r t ed me a nd h a v e

p

a t

i

e n t l y al l o we d

m e t o f

i

n d a c o u r s e

i

n l

i

f e t ha t I e n

j

o y . I k n ow t h at m y

gr a nd

p

a r e n t s a nd Au nt Ka t

i

e c o n s t a n t l y t h

i

n k of me a nd t he i r

p r aye r s a r e w

i

t h me . An d f

i

n a l l y , I wo u l d l

i

k e t o t ha nk

K e l l i e f o r he r l ov e , s u

p p

o r t , a nd u nd e r s t a nd

i

ng . W

i

t ho u t he r

e nc o u r a

g

e me nt , t h

i

s s t u d

y

wo u

l

d ha v e be e n

d i

f f

i

c ul t t o

(4)

T AB L E OF C O NT E N T S

A B S T R A C T

i i

A C K N O WL E D G E M E N T S

i

v

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T v

L I S T OF F I G U R E S v

i i i

L I S T O F T A B L E S

i

x

I . I NTR O DUC T I O N 1

I I . S T A T E MEN T O F R E S E ARC H O B J E C T I V E S 3

I V . L I T E R AT U R E R E V I E W 5

A . Pu b l

i

c He a l t h S

i g

n

i f i

c a n c e o f V

i

r u s es

i

n Wat e r 5

A l . S ma l l Ro u n d St r u c t u r ed V

i

r us e 6

A 2 . E n t e r o v

i

r us e s 9

A 2a . H e

p

a t

i

t

i

s A V

i

r u s 9

A 2 b . Pol

i

o v

i

r u s 1 0

A 3 . O t he r En t e r

i

c V

i

r u s e s 1 2

B . I nd

i

c a t o r s o f Fec a l l y Co n t am

i

n a t ed Wa t e r 1 2

B l . Ba c t e r

i

a l I nd

i

c a t o r s 1 4

B 2 . FR N A Co l

i

p ha ge s 1 5

C. C o n c e n t r a t

i

o n o f V

i

r us e s f r o m Wa t e r 1 6

C I . N e

ga t

i

v el y C ha r ge d F

i

l t e r Me t hod 1 8

C 2 . Po s

i

t

i

v e l y C ha r

g

ed F

i

l t e r Me t ho d 1 9

C 3 . V

i

r u s E l u t

i

o n f r om F

i

l t e r s 2 0

C 4 . Se c o n da r

y Co nc e n t r a t

i

o n o f F

i

l t e r El ua t e s

w

i

t h Po l y e t h y l e n e G l yc o l 2 2

D. De t ec t

i

o n Me t ho d s o f V

i

r u s e s

i

n Wa t e r 2 4

(5)

D 2 . Mol e c u l a r As s ay 2 6

D 3 . O t he r As s a

y

s 2 8

V . Me t hods a nd Ma t e r

i

al s 3 1

A . V

i

r u s es a n d H os t Ce l l s 3 1

A l . No r wa l k V

i

r u s

(

St r a

i

n 8 F I I a

)

3 1

A 2 . P o l

i

o v

i

r u s - 1

(

St r a

i

n L sC

)

3 2

A 3 . Ba c t e r

i

a Co l

i p

ha

g

e M S 2 3 3

B . Ex

p

e r

i

me nt a l Des

i g

n 3 4

B l . Wa t e r Sam p l e s 3 4

B 2 . F

i

l t e r Ma t e r

i

al 3 4

B 3 . A l t e r n at

i

v e E l u t

i

n

g

So

l

ut

i

o n s 3 5

B 4 . S ec o nd a r

y C o n c e n t r a t i o n b y P o l ye t h y l e n e

G l yc ol P r e c

i

p

i

t a t

i

o n 3 6

C. V

i

r u s

Q

u a n t

i

f

i

c a t

i

o n b

y

I n f e c t

i

v

i

t

y

As s a

y 3 7

C I . Po

l i

o v

i

r u s - 1 3 7

C 2 . Co l

i

p ha

g

e M S 2 3 7

D. V

i

r us

Q

u a n t

i

f

i

c a t

i

o n b y Mo l e c u l a r As s a

y 3 7

V I . R es u l t s . 4 1

A . Re c o v e r y o f Po

l i

o v

i

r us w

i

t h A l t e r n a t

i

v e E l u e nt s , . . 4 1

B . Co l

i p

ha ge M S 2 A ds o r

p

t

i

o n - E l u t

i

o n Ex

pe r

i

me n t s 4 1

C. P C Rab

i

l

i

t y o f No r wa l k V

i

r us i n Be e f Ex t r ac t 4 3

D . No r wa l k V

i

r u s A ds o r

p

t

i

o n t o a nd El u t

i

o n f r om

V

i

r os o r b I M D S F

i

l t e r s 4 4

E . No r wa l k V i r us Re c o v e r

y w

i

t h A l t e r n a t

i

v e E l u e n t s . . . 4 5

F . Se c o nda r

y Co n c e n t r a t

i

o n o f F

i

l t e r E l u a t e s b

y

Pol

y

e t h

y

l e n e G

l

yc o l Pr ec

i

p

i

t a t

i

o n 4 7

(6)

V I I I . C o nc l u s i o ns 6 8

(7)

L I ST OF F I G U RE S

F I GU R E 1 . Po l

i

ov

i

r u s Re c o v e r

y

w

i

t h A

l

t e r n a t

i

v e E l u e nt s 5 0

F I GU R E 2 . Co l

i p

hage M S 2 R e c o v e r y Ef f i c

i

e n c y 5 1

F I GU R E 3 . N o r wa l k V

i

r u s PC Ra b

i

l

i

t y w

i

t h 1 0 0 P C RU

/

s a m

p

l e 5 2

F I GUR E 4 . No r wal k V

i

r u s P C Rab

i

l

i

t y w

i

t h 1 0 P CR U

/

s am p l e 5 3

F I G U R E 5 . No r wal k V

i

r u s R e c o v e r

y

E f f

i

c

i

e n c

y

5 4

(8)

L I S T O F T AB L E S

T ABL E 1. P ol

i

o v

i

r u s T y pe 1 R e co v e r y w

i

t h B e e f E x t r a c t

a nd A l t e r n a t

i

v e E l u e nt s a t Va r y

i

n

g

pH 4 9

T A B L E 2 . Col

i p

h a

g

e M S 2 A ds o r pt

i

o n a nd

Re c o v e r y E f f

i

c

i

e n c y 5 1

T A B L E 3 . No r wa l k V

i

r u s A d s o r

p

t

i

o n a nd

Re c o v e r y E f

f i

c

i

e n c

y

5 4

T ABL E 4 . N or wa l k V

i

r us

, Po l

i

o v

i

r u s , a nd Co l

i p

h a

g

e M S 2

R ec o v e r

i

e s w

i

t h A l t e r n a t

i

v e E l u t

i

n

g

Sol u t

i

o n s a t

p

H 9 . 8

(

A

)

,

p

H 8 . 5

(

B

)

, a nd

p

H 7 . 0

(

C

)

5 5

T A B L E 5 . No r wa l k V

i

r u s

, P o l

i

o v

i

r u s 1, a n

d

Co l

i

p h age M S 2

P o l y e t h

y

l e n e G l

y

c ol Pr e c

i

p

i

t a t

i

o n Re c ov e r

i

e s f r om

(9)

I N T R ODUC T I O N

Wa t e r bo r n e o ut br e ak s o f a c u t e gas t r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s a r e a

c o mmo n a nd s

i g

n

i

f

i

c a n t t h r e a t t o

p

ub l

i

c he a l t h t hr o u

g

ho u t t he

wo r l d . Ma n

y

o f t hes e o ut br e aks a r e c a u s e d b y f e c al

c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n ha r b o r

i

ng e n t e r

i

c v

i

r us es , s u c h a s N o r wa l k

v

i

r u s , a nd e n t e r o v

i

r us e s s u c h a s

p

o l

i

o v

i

r us t y

p

e 1 .

Fu r t he r mo r e , a v

i

r a l e t

i

o l o

g

y ha s b e e n h

y p

o t he s

i

ze d f o r

e n de m

i

c , c oira nu n

i

t y - w

i

de wa t e r bo r n e

g

as t r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s

(

5 8

)

.

B ec a u s e t he c o mmu n

i

t

y

wa t e r s u

p p

l y

i

m

p

l

i

c a t ed

i

n e ndem

i

c

g ast r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s a nd ma ny of t he wa t e r s u

p p

l

i

e s t ha t we r e

i

m p l

i

c a t e d

i

n o u t br e ak s c o n t a

i

n e d ac c e

p

t ab l e l e v e l s o f

c o l

i

f o r m b a c t e r

i

a , t he r e

i

s a n e ed f o r be t t e r st r a t e g

i

e s t o

as se s s t he v

i

r o l o

g i

c a l

q

u a l

i

t y o f wa t e r . T he pr o

p

o s ed

I n f o r ma t

i

o n Col l e c t

i

o n R u l e

(

I CR

)

p

r o

p

o s e s t he u s e o f a n

ad s o r pt

i

o n

-el ut

i

o n t e c hn

i

qu e f o r c o n c e n t r a t

i

n

g

v

i

r u s es f r o m

l a r

g

e v o l u mes o f wa t e r b

y

ads o r b

i

n

g

t hem t o a nd t he n e l u t

i

n

g

t hem f r o m a n e l ec t r o

p

o s

i

t i v e f

i

l t e r . A po r t

i

o n o f t he be ef

e x t r ac t f

i

l t e r e l u a t e wo u l d b e a s sa y ed f o r i n d

i

c a t o r

c o l

i p

ha

g

e s su c h a s M S 2 . I n f o r ma t

i

o n o n t he e f f

i

c

i

e n c y o f

r ec o v e r y o f NV a n d c o l

i

p ha

g

e s l

i

ke M S 2 b y V

i

r os o r b I M D S

f

i

l t e r s

i

s l

i

m

i

t ed . T he r e f o r e , t he r e

i

s a n e ed f o r be t t e r

cha r a c t e r

i

z a t

i

o n of No r wa l k v

i

r u s a nd c o l

i p

ha

g

e M S 2

r ec o v e r i e s f r om t he se f

i

l t e r s . F u r t he r mo r e

, t he be e f e x t r a c t

u sed f o r e l u t

i

ng v

i

r u s es f r om I MD S f

i

l t e r s

i

n h

i

b

i

t s v

i

r u s

de t e c t

i

o n b y r e v e r s e t r a n s c r

i p

t a se

-p

o l

y

me r as e c ha

i

n r e a c t

i

o n

(

R T - P C R

)

am

p

l

i

f i c a t

i

o n . H e n c e

(10)

N V i n wa t e r u s i n g I MD S f

i

l t e r s , a n a l t e r n a t i v e e l u t

i

n g

so l u t

i

o n c om

p

a t

i

b l e w

i

t h R T- P CR mu s t be f o u n d .

T he f o c u s o f t h

i

s r es e a r c h

i

s t o de v e l o

p

a r ap

i

d ,

s

i

m p l e , a nd r e l

i

ab l e t ec hn

i q

u e f o r c o n c e n t r a t

i

n

g

v

i

r u s e s f r o m

l a r

g

e v o l ume s of wa t e r t ha t

i

s c om

p

a t

i

b l e w

i

t h R T- P C R

de t e c t

i

o n . F

i

v e a l t e r n a t

i

v e f

i

l t e r e l u t

i

o n so l u t

i

o n s a s we l l

as be e f e x t r ac t we r e t es t e d o v e r a p H r a n ge o f 7 . 0- 9 . 8 f o r

v

i

r u s r ec o v e r y f r om V

i

r os o r b I M D S f

i

l t e r s , u s

i

ng

de c h l o r

i

n a t ed t ap wa t e r s am

p

l e s c o n t a

i

n

i

n g t hr e e t es t

v

i

r u se s , N o r wal k v

i

r u s ,

p

o l

i

o v

i

ana s t

y

pe 1 , a nd c o l

i p

ha

g

e M S 2 .

V

i

r u se s w

i

t h

i

n f

i

l t e r e l u e n t s we r e se c o nda r

i

l

y

c o n c e n t r at ed

a n o t he r 1 0- f o l d b

y

p

o l y e t h y l e n e

g

l y c ol

(

P E G

)

p

r ec

i

p

i

t a t

i

o n .

P EG c o n c e n t r a t

i

o n s r a n

g i

n

g

f r om 6 % t o 1 0 % a nd so d

i

v im c h l o r

i

de

c o nc e n t r a t

i

o n s r a ng

i

n

g

f r om 0 . I N t o 0 . 3 N we r e t e s t ed

i

n o r de r

t o

i

de n t

i

f y o p t

i

mum c o nd

i

t i o n s f o r v i r u s r ec o v e r y . N o r wa l k

vi r u s wa s a s s a ye d b

y

R T - P C R

. w h

i

l e p ol i o v i r u s t

y p

e 1 a n d

c o

l i

pha

g

e M S 2 we r e a s s ay e

d

b

y

b o t h R T - P CR a n d

i

n f e c t

i

v

i

t y .

V

i

r u s r e c o v e r y e f f

i

c

i

e n c

i

es we r e t h e n c om

p

u t ed a nd c om pa r ed

(11)

S T A T E M E N T O F R E S E A R C H O B J E C T I V E S

T he o v e r a l l ob

j

e c t

i

v e of t h

i

s r e se a r c h i s t o de v e l op a

r a

p i

d , s

i

m

p

l e , a n d r e l

i

ab l e me t hod f o r c o n c e n t r at

i

n g v

i

r us e s

f r om wa t e r t h a t

i

s c o m pa t

i

b l e w i t h mol e c u l a r de t ec t

i

o n

me t ho ds f o r v

i

r us es

i

n wa t e r . T he s

p

e c

i

f

i

c ob

j

e c t

i

v e s a r e

l

i

s t e d be l ow .

As se s s a nd o

p

t

i

m

i

z e c o n d

i

t

i

o ns f o r t he ad so r

p

t

i

o n- el u t

i

o n

co n c e n t r a t

i

o n o f No r wal k V

i

r u s

(

s t r a

i

n 8 F I I a

)

,

p

ol

i

ov

i

r u s

t y p e 1 , a nd ma l e - spe c

i

f

i

c R NA c o l

i

p ha ge M S 2

i

n t a

p

wa t e r

us i n

g

t he V

i

r os o r b I M D S f

i

l t e r s

• I de nt

i

f y a n al t e r n a t

i

v e el u t

i

n g s o l u t

i

o n t h a t w

i

l l be

c o m

p

a t

i

b l e w

i

t h r e v e r s e t r a ns c r

i p

t as e-

p

o l y me r a se c ha

i

n

r e a c t

i

o n

(

R T- P CR

)

de t ec t

i

o n o f t he e n t e r

i

c v

i

r u s es

r e c o v e r ed f r om V

i

r os o r b I M DS el e c t r opo s

i

t

i

v e ad so r be n t

f

i

l t e r s

A s se s s a nd o

p

t

i

m

i

z e c o nd

i

t

i

o n s f o r se c o nda r y c o nc e nt r a t

i

o n

o f N o r wa l k v

i

r us , po l

i

o v

i

r u s t y

p

e 1 , a nd c o l

i

p ha

g

e M S 2

i

n

a l t e r n a t

i

v e am

i

n o a c

i

d f

i

l t e r el u e n t s b y

p

o l y et h

y

l e n e

g

l yc o l pr ec

i

p

i

t a t

i

o n

• U

s i n

g

vi r u s - se e de d l abo r a t o r y s am

p

l es of wa t e r ,

d

e m o ns t r a t e

(12)

c o n c e n t r a t e d b y ad so r

p

t i o n t o e l e c t r op o s i t

i

v e V

i

r os o r b I MDS

f

i

l t e r s , e l u t

i

o n w

i

t h al t e r n a t

i

v e am

i

n o a c

i

d e l u e n t s ,

s e c o nda r y c o nc e n t r a t

i

o n b y

p

ol y e t h y l e n e g l yc o l

pr e c

i

p i t a t

i

o n a nd de t e c t

i

o n b y R T- P C R am p l

i

f

i

c a t i o n o f

v

i

r a l R N A a nd o l

i g

o

p

r o be h

y

br

i

d

i

z a t

i

o n t o c o nf

i

r m v

i

r u s

(13)

L I T E R AT U RE REV I E W

A . P ub l i c H e a l t h S

i

g n

i

f

i

c a n c e o f V i r u s e s

i

n Wa t e r

Ou t br e a k s o f a c u t e

g

as t r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s a r e a s

i g

n

i

f

i

c a n t

t hr e a t t o pu b l

i

c he al t h t o d ay , e v e n t ho u

g

h

i

n ma ny c o u n t r

i

e s

t he r e a r e c o n t r ol me a s u r e s f o r d

i

s

p

os

i

n

g

of hu ma n w as t es a n d

t r e a t me n t o f wa t e r . Some o f t he se o u t b r e ak s c a n be t r a c ed t o

k n own b a c t e r

i

al , v

i

r al o r

p

r ot o zo a n

p

at ho

g

e ns . Howe v e r , a

l a r ge n u m be r , abo u t o n e

- ha l f of t ho s e r e

p

o r t ed

i

n t he U n

i

t e d

S t a t e s , c a n n o t be l

i

n ke d t o s

p

e c

i

f

i

c e t

i

o l o

g i

c a

g

e nt . Ma ny

o f t he s e o u t br e ak s o f u nkn own e t

i

ol o

g

y a r e t ho u g ht t o be

a t t r

i

bu t a b l e t o v

i

r al a

g

e nt s

(

8 , 2 6 , 3 2

)

. Ma n

y

o f t he

i

m

p

o r t a n t v

i

r a l a

g

e n t s o f ga s t r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s h a v e be e n

d

i

f f

i

c u l t ,

i f

n o t

i

m

p

o s s

i

b l e , t o de t e c t

i

n wat e r b e c a u se o f

t h e l a c k o f su

i

t a

b

l e me t h od o l o g y .

Ma n

y

met ho d s ha v e be e n

p

r o

p

o s e d a nd t e s t ed f o r de t e c t

i

on

o f e n t e r

i

c v i r u s e s i n w a t e r , bu t n o s

i

ng l e me t ho d ha s be e n

u n

i

v e r s al l y a c c e

p

t ed o r

p

r ov e n e f f e c t

i

v e f o r a l l v

i

r u se s .

Pr ob l ems

i

n v

i

r u s de t e c t

i

o n s t em d

i

r e c t l y f r o m t he v

i

r u se s

a n d t he wa t e r . Wa t e r s v a r y

i

n t he t y pe s , c o n ce n t r a t

i

o ns , a n d

c o nd

i

t

i

o n s of v

i

r u s es p r e s e n t a nd

i

n wa t e r qu a l

i

t y

c h a r a c t e r

i

s t

i

c s . T he se f ac t o r s

i

n f l u e nc e t he qu a nt

i

t y o f

wa t e r t h a t c a n be s am p l e d , a nd t h e e f f

i

c

i

e nc y o f v

i

r u s

r ec o v e r y b y a s pe c

i

f

i

c c o nc e n t r a t i o n me t hod .

E n t e r i c v i r us es a r e t ho s e w ho se i n i t i a l s

i

t e o f a t t ac k

(14)

r e s ul t

i

n

g i

n t he

i

r e x c r e t

i

o n

i

n l a r

g

e n um b e r s i n f e ce s .

En t e r

i

c v i r u se s a r e f e c o- o r al l y t r a n sm i t t ed n o t o n l y b y

d

i

r e c t a nd i n d i r e c t

p

e r s o n al c o n t a c t a nd b y f e c a l l y

c o n t am i n a t ed f o od , bu t al so b y f e c al l y c o n t am

i

n a t e d wa t e r .

The

y

a r e r es

p

o n s

i

b l e f o r ma n

y

o u t b r e a k s o f wa t e r - bo r n e

gas t r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s . T h es e v

i

r us e s l a c k a l

i

p

i

d e n v e l op , a r e

st a b l e a t t he l o w

p

H l e v e l s t h a t a r e e n c o u n t e r e d

i

n t he

s t oma c h , a r e

p

e r s

i

s t e nt

i

n t

h

e e n v

i

r o nme n t , a nd a r e

g

e n e r al l y

sh e d

i

n gr e a t n um be r s

i

n t he f ec es o f

i

n f e c t e d

i

nd

i

v

i

du a l s

(

6 3

)

. T h e r e a r e mo r e t ha n o n e hu ndr e d d

i

f f e r e n t t y p es o f

e n t e r

i

c v

i

r u s e s , w h

i

c h

i

n c r e a se s t he d

i

f f

i

c u l t y o f

i

de nt

i

f y

i

n

g

t he a

g

e nt o r a

g

e n t s r e s

p

o ns

i

b l e f o r d

i

s e as e

o u t b r e ak s .

E n t e r

i

c v

i

r u s e s a r e c l a s s

i

f

i

e d

i

n t o t a x o n om

i

c

g

r o u

p

s b

y

d

i

f f e r e nc es

i

n t he

i

r a n t

i

ge n

i

c , mo r

p

hol og

i

c , a nd c he m

i

c al

c h a r a c t e r

i

s t

i

c s . O f t he o u t br e ak s a t t r

i

bu t ed t o k n own

e n t e r

i

c v

i

r al

p

a t ho ge ns , t ho s e o f t he f am

i

l

i

e s

p i

c o r n a v

i

r

i

d a e

(

g

e n u s e n t e r o v

i

r us a n d r h

i

n o v

i

r u s

)

, r e o v

i

r

i

da e

(

ge n u s

r o t a v i r u s a n d r e o v i r u s

)

, a nd c a l i c i v i r i da e a r e doc ume n t e d

t hr e a t s t o pub l i c he al t h . T he s e v

i

r u s e s a n d o t h e r s c a n e x

i

s t

i

n f ec a l l

y

c o n t am

i

n a t ed wa t e r s f o r e x t e nded

p

e r i o ds o f t

i

me

(

8 1

)

a nd c a u se

i

nf e c t i o n s t hr o ug h dr i n k i ng wa t e r , b a t h

i

n g

wa t e r , a nd c o nt am

i

n a t e d s he l l f

i

sh

(

3, 2 3 , 3 6 , 4 0 , 4 2 , 5 9

)

.

A l . S ma l l Ro u nd St r u c t u r ed V

i

r u s e s

F o r ma ny y e a r s , d o c t o r s d

i

agn os e d p a t i e n t s w i t h

h y

p

e r emes

i

s h i em

i

s , o r "

(15)

kn ow

i

n

g

t he a

g

e n t t ha t was r e s

p

o ns

i

b l e f o r t h

i

s

g

e n e r al l

y

m

i

l d , s e l f

- l

i

m

i

t

i

n

g

g

as t r o e nt e r

i

t

i

s . I n 1 9 6 9

, t he r e w as a n

o u t br e ak s how

i

n

g

t he s

y

m

p

t omo l o

g

y o f t h

i

s d

i

s e as e

i

n a n

e l eme n t a r y s c ho ol

i

n No r wa l k , O h

i

o , a nd t hr e e ye a r s l a t e r ,

t he c a u s at

i

v e a

g

e n t wa s r e v e al ed b y e l ec t r o n m

i

c r o s c o

p

y

i

n

t he st o ol s am p l e s as s o c

i

a t ed w

i

t h t he o u t b r e a k

(

3 7

)

. Th

i

s

v

i

r u s , t he so - c al l ed No r wa l k v

i

r u s ,

i

s a v

i

r

i

o n r o u

g

h l y 2 7 n m

i

n d

i

a

m

e t e r c o n t a

i

n

i

n

g

a

p

o l yade ny l a t e d s

i

n

g

l e - s t r a nded RN A

g

e n ome o f ab o u t 7 . 7 k b

(

3 1 , 3 2

)

. No r wa l k a n d s

i

m

i

l a r v

i

r u se s ,

i n c l ud i ng t he S n ow Mo u n t a

i

n a nd H awa i i a ge n t s , a r e n ow

g

e n e r a l l

y

ac c e

p

t ed t o be me m b e r s o f t he Cal

i

c

i

v

i

r ad a e f am

i

l

y

(

2 2

)

. T hey a r e pr o t o t y pe s t r a

i

n s of t he sma l l , r o u nd

st r u ct u r ed v

i

r u s es c a u s

i

n g a c u t e

g

a s t r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s .

O u t br e ak s of No r wa l k v i r u s

g

a st r o e n t e r i t i s a r e e x t r eme l y

d

i

f f

i

c u l t t o t r ac e a s t o t he et

i

o l o

g i

c a ge nt

i

n

p

a r t be c a us e

t he i n cu ba t

i

o n t

i

me

i

s o n l y 1 5- 5 0 h o u r

s , a n d t he s y m

p

t oms

g

e n e r al l

y

p

e r s

i

st f o r o nl y 2- 3 d a

y

s

(

9

)

. S y m

p

t oms o f

i n f e c t i o n i nc l ude n a u s e a , v om

i

t

i

n g , d

i

a r r he a , a b dom

i

n a l

c r am

p

s , a n d he ada c he l as t

i

n

g

be t we e n 1 2 a nd 6 0 ho u r s

(

1 2

)

.

At t a c k r a t es o f

g

r e a t e r t h a n 5 0 % a r e c o mmo n

i

n o u t br e aks o f

g

a st r o e nt e r

i

t

i

s c a u s e d b y No r wal k v

i

r u s a nd r el a t ed a ge n t s .

S uc h h

i

g h a t t a c k r a t e s a r e c o ns

i

s t e n t w

i

t h l ow

i

n f e c t

i

o u s

do se s n e e d ed f o r c l

i

n

i

c a l

i

l l n e s s

(

9

)

. Unt

i

l r e c e n t l y

, v

i

r a l

g

a st r o e nt e r

i

t

i

s o u t br e ak s we r e c o nf

i

r med b y d

i

r ec t

o b se r v a t

i

o n o f v

i

r us

p

a r t

i

c l e s u s

i

n g e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c op y .

N o r wal k a nd r e l a t e d v

i

r us e s a r e s he d i n r el a t i v e l y l ow

(16)

r o t a v

i

r u se s , w h

i

ch

i

s c l ose t o t he de t e c t

i

o n l

i

m

i

t s of

e l e c t r o n m

i

c r o s c op

i

c t ec hn

i q

u e s

(

1 2

)

. D e t ec t

i

o n

i

s

i

m

p

r o v e d

b y r e a c t i n g t he v i r i o n s w

i

t h s

p

e c

i

f i c a n t i bod

i

es t o c r e a t e

i

m mu n e a g

g

r eg a t e s t h a t c a n be c o n c e n t r a t ed b y c e n t r

i

f u

g

a t

i

o n .

T h

i

s al s o

i

n cr e as es t he s

p

e c

i

f

i

c

i

t y o f v

i

r u s de t ec t

i

o n .

Ou t b r e ak s c a n a l s o be cha r ac t e r

i

z ed b

y

s e r o c o n v e r s

i

o n , w h

i

c h

i

nc r e as e s s

p

e c

i

f

i

c a n t

i

bo d y t

i

t e r s of

i

n f e c t e d

i

nd

i

v

i

du al s

w

i

t h

i

n s e v e r al

w

e ek s af t e r t he

i

n f e c t

i

o n

(

2 0 , 2 1

)

.

P ay me n t , e t . al .

(

5 9

)

sh owe d t ha t a n o v e r w he l m

i

n

g

ma

j

o r

i

t y o f r a n do m l y s e l e c t ed

i

n d

i

v

i

du al s

i

n a pr os

p

e c t

i

v e

ho u se ho l d s t ud

y

o f wa t e r - a s so c

i

a t e d

g

a st r o e n t e r

i

t i s we r e

p

o s

i

t

i

v e f o r I

g

G a nt

i

bo d

i

e s t o No r wa l k v

i

r u s . T he y c o nc l u ded

t ha t a t s ome

p

o

i

n t

i

n t he i r l i f e , t h e

y

ha d be e n e x

p

o s ed t o

t he v

i

r u s , po s s

i

b l

y

f r om d r

i

n k

i

n

g

wa t e r s o u r c es . I t wa s a l s o

s hown t ha t t he

p

e r c e n t age o f

i

nd

i

v

i

du al s t es t i n g po s

i

t

i

v e f o r

a n t

i

bo d

i

e s t o No r wa l k v

i

r us

i

n cr e as ed w

i

t h

i

nc r e as

i

n

g

age ,

t ha t t h e r e wa s n o a

g

e - de

p

e nde n t f a c t o r a s s oc

i

a t e d w

i

t h

No r wal k , a s w

i

t h r o t a v

i

r us , a nd t h a t

i

nd

i

v

i

du a l s o f a l l age s

a r e su s c e

p

t

i

b l e t o

i

n f ec t

i

o n

(

5 9

)

.

Bec a u se o f t he h

i g

h a t t a c k r a t e , No r wal k v

i

r u s

i

s

p

a r t

i

c u l a r l y t hr e a t e n

i

n g t o

i

n d

i

v

i

du a l s w i t h

i

n c o n f

i

n ed

(

i

n s t

i

t u t

i

o n al

)

s e t t

i

n gs o r l

i

v

i

n

g

i

n c l o se

q

u a r t e r s .

Ex am

p

l e s

i

n c l ude abo a r d c r u

i

se sh

i p

s

(

2 9

)

o r n a v al v e s s e l s

(

6 7

)

, r e so r t s

(

4 0

)

, a nd n u r s

i

n

g

ho mes

(

1 6

)

. Su c h

i

n

d i

v

i

du a l s

a r e e x

p

os ed t o

i

n f e c t

i

o us d os es o f t he v

i

r us t hr o u

g

h dr i n k i n g

wa t e r , f o od s , a nd c o n t ac t w

i

t h o t he r

i

nd

i

v

i

du a l s sh ow

i

ng

(17)

p

r e

p

a r a t

i

o n , s u c

h

as c o n t am

i

n at e d

i

c e

(

8 , 3 8

)

a nd i n f e c t ed

f o od - h

a n d l e r s

(

2 9 , 3 7 , 4 8

)

. O t he r o u t br e a k s ha v e b e e n

as s o c

i

a t ed w

i

t h sh el l f

i

sh h ar v es t e d f r om wa t e r s

i

m pa c t ed b

y

f e c a l c o nt am

i

n a t

i

o n

(

1 5 , 2 3 , 2 7 , 3 9 , 5 3

)

. An o t he r , l e s s

c ha r a c t e r

i

z ed r o u t e o f e x

p

os u r e t o N o r wa l k v

i

r u s ,

i

s t hr o u

g

h

a e r o so l

i

ze d v

i

r u s pa r t i c l e s c om i n g f r om t he v om i t us of

i

nd

i

v i du al s s how

i

n

g

c l

i

n

i

c a l sy m

p

t oms o f t he

i

n f e c t

i

o n

(

9 , 1 0 , 3 7 , 6 6

)

. T he cl

i

n

i

c a l s

y

m

p

t oms

p

r o du c ed b

y

N o r wa l k

v

i

r u s a r e

g

e n e r a l l

y

n o t l

i

f e- t hr e a t e n

i

n

g

i

n mos t he al t h

y

i

nd

i

v

i

du a l s , bu t No r wa l k a n d r el a t e d v

i

r u s es c a u se ma ny

o u t b r e ak s t hr o u

g

ho u t t he wo r l d e a ch y e a r .

A 2 . En t e r ov

i

r us e s

T he e n t e r o v

i

r us e s a r e t h o u

g

ht t o c a u s e ma n

y

o u t br e a k s o f

a c u t e

g

a s t r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s e ac h ye a r a n

d

t he

y

a r e r e a d

i

l

y

det e c t e d

i

n f e c a l l

y

c o n t am

i

n a t ed wa t e r a nd f o od s . T he e n t e r o v

i

r u s

g

r o u

p

i

nc l u de s

p

o l

i

ov

i

r u s e s

(

t

y p

e s 1- 3

)

, t h e c o x sa ck

i

e

v i r u s e s

(

2 4 se r o t

y p

e s o f t y p e A a nd 6 se r o t y

p

es o f t y

p

e B

)

,

e c hov

i

r u s e s

(

3 4 s e r o t y

p

e s

)

, a n

d

t he h

i g

he r n u mbe r e d

e n t e r o v

i

r us e s , w h

i

c h

i

nc l u de t

y p

es 6 8- 7 1 a n d 7 2 . S

y

m

p

t oms

a s s oc

i

a t ed w

i

t h t he e n t e r o v

i

r u s

g

r o up r a n

g

e f r om f e v e r ,

h e a dac he , a nd d

i

a r r he a t o mo r e s e r

i

o u s c o nd

i

t

i

o n s s u c h a s

p

a r a l y t

i

c

p

o l

i

om

y

e l

i

t

i

s , c a r d

i

om

y

o

p

a t h

i

e s , a nd e n c e

p

ha l

i

t

i

s .

A 2a . He p a t

i

t

i

s A V

i

r u s

He

p

a t

i

t

i

s A v

i

r u s , f o r me r

l

y e n t e r o v

i

r u s 7 2 ,

i

s

(18)

i

n t he U S A a s we

l

l a s t he r e s t o f t he wo r l d . He p a t

i

t

i

s A

v i r u s

i

s a mem be r o f t he p

i

c o r n a v

i

r

i

da e f am

i

l y a nd h as be e n

a s s

i

gn ed t o a ge n u s s e p a r a t e f r om o t he r e n t e r o v

i

r u s e s du e t o

i t s

g

e n e t i c d

i

f f e r e n c es . Be c a us e

i

n f e c t e d

i

nd

i

v

i

du a l s c a n

shed v

i

r u s

p

a r t

i

c l e s

i

n gr e a t n u m b e r s

(

as h

i g

h as 1 0 ^

p

a r t

i

cl es

/

g

r am o f f e c e s

)

a nd t he

p

a r t

i

c l e s a r e e x t r eme l

y

r es

i

s t a n t t o

i

n a c t

i

v a t

i

o n

i

n t he e n v

i

r o n me n t , H AV

i

s

c o n s

i

de r e d a s e r

i

o u s r

i

sk

i

n f e c al l

y

c o n t am

i

n a t e d wa t e r a nd

f o od .

He

p

a t

i

t

i

s A v

i

r u s

i

s a 2 7 nm

i

c os ahedr a l l y sh a pe d ,

n o n e n v el o pe d

p

a r t

i

c l e w

i

t h a s i n g l e s t r a n d o f RN A o f

p

o s

i

t

i

v e

p

o

l

a r

i

t

y

. T he v

i

r u s

p

a r t

i

c l e s has a v e r

y

s t a b l e

p

r ot e

i

n

c a

p

s

i

d , al l o w

i

n

g

i

t t o p as s t h r o u g h t he st oma c h a nd

i

n t o t h e

s ma l l

i

n t e s t

i

n e , w he r e

i

t

i

s t ho ug ht t o

i

n

i

t

i

a t e

i

n f e c t

i

o n .

The v

i

r us t he n s

p

r e a ds v

i

a t he l y m p h a t

i

c s y st e m a nd

b l o od s t r eam , t a r

g

et

i

n

g

t he l

i

v e r ,

i

t '

s ma

i

n s

i

t e o f

p

at hol o

g

y .

A 2 b . Po l

i

o v

i

r u s

Po l

i

o v

i

r u s e s a r e mem be r s o f t he

p i

c o r n a v

i

r

i

da e f am

i

l

y

a nd t h e e n t e r ov

i

r us

g

e n us a nd

i

s c om

p

r i s e d of t hr e e a n t

i g

e n

i

c

t y pe s . T h e v

i

r u s

p

a r t

i

c l e s a r e r o u

g

h l y 2 8 nm

i

n d i ame t e r ,

n o n e n v e l o

p

e d , a nd c o n t a

i

n a s

i

n

g

l e s t r a nd of RN A of

p

os

i

t i v e

p

o l a r

i

t

y

. A l l t hr e e t

y p

es o f

p

o l

i

o v

i

r us , as we l l a s t he

o t he r e n t e r o v

i

r u s es , a r e s

p

r e a d t h r o ug h t he f ec o- o r a l r o u t e

o f t r a ns m i s s i o n . The v

i

r u s e s h a v e be e n de t ec t ed i n f e c al l y

(19)

s hel l f

i

s h

i

n

g

a r e a s

(

3

)

. T he

i

r r ol e

i

n ep

i

d em

i

c a nd e nd em

i

c

wa t e r bo r n e d

i

s e ase

i

s

p

o o r l y do c u me nt e d d e s p

i

t e t he

i

r

p

r e s e n c e

i

n wa t e r a n d s he l l f

i

s h . Bot h l

i

ve a t t e n u a t ed a nd

k

i

l l ed v ac c

i

n e s a r e a v a

i

l a b l e f o r

p

o l

i

ov

i

r us a n d

i

n t e r n a t i o n a l ef f o r t s a r e u n de r way t o a c h

i

e v e wo r l dw

i

d e

e r ad

i

c a t i o n . H owev e r , t h e r e a r e n o w

i

de l y a v a

i

l a b l e v ac c

i

n es

a

g

a

i

n s t t he ot h e r e n t e r ov

i

r u s es .

T he r e a r e a w

i

d e r a n

g

e o f c l

i

n

i

c a l s y m

p

t oms a s s o c

i

a t e d

w

i

t h

i

n f e c t

i

o ns b

y

t he t hr e e t

y p

e s of

p

o l

i

o v

i

r us . Ge n e r al l

y

,

i

n f e c t

i

o n s t ak e o n e o f t wo c o u r se s : t h e a bo r t

i

v e f o r m o r t h e

p

a r al yt i c f o r m . The ab o r t i v e f o r m

, a l s o c a l l ed a se

p

t

i

c

me n

i

ng

i

t

i

s ,

i

s u su al l

y

v e r y m

i

l d w

i

t h n o

p

a r a l y s

i

s a n

d

r a

p i

d

r e c o v e r y . T he

p

a r a l

y

t

i

c

f

o r m

, o r pa r a l y t

i

c me n

i

n

g i

t

i

s ,

i

s

v e r y s e r

i

o u s , w he r e f e v e r , n a us e a , a nd v om

i

t

i

n g

i

s

a c c om

p

a n

i

e d b

y

p

a

i

n

i

n t he s

p i

n e , l

i

m b s , a nd t r u nk .

T he r e

i

s s t

i

l l de ba t e a s t o w h

i

ch v a c c

i

n e

i

s b e s t t o

e r a d

i

c a t e po l

i

o v

i

r u s t h r o u

g

ho u t t h e wo r l d

(

6 5 , 7 3 , 7 4

)

. T he r e

a r e a d v a n t a ge s as so c

i

a t e d w

i

t h e a c h . The l

i

v e a t t e n u a t e d

a

p p

r o a c h a l l o ws t he v

i

r u s t o r e

p

l

i

c a t e w

i

t h

i

n t he b od y s o

t he r e

i

s a s t r o n

g i

mmu n e r es

p

o ns e

p

r odu c

i

n

g

i

mmu n

i

t

y

f o r

l

i

f e . T he o t he r k e

y

a dv a n t a

g

e

i

s t h at

i

t

i

s

i

n e x

p

e ns

i

v e a nd

a dm

i

n

i

s t r a b l e o r al l y . T he adv a n t a

g

e o f t he k

i

l l e d v a cc

i

n e

i

s

t ha t

i

t

i

s mo r e e as

i

l

y

t r a n s

p

o r t ed a nd

i

s mo r e s t ab l e ,

a l l ow

i

n

g

i

t t o be ad m

i

n

i

s t e r e d t o p e o

p

l e

i

n r emo t e , r u r al

c oira nu n

i

t

i

e s . T he r e a r e su

g

ge s t

i

o n s a nd ev

i

de nc e t o s u

p p

o r t

t he u s e o f c o mb

i

n a t

i

o n s o f bo t h t h e k

i

l l e d a nd t he a t t e n u a t ed

(20)

A 3 . Ot he r En t e r

i

c V

i

r us e s

T he r e a r e ma ny o t he r e n t e r

i

c v

i

r u se s t h a t a r e a l s o a

r

i

sk t o

p

ub l

i

c he a l t h , su c h a s r o t a v

i

r us es , r e o v

i

r u s e s

(

r e o v

i

r

i

d a e f am

i

l

y

)

, p a r v ov

i

r us e s , a s t r o v

i

r us e s ,

ade n o v

i

r u s e s , a nd o t he r c a l

i

c

i

v

i

r u se s be s

i

de s No r wa l k v

i

r u s .

A s w

i

t h t he

p

r e v

i

o u s l y d

i

s c u s s ed t a x o n om

i

c gr o up s , a

p

o t e n t

i

al r o ut e of e x

p

os u r e t o t h e s e v

i

r us es

i

s t hr o u

g

h

i

n ge st

i

o n o f f ec al l y c o n t a m

i

n a t ed wa t e r o r s he l l f

i

s h . Ma ny

o f t hes e v

i

r us e s a r e

q

u

i

t e d

i

f f e r e n t

i

n mo r

p

hol o

g

y ,

c om

p

os

i

t

i

o n , a nd st r u c t u r e ; howe v e r , c l

i

n

i

c a l s y m

p

t oms c a u s e d

b

y

t

h

e s e v

i

r u s e s t e n d t o ha v e s ome s

i

m

i l

a r

i

t

i

e s . Mo s t o

f

t he s e v

i

r u se s a r e a s s o c

i

a t e d w

i

t h ac u t e

g

a st r o e n t e r

i

t

i

s

c ha r a c t e r

i

z e d b y he ad a c he , v om

i

t

i

n

g

, f e v e r , a nd d

i

a r r he a .

Some o f t he s e v

i

r us es a r e mo r e t

y p i

c al l

y

as s o c

i

a t ed w

i

t h

r e s

p i

r a t o r

y

d

i

s e as e , su ch a s t he r e o v

i

r u se s , a de n o v

i

r use s

t y

p

e s 1- 3 9

, a nd s ev e r a l of t h e

p

a r v ov

i

r u s e s . E n t e r

i

c

v

i

r u se s e s

p

ec

i

al l

y

i

m

p

o r t a n t

i

n ma ny o u t b r e ak s o f

g

a st r o

i

n t e s t

i

n a l d

i

s e a se

i

n

i

n f a n t s a nd y o u n

g

ch

i

l dr e n a r e

t he r o t a v

i

r u se s a nd a de n o v

i

r u s es t y p es 4 0 a nd 4 1, bu t ma ny

f ewe r c as e s a r e r epo r t e d amo n g a du l t s .

B » I n d

i

c a t o r s o f Fe c a l l y Co n t am

i

n a t e d Wa t e r s

I n o r de r t o

p

r o t e c t t he

p

u b l

i

c he al t h ,

i

t

i

s n ec es s a r y

t o mo n

i

t o r wa t e r s u

p p

l

i

es f o r m i c r ob i a l c o n t cim i n a n t s

i

n a

t

i

me l y a nd ef f

i

c

i

e n t ma n n e r

i

n o r de r t o pr ev e n t t he s pr e ad o f

i

nf ec t

i

o u s d

i

s e a s e s . I de al l y

(21)

s u

f f i

c

i

e nt

l

y l a r ge v o l umes o f dr

i

n k

i

ng w at e r t o a s s u r e

c o n s

i

st e n t

q

u a l

i

t

y

. Be c a u s e t h

i

s

i

s n o t a r e al

i

s t

i

c

p

o s s

i

b

i

l

i

t

y

, t he al t e r n at

i

v e

i

s t o e x am

i

n e a mo r e ma n a

g

e ab l e

n um b e r o f r epr e s e n t a t

i

v e s am p l es o n a r e

g

u l a r b a s

i

s t o

j

u d

g

e

t he o v e r al l

q

u a l

i

t y o f t he wa t e r - I t wo ul d be

i

de a l t o

e x am

i

n e wa t e r f o r huma n pa t ho ge ns . T h

i

s

, t o o , i s n o t

r e a

l i

st

i

c be c a us e mos t de t ec t

i

o n me t hod s f o r huma n

p

a t ho

g

e n s

a r e t o o t e c hn

i

c al l

y

d

i

f f

i

c u l t a n d u n r e l

i

a b l e , r e

q

u

i

r e t o o

mu c h t

i

me , a nd a r e t o o c os t l y t o u s e o n a f r e

q

u e n t ba s

i

s .

Be c a u s e o f t h

i

s ,

i

t

i

s n e c es s a r y t o ha v e

i

n d

i

c a t o r o r

g

a n

i

sms

t ha t w

i

l l be

p

r es e n t

i

n wa t e r s w he n a nd w he r e huma n p a t ho ge ns

a r e pr e s e n t a n d t h a t c a n b e de t e c t ed r ap i d l y , r e l

i

ab l y , a nd

i

n e x p e ns

i

v e l y . I n d

i

c a t o r s o f f e c a l c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n s ho ul d b e

a

p p

l

i

c ab l e t o wa t e r s

i

m pa c t ed b y e

i

t he r hu ma n o r a n

i

mal f e c al

c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n , be c a u se huma n

p

a t ho

g

e n s of c o nc e r n t h a t a r e

t r a n sm i t t ed t hr o u

g

h t he f e c o- o r a l r o u t e ma

y

b e

p

r e se n t

i

n

bo t h t

y p

e s o f f e c a l s o u r c e s . I de a l f ec a l

i

nd

i

c a t o r s wo ul d

h a v e t he f o l l ow

i

ng c ha r a c t e r

i

s t i c s

(

6 4

)

:

1 . A

p p

l

i

c ab

i

l

i

t

y

t o a l l wa t e r t

y

p es . 2 . A b s e nc e

i

n u n

p

ol l u t e d wa t e r .

3 . Pr e se n c e

i

n s ewa

g

e a n d

p

o l l u t ed wa t e r s du r

i

n

g

p

at ho ge n

i

c c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n .

4 . Pr e se n c e

i

n c o n t a m

i

n a t ed wa t e r s

i

n n um b e r s

g

r e at e r t h a n pa t ho

g

e ns o f

i

n t e r es t .

5 . Num be r s c o r r e l at ed w

i

t h t he qu a n t

i

t y o f po l l u t

i

o n . 6 . Z e r o a f t e r gr owt h i n e n v i r o nme n t a l wa t e r s .

7 . Lo n

g

e r s u r v

i

v a l t

i

me s

i

n t he e n v

i

r o nme n t t

h

a n

pa t hoge n s o f

i

n t e r e st .

8 . F a c

i

l e de t ec t

i

o n b

y

as s

i

m p l e a nd r ap

i

d l ab o r a t o r y

a n al y s

i

s a s

p

o s s

i

b l e co n s

i

s t e n t w i t h h

i

g h de gr e e o f a c c u r ac y .

(22)

A d d

i

t

i

o na l l y , a n

i

de a l

i

n d

i

c a t o r wo u l d qu a n t i t a t i v el y pr ed

i

c t

t he r

i

sk of wa t e r bo r n e e n t e r

i

c d

i

se a s e b y show

i

n

g

a do s e

-r es po n s e r el a t

i

o n s h

i

p w

i

t h t he d

i

s e as e .

B l . Bac t e r

i

a l I nd

i

c a t o r s

Fo r ma n

y

y e a r s , c o l

i

f o r m bac t e r

i

a l

i

n d

i

ca t o r s hav e be e n

u s e d t o

i

n de x t he

q

u a l

i

t

y

o f wa t e r . Co l

i

f o r m b a c t e r

i

a be l o n

g

t o t he En t e r o ba c t er

i

a c ea e w h

i

c h

i

n c l u de a e r ob

i

c a n d

f a c ul t a t

i

v e a n a e r ob

i

c gr cim n e ga t i v e r ods w h

i

c h a r e n o n - s po r e

f o r m

i

n

g

a nd f e r me n t l ac t os e w

i

t h

g

a s pr odu c t

i

o n w

i

t h

i

n 4 8

ho u r s at 3 5° C. To t al c o l

i

f o r ms

i

n c l ude t he

g

e n e r a ,

Es c he r

i

ch

i

a , K l eb s

i

e l l a , En t er ob a c t er , Se r r a t

i

a , a nd

C

i

t r oba c t er j howe v e r , K l eb s

i

e l l a , Se r r a t

i

a , a nd C

i

t r oba c t e r

a r e l e s s t ha n

i

de al

i

n d

i

c a t o r s bec a u se t he

y

a r e n o t e x c l us

i

v e

t o t he

i

n t es t

i

n al f l o r a a nd c a n b e f o u nd w

i

de l y

i

n t he

e n v

i

r o n me n t . F e c al c o l

i

f or ms h a v e

p

r o v e n t o be be t t e r

i

n d

i

c a t o r s o f f e c a l l y c o nt am

i

n at e d wa t e r s , a nd a r e s e

p

a r a t e d

f r om t ot a l c ol

i

f o r ms b y e l ev at

i

n

g

t he t e mpe r a t u r e o f

i

n c u b a t

i

o n t o 4 4- 4 5<^C

. I n wa t e r s

i

m

p

a c t ed b y f ec a l

c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n , f e c a l c o l

i

f o r ms

g

e n e r al c om

p

r

i

s e mo s t o f t h e

t o t al c o l

i

f o r ms .

Col

i f

o r m b a c t e r

i

a a r e st

i

l l u sed t oda

y

t o a s s e s s t he

q

u a l

i

t y o f wa t e r . Howe v e r

, t he r e h a v e be e n ma ny o u t br e aks o f

n o n- bac t e r

i

a l

g

as t r o e nt e r

i

t

i

s f r om wa t e r s me e t

i

n

g

t he c u r r e n t

c o l

i

f o r m b ac t e r

i

a s t a nda r d s . Th

i

s c a st s do ub t a s t o w he t he r

t he c u r r e n t

i

n d i c a t o r s a nd st a nd a r ds f o r t he m ha v e t he

(23)

v

i

r al p a t ho ge n s t ha t ma y b e pr e s e n t

i

n l ow n um be r s

i

n

d r

i

nk

i

n

g

wa t e r s a nd ot he r ve h

i

c l e s t h e e n v

i

r o nme n t . B e c a us e

o f t h

i

s , a t t e n t

i

o n

i

s be

i

n

g

f oc u s e d o n a l t e r n a t

i

v e

i

nd

i

c a t o r

o r ga n

i

s ms su c h as Es c he r

i

ch

i

a c o l

i

, C l o s t r

i

d

i

um p e r f r

i

n q e n s ,

E n t e r o c oc c

i

, B i f

i

d o bac t e r i um s

p p

. a nd B a c t e r o

i

de s s p p .

, a nd ba c t e r

i

o p hages .

B 2 . FR N A Col

i

p ha q e s

Ba c t e r

i

o

p

ha

g

e s a r e v

i

r u s e s t ha t

i

n f e c t a nd u s e ba c t e r

i

al

c e l l s as t h e

i

r h os t s . I t has be e n s u

g

ge st ed t ha t

b a c t e r

i

o

p

ha

g

e s o f c o mmo n e n t e r

i

c b a c t e r

i

a wo ul d be be t t e r

i

n d

i

c a t o r s o f f e c a l c o nt am

i

n at

i

o n a nd o f t he

p

r e se n c e o f

e n t e r

i

c v

i

r us e s t ha n a r e

i

n d

i

c a t o r b a c t e r

i

a su c h a s

c o l

i

f o r ms . T h

i

s

i

s be c a u s e ba c t e r

i

o

p

ha

g

e s a r e t he ms e l v es

v

i

r us e s a n

d

h a v e s

i

m

i

l a r mo r

p

ho l o

g

y , s

i

z e , a nd c om

p

o s

i

t

i

o n a s

t h e v

i

r a l pa t ho ge n s o f

i

nt e r e s t .

Co l

i p

ha

g

e s a r e a he t e r o

g

e n e o u s

g

r o u

p

of ba c t e r

i

o

p

ha

g

e s

t ha t u s e E . c o l

i

as t he

i

r hos t . T h e r e a r e s

i

x d

i

f f e r e n t

g

r o u

p

s , o r f e u n

i

l

i

e s , o f c o l

i p

ha

g

es t h a t a r e c l a s s

i

f

i

ed a s

Gr o u

p

s A- E . Gr o u

p

s A- D

i

nf ec t ho s t c el l s b y a t t ac h

i

n

g

d

i

r ec t l

y

t o t he c e l l wal l o f t he b a c t e r

i

a t ha t t hey

i

nf e c t

a nd a r e t e r med so ma t

i

c c ol

i

p ha ge . Gr o u

ps E a nd F

i

nf ec t o nl y

t ho se ba c t e r

i

a t ha t h a v e s e x

p i

l

i

, a nd a r e t e r med ma l e

-s pe c i f

i

c . S e x

p i

l i a r e

p r odu c e d o n l y a t c e r t a

i

n t em pe r a t u r es

b y t he bac t e r

i

a a nd a r e u s ed f o r

g

e n e t

i

c e x c ha n

g

e . Gr o u

p

E

c o l

i p

ha ge s a r e RNA b a s e d a n d Gr o u

p

F a r e D N A ba se d . The

(24)

be e n

p

r o

p

o se d as

g

o o d

i

nd

i

c a t o r o r ga n

i

sms . W

i

t h

i

n t he Gr o up

E c o l

i p

hages , t he r e a r e f o u r d

i

f f e r e n t s ub gr o u p s , o r

s e r o t

y

p es . Se r o t y

p

e s I a nd I V a r e ge n e r al l y a s so c

i

a t e d w

i

t h

a n

i

ma l f e c al c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n , w h

i

l e se r o t y pe s I I a n d I I I a r e

g

e n e r al l

y

as s o c

i

a t ed w

i

t h huma n f e c al c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n

(

1 9

)

.

Se r o t

y p

e I I

i

s a n e x c e

p

t

i

o n be c a u s e h

i

g h n um be r s h a v e be e n

a s s o c

i

a t ed w

i

t h sw

i

n e f e c al c o n t am

i

n a t

i

o n .

Co l

i p

ha

g

e M S 2

i

s a ma l e - s

p

e c

i

f

i

c , R NA ba sed c o l

i p

h a

g

e

t h a t be l o ngs t o t he se r ogr o u

p

I . I t

i

s r o u

g

h l

y

2 4 nm

i

n

d

i

amet e r a nd

i

s c om pr

i

se d o f a s

i

n

g

l e s t r a nd o f R N A . Ma n y

s t u d

i

e s h a v e be e n do n e t o c om

p

a r e c ol

i p

ha

g

e M S 2 w

i

t h e nt e r

i

c

v

i

r u s e s , a nd

i

t ha s c om

p

a r e d f av o r a b l y . T he a v a

i

l a b

i

l

i

t y o

f

r a

p i

d a nd r e l

i

a b l e de t e c t

i

o n met h ods f o r mal e- s

p ec

i

f

i

c

c o l

i p

ha

g

es a l s o c o n t r

i

bu t e s t o t he

i

r

p

o t e n t

i

a l as

i

n d

i

c at o r s

f o r e n t e r i c v

i

r u se s .

C . Co n c e n t r a t

i

o n o f V

i

r u s e s f r om Wa t e r

Ve r y f ew e n v

i

r o n me nt a l wat e r s c o n t a

i

n s u f f

i

c

i

e n t n um be r s

o f

p

a t ho

g

e n s t o b e d

i

r ec t l

y

de t e c t e d b y c u r r e n t me t hod s .

Pat ho

g

e n s c a n

g

e n e r a l l y be d e t e c t ed

i

n r aw was t ewa t e r , bu t

f o r mo st o t he r wa t e r s , pa t ho ge n s t h a t may be

p

r e s e n t mu s t b e

c o nc e n t r at ed f r om l a r ge v o l ume s . A n u mb e r o f me t hod s ha v e

be e n

p

r o

p

o sed f o r c o n c e n t r a t

i

n g e nt e r

i

c v

i

r u s es

f

r om l a r g e

-v o l ume e nv

i

r o nme n t a l s am

p

l e s . T he mo s t w

i

de l y u s e d a nd

a c c e

p

t ed me t ho d i s c o nc e n t r a t i o n b

y

a ds o r

p

t i o n t o a n d el u t i o n

f r om m

i

c r o

p

o r o u s f

i

l t e r s . Ot he r me t ho ds

i

n c l u de :

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