Reading_Reference_Guides_final_draft.docx

Main Idea

The

main idea

is the author’s controlling point about the topic. It usually includes the topic and the author’s attitude or opinion about the topic, or the author’s approach to the topic. The main idea is usually stated in the topic sentence; if it is not stated, then it is implied.

The

topic sentence

is a single sentence that states the topic of a paragraph and includes words that qualify the topic by revealing the author’s opinion about the topic. The topic sentence can only be written by the author.

The topic sentence is unique in two ways:

1. It contains 2 types of information: the topic and the author’s controlling point, which restricts or qualifies the topic.

2. It is a general statement that all the other sentences in the paragraph explain or support.

The main idea or topic sentence can be anywhere in the paragraph.

How do you find the topic or main idea?

Look for a recurring idea in the paragraph.

Determine what is the basis for all the specific details.

Choose the topic that is not too general (broad) or too specific (narrow).

Example: Too General: There are many different types of domestic dogs that are pets. Main idea: Dalmatians are very popular pets, but they can be high maintenance. Too Specific: My pet dalmatian Spot is very loving, but he needs constant attention.

What is the author’s “controlling point”?

It restricts or qualifies the topic. It may be expressed as the author’s opinion using biased words; it may express the author’s thought pattern, the way in which the thoughts are going to be organized.

For example, the main idea may be about Dalmatians; but the controlling point would be that “Dalmatians are great pets if owners realize that they are difficult to raise.” The controlling point is that they are difficult to raise.

A

thesis statement

is a sentence that states the topic and the author’s controlling point about the topic for a passage of two or more paragraphs.

An

implied main idea

is not stated clearly in only one sentence. You must figure it out by considering the supporting details.

Supporting Details: Major/Minor and Significant)

The

supporting details

of the paragraph are the specific ideas that develop, explain, or support the main idea. The supporting details are framed by the main idea, and they all work together to explain or support the author’s view of the topic.

The supporting details clarify four main areas:

Physical context: where something is physically (place, location, etc.) Cultural context: what country or culture is involved

Social-psychological context: what emotions are involved

Temporal context: when the story takes place (present, past, future)

The supporting details are further categorized into

major details

and

minor details.

Major

Minor

explains the main idea explains a major detail

provides primary support for the main idea provides secondary support for the main idea is more general than a minor detail is the most specific idea in the passage

Significant Details

can function in the passage in many ways.

Advance a story: goes from one part to the next part to the next part—always moving forward Define a topic: literally to give a definition of what that topic is

Describe: includes actual descriptions and visual images of the topic or main idea Explain a fact or idea: provide explanation so that the reader can understand it Give examples: list at least one example to support the main idea

Give reasons for an opinion: provide the “why” and “because” behind the reasons; tries to prove or convince the reader of the opinioin

Reveal character: tells how the main character behaves (brave, evil, greedy, etc.) and sometimes why the main character behaves that way

Fact vs. Opinion

A

fact

is a specific detail that is based on objective proof. Objective proof can be physical evidence, an eyewitness account, or the result of an accepted scientific method. A fact is discovered. A fact is a specific, objective, straight-forward, and verifiable detail. It can be proven true or false. A fact is written without any bias statements or qualifiers.

An

opinion

is an interpretation, value judgment, or belief that cannot be proved or disproved. An opinion is created. An opinion is a biased, personal view created from feelings and beliefs. An opinion uses bias words and qualifiers. Things that may happen in the future are opinions.

In a few sentences, you might have

BOTH

fact and opinion. In these sentences, part of the sentence contains a fact and another part contains an opinion. If you do not have the choice of BOTH, then it defaults to an Opinion statement. When you put an opinion with a fact, the sentence can no longer be proven true or false, thus making it an opinion statement.

Fact

Opinion

is objective is subjective

is discovered is created

states reality interprets reality

can be verified or disproved cannot be verified

is presented with unbiased words is presented with bias words or qualifiers

Opinion: Examples of bias words (words that show emotions)

amazing best favorite great miserable stupid

awful better frightful greatest more ugly

bad disgusting fun handsome most unbelievable

beautiful exciting good horrible smart very

Opinion: Examples of qualifiers

all could likely never possible/ly sometimes

always every may often probable/ly think

appear has/have to might only seem usually

believe it is believed must ought to should

Examples:

Fact: Studies have proven that Jif peanut butter uses the most peanuts per pound compared to other brands.

Tone

The

tone

is the author’s attitude toward the topic. The tone is expressed through the words and details that the author selects. There are two main types of tones: objective and subjective.

Objective

Subjective

unbiased biased

neutral emotional

formal informal (uses I, you)

Objective

uses facts and reasonable explanations. It is impersonal and impartial. It is often used for textbook writing or non-fiction texts. The author’s attitude should not be apparent.

Examples of objective words

accurate impartial straightforward

factual matter-of-fact truthful

Subjective

uses feelings, judgments, and opinions. It can also include personal experiences, senses, and thoughts. It is often used for fiction or editorial writing. The author’s attitude toward the topic is suggested by the word he chooses.

Examples of subjective words

admiring bubbly discouraged humorous poetic tense angry calm disdainful idealistic reverent thoughtful

annoyed candid dramatic informal rude threatening

anxious cold earnest informative sad timid

approving comic elated irritated sarcastic urgent argumentative complaining entertaining joking self-pitying warning

arrogant confident fearful jovial serious wistful

assured cynical friendly joyful sincere wry

belligerant demanding funny lively supportive

biting direct gloomy loving suspenseful

bitter disappointed happy persuasive sympathetic bored disbelieving hostile pleading tender

Irony

can also be used to set a tone; the two main types are verbal and situational.

In

verbal irony

, the author’s words state one thing, but imply the opposite.

In

situational irony

, the events of a situation differ from what is expected.

Purpose

The

purpose

is the reason the author writes about a topic. There are three main purposes.

To Inform: analyze, clarify, discuss, establish, explain

To Entertain: amuse, delight, frighten (in a good way)

To Persuade: argue for/against, criticize, convince, inspire (motivate a change)

To

inform

is to give information about a subject. Authors with this purpose want to provide facts that will explain or teach something to readers. Textbooks and travel books are examples of informative writing.

To

persuade

is to convince the reader to agree with the author’s point of view on a subject. Authors may give facts to back up their viewpoints, but their main goal is to argue or prove a point to the reader. Newspaper editorials and political speeches are examples of persuasive writing.

To

entertain

is to appeal to the reader’s senses and imagination. The author wishes to engage the reader with the purpose of enjoyment. Most fiction is written for entertainment, everything from science fiction to romance to fantasy.

Inference

An

inference

is an idea that is suggested by the facts or details in a passage. An inference is not stated word-for-word in the passage. It must be concluded from the details. It it a true statement based on the passage, but it has been re-phrased or re-stated. You must figure out the inference for yourself; do not choose something that is copied exactly from the passage.

A

valid inference

is a logical conclusion based on evidence from the passage.

V

erify and value the facts

A

ssess prior knowledge

L

earn from the text

I

nvestigate the text

D

etect contradictions

An

invalid or faulty inference

is a false inference that is not based on the details, or facts, in the text or on reasonable thinking. It does not logically follow from the details of the passage. It does not make sense based on the passage. You might think it could be true, but you have to base your answer COMPLETELY on what is written in the passage.

Example:

John wanted to be a superhero. His favorite books to read were superhero comics. When he was a boy, he always wore a costume around the house. Once, he even tried to fly by

jumping out of a tree. As John grew up, he realized that he couldn’t become a fictional superhero, but he did become a real-life hero by becoming a fire fighter.

Correct inference:

When John was young, he had dreams of becoming a superhero some day when he grew up.

Broad vs. Narrow

“Too Broad”

refers to a statement that is too general. It is usually an all-inclusive statement about the main idea, but it often does not include the author’s controlling point. It is often an introductory statement. Broad statements can be short or long; even though broad can mean “wide,” that has nothing to do with the length of the statement.

“Too Narrow”

refers to a statement that is too specific to be the main idea. It is often ONE detail from the passage that supports or explains the main idea. Narrow statements can be short or long; even though narrow can mean “thin,” that also has nothing to do with the length of the statement.

Example:

Too Broad: Computers are very helpful to many people.

Main idea: Computers in the classroom setting help students learn important material.

Too Narrow: One way that computers help students is to allow them to review information that they don’t understand on their own time.

After reading this paragraph, identify the 3 sentences as the main idea, too broad, or too narrow. When tourists think of Miami, they often picture sandy beaches and fancy hotels. In reality, the largest percentage of Miami’s population is composed of average people who live in apartments and houses, working at regular jobs every day, not playing on the beach or going to nightclubs every evening. When a tourist arrives in Miami, he may see the airport, his hotel, the beach, and restaurants by the beach, never once venturing into the suburbs. Many regular Miamians have never once stayed in a fancy hotel on the beach. Some people who have lived in Miami for years have never once visited Miami Beach. The reality of a tourist’s conception of Miami and the reality of daily life for the majority of Miamians is quite a contrast.

_____ When tourists think of Miami, they often picture sandy beaches and fancy hotels. _____ Many regular Miamians have never once stayed in a fancy hotel on the beach.

A

context clue

provides information about an unknown word in a passage; it is used to understand the meaning of that word when a dictionary is not available.

S

ynonyms

A

ntonyms

G

eneral sense of the sentence or passage

E

xamples

A

synonym

is a word that means the same or almost the same as the unknown word. Signal words: like, that is

An

antonym

is a word that means the opposite of another word.

Signal words: but, however, in contrast, not, unlike, yet, on the other hand

A

general sense clue

draws conclusions based on the information given. To find the general context clues, be a detective to figure out the word. Read the sentence before the word and after the word. Ask yourself questions about the passage. There are no specific signal words for the general sense clues because every passage is different.

An

example

may suggest the meaning of an unknown word by showing you one or more different types.

Signal words: such as, for example, for instance, consists of, including

Allegory: a story that is symbolic of something else; a fable or parable

Argument: a discussion involving different points of view, or one point of view, often trying to

persuade the reader to agree with the author

Biography: a person’s life story written by someone else

Comparison: looking at two objects for their similarities

Connotations: emotional meanings of words

Contrast: looking at two objects for their differences

Deductive reasoning: a logical process where the conclusion is based on the details

Hyperbole: an exaggerated statement ex. That test was the hardest thing I have ever done in my

entire life.

Legend: a story handed down by tradition from one generation to the next

Metaphor: a direct comparison ex. The visitor was a ray of sunshine for the patient.

Personification: giving human traits to things that are not human ex. As I walked through the

park, the trees blew in the breeze, waving a friendly greeting to me as I passed by.

Riddle: a puzzling word or question or story

Simile: an indirect comparison (often uses like or as) ex. That cloud looks like a train.

Symbol: something that stands for or suggests something else ex. When the vampire saw the

cross above the door, he knew not to enter that building.