1
Material for EFL60-325 Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics
Compiled for classroom discussions
Overview
1) Formal language vs Informal language2) Pragmatics: Grice’s maxims (Communicative function of language)
3) Discourse markers, Connective adjuncts: well, still, after all, anyway, alas, oh, so to speak, I see, you see, you know, right
4) Constructive language 5) Politeness strategies
6) Hedging and Hedging expressions
7) Vague language: Vagueness particles (e,g, -ish, the like, stuff, and so on) 8) Ambiguity: structural & lexical
2
Formality of language
The formality of the language one uses should match the formality of the situation
and the relationship between the writer and reader. Consider the following
examples.
Very Formal:
Exceedingly large segments of the population are expressing their
discontent with medical practitioners who appear to more engrossed in amassing
financial assets than in providing efficacious care to people with health disorders.
Formal:
A large number of consumers are complaining about medical doctors who
are apparently more interested in making money than in provide effective health
care.
Informal:
A lot of people are unhappy with their doctors who only seem to care
about how much money they make, and not about giving their patients good care.
Notice that any of the three examples could be effective, depending upon the
reader, the writer's relationship with the reader, and the situation. Under what
conditions might you want to use these different levels of formality?
Notice the difference in formality between the two words shown in pairs below.
Either word might be equally appropriate, depending upon the reader and situation.
utilize
-
use
transpire
-
happen
Facilitate
-
help
expedite
-
quicken
impediment -
obstacle
comprehend -
understand
erroneous
-
mistaken
exacerbate -
worsen
Source: https://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/el.htm
Formal vs Informal language3
How Did That Register? Five Levels of Formality in Language
Posted by Jennifer Young on May 1, 2012
We’ve all experienced the occasional verbal slip-up, whether we’re nervous or the words
just don’t come out right. In casual speech between friends, a faux pas is usually laughed off
and moved on from as quickly as it appeared. However, in business meetings and
professional speeches, they’re a little harder to overlook. A major source of faux pas
encountered in interpretation work is the tricky element of language known as register. It’s
the difference between walking up to a colleague and saying, “What’s up?” instead of “How
are you doing?”
Spoken language takes on different levels of formality depending on the social situation and
the relationships between those involved. Register is the form that language takes in
different circumstances, and “code switching” is the ability to go from one register to
another guided by context. Register is an essential social skill that provides flexibility and
demonstrates competence in speech and appropriate social norms.
Even for experienced interpreters, register is difficult to master, as it relies not only on the
language itself, but also on social customs, culture, and even personal preferences. As a
relationship progresses between individuals, the register they use may evolve to be more
informal. Unlike words and grammatical structures, register follows its own set of rules, and
it’s hard to hit the mark on it exactly. In most cases, close enough is usually sufficient.
There are two basic forms of register: informal and formal. Contexts where one might use
the informal register are with friends, family, and meeting people at casual venues, like a
bar. The formal register is reserved for professional settings, like classrooms, the workplace,
and interviews. Place isn’t the only determinant of register: Factors like how long the people
have known each other, their previous relationship, if any, and their purpose in speaking to
each other affect how formal or informal the speech will be. Speaking with parents and
teachers would require less formal speech than at a company networking event, but more
formal speech than a peer group. Linguists have actually determined that there are five
different levels of formality in every language (see the examples for English, shown below).
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Register
Definition
Explanation
Frozen
Language that never changes
Wedding vows, Miranda rights
Formal
Standard English
Speeches, school lessons
Consultative Less formal standard English
News casting, employee to
employer
Casual
Language between friends
Loose sentence structure,
vernacular speech
Intimate
Language between lovers or other close
family and friends
Pet names, inside jokes
With the first language learned, register eventually becomes intuitive, while formality in a
second language requires more thought. Most children start developing a strong understanding
of register and code switching at around the age of 5 through exposure to a variety of social
situations. However, lower income and education levels are associated with a poor grasp of
nuanced speech. Research in the
Journal of Children and Poverty
shows that children living at or
below the poverty level usually only master the casual register. Students in this income bracket
were observed using the same register with their peers on the way to school as they do in the
classroom with teachers. Such behavior can result in miscommunication, ultimately leading to
negative social consequences like disciplinary action.
Interpreters can be more effective by looking at the background of the individuals speaking
and receiving their interpretations. Take, for example, a farm worker explaining a work
accident to a doctor, speaking in a register inappropriate for exchanges between
professionals and clients. To make the transaction go more smoothly, the interpreter could
code-switch for the farm worker. If it were two farm workers speaking to each other for the
joy of conversation, an interpretation of register wouldn’t be necessary. Register touches on
the personal experience of using language, and its use (or misuse) can determine the
outcome of a social interaction.
—Photograph by zizzybaloobah
Source: https://www.altalang.com/beyond-words/2012/05/01/how-did-that-register-five-levels-of-formality-in-language/
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Formal and informal discourse markers
In the box below, there is a selection of discourse markers commonly used in
spoken discourse. The sentences contain examples of their formal equivalents (in
bold) which are usually found in a written context. Replace the formal markers in
the sentences with informal markers from the box. You may need to change the
punctuation. Two of the informal markers are redundant, to make the task more
challenging.
so
right
what’s more
all the same
actually
well on the other hand
1. The weather conditions were not good for the cross-country event; in spite of
this, all the runners enjoyed themselves immensely.
informal marker:………
2. The supervisor suggested that the staff work overtime for extra pay; alternatively,
the company could employ temporary staff.
informal marker: ………
3. Raw fish is not to my taste; in fact I cannot eat it at all.
informal marker: ………
4. There is a danger of wild snakes on this path. Consequently, you should always
carry a torch.
informal marker: ………
5. The pine forests and mountains of Bhutan are very beautiful. In addition to this,
the Bhutanese people are very welcoming.
informal marker: ………
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Pragmatics
According to Herbert Paul Grice, an utterance made by a speaker can be divided into
‘what the speaker says’ and ‘what the speaker implicates’. This means the language
used has gone beyond its semantic level, but into the area of pragmatics.
A: Are you coming with me for lunch?
B: I have my class at 1 pm that I haven’t quite prepared for.
Grice’s Conversational Maxims
The Cooperative Principles
Grice also suggested that conversation is based on a shared principle of cooperation,
something like: “Make your conversational contribution what is required, at the stage at
which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you
are engaged.”
Grice, H.P. (1989). Studies in the Way of Words. Harvard University Press.
Maxims of Quantity: Be adequate, and give appropriate amount of information
1. “Make your contribution as informative as required.”
2. “Don’t make your contribution more informative than is required.”
Maxims of Quality: Be truthful.
1. “Don’t say what you believe to be false.”
2. “Don’t say what you lack adequate evidence for.”
Maxim of Relation: “Be relevant.”
1. Don’t say what is not related.
2. Give information as needed.
Maxims of Manner: “Be perspicuous.”
1. “Avoid obscurity of expression.”
2. “Avoid ambiguity.”
3. “Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).”
4. “Be orderly.”
5. “
Frame whatever you say in the form most suitable for any reply that would be
regarded as appropriate; or, facilitate in your form of expression the appropriate reply”
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Discourse markers
Introduction to discourse
Identifying the function
Look at the functions below. Read the three excerpts and match the function with the
excerpt.
To help you, the discourse markers have been written in bold. (Note that there are only
3 excerpts, so one of the functions is not used).
Functions:
1. Indicates that critical remarks (or a negative opinion) will follow
2. Indicates an alternative point of view
3. Indicates a sequence of steps to be taken
4. Indicates a change of topic
A. (Excerpt from a conversation between a lecturer and a student)
Lecturer:
Quite frankly
, I’m a bit disappointed with your attitude this term.
Student: Er… what do you mean?
Lecturer:
Well, I’m afraid
you’ve not put in much effort and er…
how can I put this
… it’s
had a bad effect on the others.
Student: Oh.
Lecturer:
Actually, what I’m trying to say
is you’ve failed this course.
B. (Magazine article giving dietary advice)
Make sure you eat at least 5 portions of fruit and vedge a day.
Apart from
the antioxidants
they contain, their high fibre helps protect against bowel disease. You should
also
include
more red fruit in your diet as it contains lycopene, which protects against heart
disease.
Another
key antioxidant is the mineral selenium, found in shellfish and offal.
Finally
,
to keep your brain sharp, take Omega 3 fish oils.
C. (This extract comes from an article about buying property.)
Most experts advise adding 10% to your budget to cover taxes, fees and unexpected
expenses.
However
, making generalized assumptions of the cost is dangerous.
Underestimating the costs could mean you have to find extra money once you are committed.
You might well get carried away by the estate agents’ patter, but
rather
you should be
realistic. Broad percentage figures are
simply
not good enough and aren’t actually necessary,
because a good agent should give you an accurate breakdown of the costs involved.
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Discourse markers in spoken dialogue.
Some of the most common discourse markers in spoken English are:
Right, okay, good, well, you know, I mean, actually, I think, ‘cos, so, like, you see, I don’t
know
Right and okay
indicate that the speaker is closing off one topic and about to start
another, and does not always indicate agreement.
Like
is used in conversation to preface examples, e.g. “You know, like, the best way to
lose weight is to skip lunch altogether.” (Here, like indicates that the following clause
contains an example).
‘Cos
is used informally to justify what has just been said, e.g.
“Don’t go to the one on the corner, ‘
cos
they charge you for the container. Go to the
Chinese takeaway, ‘
cos
they give you the box for free.”
You see
has the function of giving the listener new information, while
you know
is
confirming that the listener knows something. Both indicate that a shared knowledge is
necessary for the speaker and listener.
Example
Read the following dialogue to see how the discourse markers are used in context.
Sam:
You know
that time we were looking for the shop that sells cheap DVD’s
Mark: Yeh, the one in Mong Kok that we never found.
Sam: Yeh, that’s it.
Well
, I came across it the other day.
Mark: Where was it?
Sam:
Well
, the thing is, it was down a back street and no-one would ever find it, you
need someone to take you there. It was weird.
You see
, I think it was ‘cos all the
stuff was fake.
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Spoken discourse
Choose the appropriate discourse marker to fill in the gaps in the following sentences.
1.
A:
Do you like Dali’s paintings?
B:
____________ I think they’re vastly overrated.
(okay, actually, you see)
2.
Don’t buy the cheap ones ____________they’ll fall apart before you know it.
(’cos, right, so)
3.
A:
Don’t you like my cooking?
B:
Yeah, no, ____________ your cooking’s fine; it’s just that I’m full up.
(so, right, I mean)
4.
That’s the weekend schedule decided. ____________what shall we have for dinner
tonight?
(I know, you see, okay)
5.
A:
Did you enjoy Lethal Warrior 3 ?
B:
____________, it had great visual effects, but the plot was weak.
(’cos, right, well)
6.
We had a fantastic day at Ocean Park; we ____________ saw the dolphins, visited the
aquarium and even got to feed the pandas.
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Constructive Language
Constructive language phrases a potentially negative message in a positive way, whereas
destructive language directs blame and criticism toward the reader, creating defensiveness.
Readers are likely to become defensive when the writer's language expresses any or all of the
following:
Superiority over the reader
Indifference or apathy about an issue of importance to the reader
Negative evaluation or judgment of the reader (as opposed to neutral descriptions or
observations)
Command or control over the reader
Skepticism or doubt about the reader's credibility or the legitimacy of their claims
Consider the following examples.
(1)
Boss to employee: "Your job performance recently has been unacceptable and
there are no excuses for it. You have claimed that you are having some serious
personal problems, but even if this is true, you cannot allow it to affect the
quality of your work. If your work doesn't improve, I'll have to replace you
with someone else."
(2)
Student to instructor: "You have confused me so badly with your lectures that
I don't know what to do. I am considering dropping out and taking the class
next quarter from Dr. Johnstone, who can explain the information much more
clearly. I don't want to drop out, but I have never been so frustrated with an
instructor in my whole life."
(3)
Instructor to student: "I have never had a student who was so confused with
this material. Perhaps you should take an easier course from an easier
professor. It makes no difference to me."
Why would these examples create defensiveness in the reader? How could you
change the use of language to make these examples more constructive?
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Politeness
Source: English Grammar Today [http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/english-grammar-today/] Politeness is about keeping good relations with your listener or reader. There are two types of politeness
1. showing the listener or reader that you value and respect them.
2. changing or softening what you say so as not to be too direct or forceful.
1. Politeness: showing respect
There are many ways in which we can show that we value and respect our listener or reader. In more formal situations, we are especially careful to use certain polite phrases:
[addressing an audience]: Ladies and gentlemen, please welcome Mr Patrick Murphy … [a waiter in a restaurant]: May I take your plate, sir?
[a message in a thank-you card]: Thank you for your wonderful gift.
[asking a stranger for directions]: Excuse me, I’m looking for Cathedral Street. Not: Where’s Cathedral Street?
In formal contexts when we don’t know people and we want to show respect, we use titles such as Mr + family name, Ms + family name, sir, madam, doctor (Dr), professor (Prof.): [checking out at a hotel reception desk]
A: Here’s your credit card, MrWatts. Have a safe trip.
B: Thank you. [at a restaurant]
Shall I take your coat, Madam?
[emailing a professor that you do not know personally] Dear Prof. Kinsella …
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2. Politeness: making what we say less direct
When we speak and write, we usually try not to be too direct. There are a number of ways in which we can do this.
a. Softening words (hedges)
We can use softening words or hedges to make what we say softer. Compare
softer more direct
It’s kind of cold in here, isn’t it? Couldwe close
the window? It’s cold in here. Let’s close the window.
Couldyou just turn the radio down a little, please?
Turn down the radio. (The imperative is very direct when used in requests.)
Your playing could possibly be improved. [giving someone criticism on their musical performance]
You may need to spend more time working a little bit on the rhythm.
You must improve your playing. You need to spend more time working on the rhythm.
b. Changing tenses and verb forms
Sometimes we use a past verb form when we refer to present time, in order to be more polite or less direct. We often do this with verbs such as hope, think, want and wonder. The verb may be in the past simple, or, for extra politeness, in the past continuous:
A: Where’s the key to the back door?
B: Iwas hopingyouhadit. (less direct than I hope you have it.) I thought you might want to rest for a while since it’s been a long day. I wanted to ask you a question.
I am having problems with my internet connection and I was just wondering if you could tell me how to fix it. (less direct and forceful than I have a problem with my internet connection and I wonder if you could tell me how to fix it.)
Warning:
In formal contexts, we sometimes use past forms in questions, invitations and requests in the present so as to sound more polite:
Did you want another coffee? I thought you might like some help.
We were rather hoping that you would stay with us.
In shops and other service situations, servers often use past verb forms to be polite:
Assistant: Whatwasthe name please? Customer: Perry, P-E-R-R-Y.
Assistant: Didyouneedany help, madam? Customer: No, thanks. I’m just looking.
In speaking, we often use if followed by will, would, can or could to introduce a polite request:
13 If I could just say one more thing … (more polite than Listen to me, I want to say
something.)
If you will follow me, please. (more polite than Follow me, please.)
We use other expressions with if to express politeness: if you don’t mind, if it’s OK with you, if I may say so, if it’ll help:
If you don’t mind, I think I need that cup of tea. I’ll stay here, if it’s OK with you.
C. Two-step questions
In speaking, we sometimes ask two questions rather than one so as to be less direct. The first question is an introduction for the listener and the second one asks a more specific question:
A: Do you like sport?I mean, do you play sport? B: Yeah. I play basketball. I’m on the school team.
The first question introduces the topic of sport; the second one asks a more specific question about it. The listener answers the second question.
We sometimes use yes-no questions one after the other:
A: Is this your pen?
B: Yes, that’s mine.
A: Do you mind if I borrow it for a minute?
B: Not at all.
This is less direct than asking Can I borrow this pen? as a question on its own.
Using names
We can make what we say more polite and less direct by using a person’s name: What’s the time, John? (less direct than What’s the time?)
I’m not sure I agree with you, Liam. (less direct than I’m not sure I agree with you.)
Hedges
We use hedges to soften what we say or write. Hedges are an important part of polite
conversation. They make what we say less direct. The most common forms of hedging involve tense and aspect, modal expressions including modal verbs and adverbs, vague language such as sort of and kind of, and some verbs.
Adverb ‘just’
Could you just move a little bit to the left? Tense and aspect
I wondered if I could have a word with you? (less direct and more polite than Could I have a word with you?)
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Modal expressions
The answer could be that the trees have some sort of disease. (less direct than The answeristhat …)
Maybe we should have a word with him about it? (less direct than We should or we must have a word with him about it.)
This is possibly the best performance in the Olympics. Vague language
It’s sort of difficult to say. (less direct than It’s difficult to say) Could you just post this letter for me?
Verbs (feel)
Some verbs (such as feel, suppose, reckon) can be used to hedge personal statements, that is, to make personal statements less direct:
We feel he should let them decide whether to buy the flat. (less direct than He should let them decide …)
I reckon that’s the best answer to the problem. (less direct than That’s the best answer to the problem.)
Politeness: what is impolite?
Sometimes, being direct can appear impolite. Therefore, we need to be careful when using directive force, especially in the imperative form.
The imperative form
In most contexts, the imperative is very direct and is usually impolite when used outside of family and friends:
[in a café] Give me a coffee.
Polite form: Could I have a coffee, please? [asking the time] Tell me the time.
Polite form: Would you mind telling me the time, please?
However, it is acceptable to use an imperative in warnings, offers, written requests and when giving directions or instructions:
Mind your step!
Have another coffee.
Turn left once you get past the cinema. Then take a right along a narrow road … To stop in an emergency, press this button.
15
Using titles inappropriately
We use titles before names, for example MrOakley, Dr Morrison: [in a letter or email to Professor Harry Murray]
Polite form: title + family name: Dear Prof. Murray Not: Dear Prof. Harry
Using very familiar terms of address inappropriately
When people know each other very well, for example, couples or very close friends, parents and their children, they may address each other using terms such as love, honey, darling, pet. In certain dialects, you may also hear people use these terms in shops and cafés, for example. It is impolite to use these terms in formal contexts:
[in an interview] Where do you come from, love? [in a restaurant] Mr Kane, pet, your table is ready.
(“Politeness” from English Grammar Today © Cambridge University Press.)
Hedges in academic writing
We use certain types of hedging in writing, especially in academic writing, so that statements don’t seem to rely simply on personal opinion.
We often use structures with it in the passive such as it is argued that and it has been agreed that:
It has been generally agreed that these new video phone technologies will transform everyday life. (a more cautious and less personal statement than I agree that …)
16
Hedging Language
Emma Jake
TASK 1
Emma and Jake have different ways of writing and speaking. Emma is very subjective and usually over-generalises but Jake is more objective when looking at things. Who do you think wrote these statements?
1.………. All Turkish pop singers sing about love.
2.………. It is said that the earthquake was caused by the weather. 3.………. Generally, the holiday was great.
4.………. Eating fish and yoghurt will surely lead to stomachache. 5………. Dogs often protect their owners.
6………. English people always drink tea with milk.
7………. Highly intelligent children tend to misbehave due to boredom. 8………. Everyone knows how to read and write.
TASK 2
1 What do you think about Emma’s sentences? 2 Are they really true?
3 How did Jake make his statements less over-general? 4 Why are his statements better?
Why is hedging language useful for you?
A to sound more intelligent ? B to be more objective ?
17
TASK 3
Change these sentences of Emma’s using hedging language in parenthesis and take out any over-general language
1.
All people are afraid of snakes.
(many)
________________________________________________________________________
2.
I will definitely pass the exam.
(probably)
________________________________________________________________________
3.
Children always prefer sweets to fruit.
(generally)
________________________________________________________________________
4.
Old people find using computers difficult.
(tend to)
________________________________________________________________________
5.
In the future, e-books will be widely available.
(might)
________________________________________________________________________
6.
The driver was surely drunk.
(it is possible that)
________________________________________________________________________
7.
If you smoke, you will have health problems.
(be more likely to)
________________________________________________________________________
8. Nowadays, people are more interested in global politics.
(seem to be)
________________________________________________________________________
TASK 4
The sentences are taken from the paragraphs about student stress and psychological
well-being.
1. Families and teachers always force the students to study more.
(usually)
________________________________________________________________________
2. Parental pressure is an important reason for students’ stress.
(modal)
________________________________________________________________________
3. Especially in Turkey, parents want their children to have popular jobs.
(many)
18
4. 40% of young people in Turkey are not satisfied with the education they have.
(Research suggests that…)
________________________________________________________________________
5. People who have close relationships are more successful than other people.
(be believed to …)
____________________________________________________________________________________
Hedging in academic writing
Exercise 1
Identify the hedging expressions in the following sentences.
1. There is no difficulty in explaining how a structure such as an eye or a feather contributes to survival and reproduction; the difficulty is in thinking of a series of steps by which it could have arisen.
2. For example, it is possible to see that in January this person weighed 60.8 kg for eight days,
3. For example, it may be necessary for the spider to leave the branch on which it is standing, climb up the stem, and walk out along another branch.
4. Escherichia coli, when found in conjunction with urethritis, often indicate infection higher in the uro-genital tract.
5. There is experimental work to show that a week or ten days may not be long enough and a fortnight to three weeks is probably the best theoretical period.
6. Conceivably, different forms, changing at different rates and showing contrasting combinations of characteristics, were present in different areas.
7. One possibility is that generalized latent inhibition is likely to be weaker than that produced by pre-exposure to the CS itself and thus is more likely to be susceptible to the effect of the long interval.
8. For our present purpose, it is useful to distinguish two kinds of chemical reaction, according to whether the reaction releases energy or requires it.
9. It appears to establish three categories: the first contains wordings generally agreed to be acceptable, the second wordings which appear to have been at some time problematic but are now acceptable, and the third wordings which remain inadmissible.
Exercise 2
Compare the following statements and identify the differences.
1. It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.
The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.
2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today. The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today. 3. Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be
19 Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of individuals and hence no evolution.
4. Yet often it cannot have been the case that a recalcitrant trustee remained in possession of the property entrusted to him.
Yet a recalcitrant trustee did not remain in possession of the property entrusted to him.
5. Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland indicates a separating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic population drifting westwards and vice versa.
Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland shows a separating out of protestant and catholic, with the catholic population drifting westwards and vice versa.
6. By analogy, it may be possible to walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line between the points would cross a valley.
By analogy, one can walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level or uphill, and yet a straight line between the points would cross a valley. 7. There are certainly cases where this would seem to have been the only possible
method of transmission.
There are cases where this would have been the only possible method of transmission.
8. Nowadays the urinary symptoms seem to be of a lesser order. Nowadays the urinary symptoms are of a lesser order.
Language used in hedging:
Introductory verbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, indicate, suggest
Certain lexical verbs e.g. believe, assume, suggest
Certain modal verbs: e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could
Adverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimes, usually, hardly ever
Modal adverbs e.g. probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably,
Modal adjectives e.g. probable, possible
Modal nouns e.g. assumption, possibility, probability
That clauses e.g. It could be the case that … e.g. It might be suggested that … e.g. Research suggests/indicates that … e.g. It is possible that…
To-clause + adjective e.g. It may be possible to obtain … e.g. It is important to develop … e.g. It is useful to study
20
Phrases used when Hedging
to a large extent seem(s) to demonstrate that largely there is some evidence
that generally
may/can/might
at least (5 reasons) often it appears
possible/possibly point to probably
suggest(s) in some (many/most) cases there seems to be likely It would seem difficult to
accept that
Arguably ...would seem to indicate
that...
In general I agree with X...although....
It is generally assumed that
I would not go so far as to say ...
It is difficult (to
accept/see/believe) that...
X does not really (say/prove) his point
in some ways quite somewhat
suggests rather tentatively it would seem logical that to an extent
It seems equally likely that It appears likely that there is some suggestive work
may be interpreted It is arguable
Hedging Language -- Credit: Sabanci University, Turkey
21
Vague language
Preparation:
Vague Language - English Vocabulary Lesson (CEFR Level C1) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hY4L1YYzl20
Speak English Fluently - How to Use Vague Language in Spoken English https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c7gzaYiZvIA
We use vague language to make times and quantities sound less direct and more approximate:
A: Are you coming for dinner tomorrow night? B: Absolutely. What time is best for you? A: Any time around eightwould be perfect.
A: What colour is your dress?
B: It’skind ofgreen and brown, witha fewgold buttons on the front. It’s aboutseven o’clock so I think we should be leaving soon. (less direct than It’s seven o’clock so we should be leaving now.)
Modal expressions
We can use certain modal verbs, especially the past forms of the modal verbs can, may,
shall and will (could, might, should and would), to be more polite or less direct. We can also use other modal expressions (certainly, possibility, be likely to, be supposed to be). We often do this when we ask for something or ask someone to do something:
Might I ask if you are related to Mrs Bowdon? (rather formal and more polite/less direct than May I ask …?)
Would you follow me, please, sir? (more polite/less direct than Will you follow me …?)
Would you mind moving your car, please?
A: Couldyou take a look at my laptop? It’s taking so long to start up.
B: Well I’llcertainlytake a look. Is there apossibilitythat it might have a virus? A: Well, the anti-virus issupposed to beup to date.
You arelikelyto feel stressed before your exam.
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Vague expressions
Vague language is very common, especially in speaking. We often add words and phrases such as about, kind of, sort of, and that kind of thing to make what we say less factual and direct:
There were about twenty people at the meeting. It’s kind of cold in here.
Did you see lions and giraffes andthat kind of thing when you were in South Africa? We generally use vague language when we don’t know the name of something, or to make things sound less factual, or to talk about groups and categories.
When we don’t know the name of something
We can use vague expressions when we are not sure of the name of something. These expressions include: what do you call it?, what’s it called?, it’s a kind of X, it’s a sort of X, it’s a type of X, or something, thing, stuff:
A: Val’s been in hospital for tests. Did you know that? B: No. What’s wrong?
A: Well, they’re not sure. She’s had to have that test, er, what do you call it? Where you have to go into a type of X-ray machine.
B: A CAT scan?
A: Yeah. She’s had that done but they still don’t know what’s causing her headaches. She’s got a small dog, a kind of poodle, or something.
What’s that stuff you use when your lips get dry? Where’s the thing for cleaning the window?
Making things sound less factual
Being very factual can sometimes sound too direct in speaking, and so we add vague expressions. These are called hedges: about, kind of, sort of, -ish (suffix), stuff, things:
There’s sort of something I don’t like about her. (more direct: There’s something I don’t like about her.)
It’s kind of bright in here. (more direct: It’s too bright in here.) I can’t meet up later. I have too much stuff to do.
I forget so many things these days.
We especially use vague expressions before numbers, quantities and times to make them sound less factual:
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I’ll see you at about 8 tomorrow morning for breakfast. Is that okay? (more direct: I’ll see you at 8 tomorrow morning for breakfast.)
We expect to take in or around two years to complete the project. (more direct: We expect to take two years and four months to complete the project.)
We’re meeting Veronica at four-ish. (more direct: We’re meeting Veronica at four.) We’ve been living here for more or less five years. (more direct: We’ve been living here for five years and three months.)
Talking about groups and categories
We use certain vague expressions to make groups or categories. We usually give examples of members of the group or category (underlined below) and then add a vague expression, e.g. necklaces, braceletsand things like that.
Examples of common vague expressions: and that kind of thing and that type of thing and that sort of thing and stuff/ and stuff like that and so on
and the like
and things like thatand this that and the other
A: Where’s Emma?
B: She’s gone to the doctor. She’s been getting pains in her stomach and feeling tiredand things like that.
Where are all the knives and forks and that kind of thing? I need to buy cards and wrapping paper and stuff like that. He never eats chocolate, sweets and that type of thing.
There are so many lorries and trucks and that sort of thing passing by our house, even during the night.
We sometimes find vague category expressions in formal speaking, but we usually use different expressions, such as: and so forth, et cetera, and so on, and so on and so forth: [from a university lecture on literature]
The book has often been looked at from a feminist perspective and so forth but I want to look at it from a political perspective today.
24 [from a university lecture on communication]
If you use an advertisement in the newspaper, a thirty-second ad on television et cetera et cetera, it will receive quite a wide audience but there’s relatively little you can say in it. (ad = advertisement)
What are your views on the new government and the changes they have made and so forth?
We sometimes use vague category expressions in writing. The most common ones are: and so on and et cetera (which is shortened to etc.)
The new theatre will be used for big events such as opera, ballet, drama and so on. The house is equipped with a cooker, washing machine, television, etc.
When can vague expressions be impolite?
Expressions such as stuff and whatever, whoever, whenever, whichever are sometimes used to be vague in an impolite way. These are especially impolite when they are used in a reply to a direct question asked by someone who is senior to us:
[a father to his son]
A: What did you do at school today?
B: Stuff. (This is not a polite reply. It can mean ‘I don’t want to talk to you’.) [parent to teenage daughter]
A: You spend too long on the phone.
B: Whatever. (This is a very impolite response and means ‘I don’t care’.) [two friends talking]
A: We’re meeting around seven at Mel’s place.
B: No, it’s at six thirty.
A: Well, whenever.
(This is not as really impolite, because it is between friends. The first speaker uses whenever to show that she is annoyed that she has been contradicted about the time and that it doesn’t really matter whether it’s six thirty or seven.)
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Downtoners
Downtoners are words or phrases which reduce the force of another word or phrase. Downtoning is the opposite of emphasising. The most common downtoners are:
a bit a little bit, a tiny bit hardly slightly
a little barely (only) just somewhat
These downtoners are adverbs, and we use them to modify verbs, adjectives or other adverbs: I’m a little bit fed up with George – he’s so selfish.
(less strong than I’m fed up with George.)
I think he got slightly upset when we told him the news. I was barely 16 years old when I joined the army. You’ll have to speak up. I can only just hear you. The city has changed somewhat in the last ten years. (somewhat is more formal than the other words in the list.)
Downtoners: using vague language
We use vague language such as kind of…,sort of… or the suffix -ish to reduce the force of a word or phrase:
A: Are you hungry?
B: Well, kind of. (less strong than Yes.)
She had a saddish look on her face, I don’t know why. (less strong than She had a sad look on her face.)
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Sexist language
Sexist language is language which excludes one sex or the other, or which suggests that one sex is superior to the other. For example, traditionally, he, him and his were used to refer to both sexes, male and female, but nowadays many people feel that this makes she,
her and hers seem less important or inferior. It is best to avoid sexist language in order not to offend people.
He, she, him, her, his, hers
In writing, we can use (s)he, he/she, him/her or his/her to refer to both sexes at the same time. When speaking formally, we say he or she and his or her:
The teacher is the person who organises the class. (S)he is the one who controls timekeeping and the sequence of events.
Not: She is the one … or He is the one …
A police officer should remember that he/she is a public servant and should therefore always be polite. It is his/her duty to assist the public.
University administrator: Could each candidate please leave his or her exam registration form at the office before midday, please? (spoken)
We can use they, them, their and theirs to refer to both sexes at the same time, even when a singular noun has been used, although some people consider this unacceptable. However, in present-day English, this usage is becoming more accepted:
Every student must show their identity card on entering the examination room. (preferred to Every student must show his identity card.)
A nurse has to be very open and understanding. They must listen to their patients and respond to them. (preferred to She must listen to her patients. or He must listen to his patients.)
Suffixes -man, -master -woman and -ess
Many people feel that traditional uses of the suffixes -man, -master, -woman and -ess are sexist and outdated, so alternative, neutral forms are often used (m = male; f = female).
traditional form neutral alternative
fireman (m) fire-fighter
policeman (m) policewoman (f) police officer
headmaster (m) headmistress (f) headteacher or head waiter (m) waitress (f) server (American English)
27 In many cases, we can use the traditional male suffix for both sexes.
traditional form neutral alternative
actor (m) actress (f) actor manager (m) manageress (f) manager
poet (m) poetess (f) poet
waiter (m) waitress (f) waiter
Nouns, adjectives and verbs with man
Some nouns, adjectives and verbs which include man are considered sexist nowadays. We can often use neutral alternatives:
traditional form neutral alternatives
manpower (noun) workers, workforce, staff, personnel, human resources
man (verb) staff, be at, attend to
manmade (adjective) artificial, synthetic
The firm is hoping to take on more workers (or staff). (preferred to … more manpower …) Somebody will have to be at the entrance to take the tickets as people come in. (preferred to Somebody will have to man the entrance …)
Synthetic fibres are never as nice to wear as natural ones. (preferred to Manmade fibres …)
http://dictionary.cambridge.org/grammar/british-grammar/people-and-places/sexist-language
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Ambiguity
When you want to say something, it is wise to think carefully about your choice of words and
their potential interpretations. For one, to communicate effectively, precise and clear
language is essential. Consider the following examples and discuss their potential confusion
or ambiguity.
(1) He's an interesting individual.
(2) It is difficult to estimate the number of people affected by AIDS.
(3) Include your children when Baking Cookies
(4) Killer Sentenced to Die for Second Time in Ten Years
(5) Eye Drops Off Shelf
Exercise:
What do you think this statement means?
1)
Will Will will the will to Will?
2)
I saw a man on a hill with a telescope.
3)
FOR SALE: Mixing bowl set designed to please a cook with round bottom 161 for
efficient beating.
4)
We saw her duck.
5)
He fed her cat food.
6)
Look at the dog with one eye.
7)
Laura is cold.
She is a cold person.
The food is cold.
She has a cold.
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8)
Olga is a beautiful dancer.
a. Olga is a dancer who is beautiful. b. Olga is a dancer who dances beautifully.
9)
The fish is ready to eat.
a. The fish is ready to eat a meal. b. The fish is ready to be eaten.
c. The fish is ready to eat, and the chicken is ready to eat too. d. The fish is ready to eat, but the chicken isn’t.
10)
enjoy
a. enjoy a martini (enjoy drinking it) b. enjoy a cigarette (enjoy smoking it)
c. enjoy a recording of Britten’s opera Billy Budd (enjoy listening to it) d. enjoy a debate (enjoy participating in it or enjoy debating)
11)
At a restaurant
a. This is the ham sandwich. (waitress holding up a ham sandwich)
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Alternate meaning:
I saw a man on a hill with a telescope.
1
There’s a man on a hill, and I’m watching him with my telescope.
2There’s a man on a hill, who I’m seeing, and
he
has a telescope.
3There’s a man, and he’s on a hill that also has a telescope on it.
4I’m on a hill, and I saw a man using a telescope.
5
There’s a man on a hill, and I’m sawing him with a telescope.
We saw her duck.
1
We looked at a duck that belonged to her.
2
We looked at her quickly squat down to avoid something.
3We use a saw to cut her duck.
He fed her cat food.
1
He fed a woman’s cat some food.
2
He fed a woman some food that was intended for cats.
3He somehow encouraged some cat food to eat something.
Look at the dog with one eye.
1
Look at the dog using only one of your eyes.
2Look at the dog that only has one eye.
3
Updated (via Alice, age 7): Perhaps the dog has found an eye somewhere, and
we’re looking at the dog.
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Headline headaches
News headlines can be a source of language ambiguity. The ambiguous language of headlines even receives its name as the crash blossom. Such ambiguity is most likely caused by nouns that can be misconstrued as verbs and vice versa. Take this headline, often attributed to The Guardian: “British Left Waffles on Falklands.” In the correct reading, “left” is a noun and “waffles” is a verb, but it’s much more entertaining to reverse the two, conjuring the image of breakfast food hastily abandoned in the South Atlantic.
Exercise
Directions: Read each of the following ambiguous headlines. Identify how each one could be misread and why, along with a paraphrase of the intended meaning. (As Zimmer suggests, look for nouns that can be misunderstood as verbs and vice versa, along with other grammatical causes of confusion.) Then rewrite it for greater clarity.
1. Miners Refuse to Work after Death 2. Stolen Painting Found by Tree
3. Grandmother of Eight Makes Hole in One 4. Milk Drinkers are Turning to Powder 5. NJ Judge to Rule on Nude Beach
6. Juvenile Court Tries Shooting Defendant 7. Iraqi head seeks arms
8. Death causes loneliness, feeling of isolation 9. Queen Mary has bottom scraped
10. Police begin campaign to run down jaywalkers 11. Puerto Rican teen named mistress of the universe
Learning Resources:
https://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/el.htm
http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/Linguistics/synhead.html http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/linguistics/semhead.html The New York Times Learning Network: learning.blogs.nytimes.com:
https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/02/04/is-this-headline-clear-learning-about-ambiguity-and-clarity-from-headlines/
BBC Learning English Website: http://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/
BBC Learning English Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/user/bbclearningenglish
Downing, A. & Locke, P. (2006) English Grammar: A University Course, Second Edition. London: Routledge. O’Keeffe, A., McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (2007). From corpus to classroom: language use and language
