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:P
e r c ep
t
i
o n s of
p
a rt
i
ci
p
a nt
s o nt
h
el
e ad
i
ng
t
r e nd
st
h
at
m
ak
ei l ln e s s
f
r om d
ri
nk i
ng w
at
e r1
.0
I
n
t
r o
d
u c
t
i
o n
1
.1
O
v e r vi
ew
of
R
e s e a r ch
I
nt
h
eg l
ob
al d
ri
nk
i
ng
w
at
e r s e ct
o r,t
h
e r ei
s a n e cd
ot
al
e vi
d
e n c et
h
at t
h
e ri
sk
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n so
f
e xp
e rt
s v a ry
, e v e nw h
e nt
h
o s e e xp
e rt
s a r ep
r e s e nt
ed w i
t
h i d
e nt
i
c al i
nf
o rm
at
i
o n .O
n e s u ch
e x a
m
p
l
ei
s s e e ni
nt
h
e c a s e of h
o u s eh
ol d w
at
e rt
r e at
m
e nt
C
ai
r n c r o s s a nd
S
ch
m
i
d
t
(
2 0 0 9
)
, a nd
C
l
a s e n et
al
(
2
0
0 9
)
h
ad
a c c e s st
ot
h
e s am
eb
od
y
of
e vi d
e n c e o nh
o u s eh
ol d w
at
e rt
r e at
m
e nt
, a nd
y
et t
h
et
w
og
r o up
s r e a ch
ed d i f f
e ri
n
g
c o n clu s
io n s a
b
o ut t
h
e ad
eq
u a cy
of
e vi d
e n c ej
u st
i f
y
in
g
t
h
es c a
le
-up
of h
o u s eh
ol d w
at
e rt
r e at
m
e nt
(
S
ch
m
i
d
t
a nd C
ai
r n c r o s s,2 0 0
9
) (
C
l
a s e n et
al
,2
0 0 9
)
.O
n e ot
h
e r e x am
p
l
ei
st
h
ep
e r e n ni
al
d
eb
at
e o v e rt
h
e cl
a s si
fi
c at
i
o n of
r e u s ed w
at
e r a s ap
ot
ab l
es o u r c e.
I
nS i
ng
ap
o r e, r e u s ed w
at
e ris u s e
d
a s a s o u r c ef
o rd
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e r,h
ow
e v e ri
nA
u st
r al i
a,s e n
i
o r e xp
e rt
s a rg
u et
h
at
sy
st
em
st
od i
si
nf
e ct
r e u s ed w
at
e r,in
o rd
e rt
om
ak
ei
t
ad
eq
u at
ef
o rc o n s u
m
p
t
i
o n , a r ef
r a ug h
t
w i
t
h
p
ot
e nt
i
al h
um
a n e r r o r,m
ak i
n
g
r e u s ed w
at
e r a n u n s ui
t
ab l
e s o u r c ef
o rd
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e r(
C
h
u,2
0 1 1
)
;
(
T
op
sfi e
l d
,2
0 0
7
)
.A
n e cd
ot
al
e vi d
e n c e s ug
g
e st
st
h
at
ri
sk p
e r c ep
t
i
o n s of
e xp
e rt
s v a ry
a nd
a r e n ot
s ole
l y
d
et
e rm i
n ed b
y
ob
j
e ct
iv e
in
f
o rm
at
i
o n .R
i
sk
p
e r c ep
t
io n
t
h
e o ry
a nd
em
p
i
ric a
l
e vi d
e n c ef
r om
ot
h
e rs e c
t
o r sh
a v e sh
ow
nt
h
at
b
ot
h
e xp
e rt
a nd
n o n-e xp
e rt
ri
sk p
e r c ep
t
i
o n v a ry
b
a s ed
o np
e r ci
p
i
e nt
c
h
a r a ct
e ri
st
ic s
;
p
e r ci p i
e nt
b
ein
g
t
h
ein
di
vi d
u al w h
op
e r c ei
v e s(
D
o ug
l
a s,19 9 2
;
S
t
edm
a n ,2
0 04
;
B
a rk
e a nd
J
e nk
i
n s-S
m
i
t
h
,
1 9 9 3
;
a nd
B
ag g
et t
et
al
,2
0
0 6
, r e sp
e ct
iv e
l
y
)
D
e sp
i
t
e s ub
st
a nt
i
al
a n e c
d
ot
al
e vi d
e n c ei
nt
h
eg
l
ob
al d
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e r s e ct
o r;
t
h
et
h
e o r et
ic a
l
u nd
e rp
i
nn
i
ng
r el
at
ed
t
os u
b
j
e ct
i
v e ri
sk
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n s;
a nd
r e s e a r ch f
r om
ot
h
e r s e ct
o r s,t
h
e r eh
a v eb
e en
n o st
ud i
e s o nt
h
ep
e r c ep
t
io n s o
f
st
ak
eh
ol d
e r si
nt
h
eg l
ob
al d
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e r s e ct
o r.T h i
si
s of h i
g
h i m p
o rt
a n c e a sp
e r c ep
t
io n s a
f f
e ct
d
e cis
io n
-m
K
^
p
r ob l
em
of
"c o n si d
e r ab l
em
ag
ni
t
ud
e"(
S
j
ob
e rg
,1 9 8 0
,1 9 9 8
)
.S
j
ob
e rg
(
2 0 0 0
)
ci
t
e sh i
s e a rl
i
e rw
o rk
, n ot
i
ng t
h
at
ri
sk
p
e r c ep t
i
o ni
s c r u ci
al i
nt
h
e "i i n
d
e r st
a nd i
ng
a nd m
a n ag
em
e nt
of
ri
s
k
si
np
ol i
cy
c o nt
e xt
s, "(
S
j
ob
e rg
,2
0 0 0
)
.T
h i
s st
ud
y
i
st
h
ef
i r st
st
ep
t
oi
n c r e a s et
h
e u nd
e r st
a nd i
ng
of
e xp
e rt
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n si
nt
h
eg l
ob
al d
ri
nk i
n
g
w
at
e r s e ct
o r .A
s s u ch
,t
h i
s st
ud
y
w
i
l l
p
r o vi d
e s ub
st
a nt
i
al b
a ck
g
r o u nd l i
t
e r at
u r eo n r
i
sk
p
e
r c ep
t
i
o nt
h
e
o ry
a nd
r es
e a r ch
.T h i
s
st
ud
y
d
e s c ri b
e s c u r r e nt
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n s o np
r o xi m
al
a nd
d i
st
al
ri
sk
s r el
at
ed
t
od
ri
nk i
ng
w
at
e r an
d h
e al
t
h
a nd
ut
i l
i
z e s ri
sk p
e r c ep
t
i
o nt
h
e o ry
r el
at
ed
t
ot
h
ee
f f
e ct
of
p
e r ci
p
i
e nt
ch
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c s o np
e r c ep t
i
o n st
of
r am
e a n e xp
l
a n at
i
o n of
c u r r e nt
p
e r c ep t
i
o n sa n
d
t
od
e
v el
op
am
od
el
.T h i
sm
od
el i
st
h
e n em
p
l
oy
ed
t
od
et
e rm i
n ei f p
e r ci
p
i
e nt
-r e
l
ate
d
c
h
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c sd
ri
v ep
e r c ep
t
i
o n s o n sp
e ci f
i cl i
nk
ag
e s1
.2
R
e s e a r ch
ob
j
e ct
i
v e sT
h
e ob
j
e ct
i
v e of
t
h i
s st
ud
y
w
a st
o ad d
t
ot
h
eb
od
y
of k
n ow l
ed
g
e o nt
h
ep
e r c ep
t
i
o n s of
e xp
e rt
sr e
l
at
ed
t
od
ri
nk i
ng
w
at
e r a nd h
e al
t
h
I
n o rd
e rt
od
o s o,t
w
o s ub
-q
u e st
i
o n sw
e r e ad d
r e s s ed
:1
.W
h
at
a r e c u r r e nt
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n s of
st
ak
eh
ol d
e r s a nd d
ot
h
ey
v a ry
a c r o s sU
ni
t
ed N
at
i
o n sM
i l l
e n ni
um D
e v el
op
m
e nt
G
o al
r eg i
o n s?
2
.U
si
ng
ri
sk
p
e r c ep t
i
o nl i
te r a
t
u
r et
og
ui d
e a n al
y
si
s,
d
op
e r ci
p
i
e nt
ch
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c sd
ri
v e1
.3
S
um m
a ry
of
A p p
r o a ch
1
.B
a ck
g
r o u nd i
nf
o rm
at
i
o nw
a sp
r o vi d
ed
,i
n cl
ud i
ng
a s um
m
a ry
of l i
t
e r at
u r e o np
e r c ep t
io
n
s,r
is
k
sfr o
m d
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e r, a nd
ri
sk
p
e r c ep
t
i
o nt
h
e o ry
.T
h i
sin
f
o rm
at
i
o nw
a sin c
lu
d
ed
t
og
i
v er e a
d
e r s r el
e v a nt
b
a ck g
r o u nd i
nf
o rm
at
i
o n ,d
et
ai
l i
ng
w h
y p
e r c ep
t
i
o n s a r ei m
p
o rt
a nt
,h
ow
ri
sk
p
e r c ep
t
i
o nt
h
e o ry
h
a s ch
a ng
ed
o v e rt
i m
et
om
ak
et
h i
s r e s e a r ch m
e a nin
g
fu
l
,h
ow
ri
sk
p
e r c ep
t
i
o nt
h
e o ry
i
s r el
e v a nt t
o ri
sk
sin
t
h
eg l
ob
al d
ri
nk in
g
w
at
e r s e ct
o r, a nd w h
at
fi
nd i
ng
sf
r om
ot
h
e rs e c
t
o r sh
a v e sh
ow
n2
A
t
ot
al
of 2 0 2 i
nd i
vi du a
l
sf
r om
o v e r5 3
c o u nt
ri
e sp
a rt
i
ci
p
at
ed i
n a s u r v ey
,i
nw h i
ch
t
h
ey
w
e r e a sk
ed
ab
o ut t
h
eir
p
e r c ep
t
io n s o n
l i
nk
ag
e sb
et
w
e e nd
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e r a nd h
e al
t
h
.D
e s c ri
p
t
iv e
s
t
at
is
t
i
c sw
e r e u s ed
t
o a n al
y
z ep
e r c ep
t
io n s
b
a s ed
o nU
ni
t
ed N
at
io n s
M
i l l
e n ni
um
D
e v elo
p
m
e nt
G
o al
r eg
i
o n s.3
.A
m
od
el w
a sf
o rm
ula
t
ed
u si
ng
ri
sk
p
e r c ep
t
io n
l i
t
e r at
u r e o nt
h
e ef fe c
t
s of
p
e r ci
p
i
e nt
c
h
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c s o np
e r c ep t
i
o n sO
rd
e r ed l
og
i
st
i
c r eg
r e s sio n
a n al
y
si
sw
a st
h
e n u s ed
t
o ap
p l
y
t
h
em
od
el
t
ot
h
ed
at
a s et
t
od
et
e rm i
n ew h
et
h
e r o r n ot
p
e r ci
p
i
e nt
ch
a r a ct
e ri
st
i
c sw
e r e ad
riv e r o
f
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n sin
t
h
e s am
p
l
e.2
.0
B
a c
k
g
r
o u n
d
2
.1
O
v e r vi
ew
of
P
e r c ep ti
o nP
e r c ep
t
i
o n,d is
ti
n ct
f
r om k
n ow l
ed
g
e a nd
c o n c ep
t
u al
i
z at
i
o n ,i
sd
ef
i
n ed b
y
t
h
eC
ol
l
i
n sd ic
t
i
o n a ry
a s "in s
i
g
h
t
o ri
nt
ui
t
i
o ng
ai
n ed b
y p
e r c ei
vi
ng
, "(
C
ol l i
n sE
ng
l i
sh
D
i
ct
i
o n a ry
,2 0 1 2
)
.T h
e r e a r e s e v e r al m
e a n sb y w h i
ch p
e r c ep
t
i
o n s af f
e ct
d
e ci
si
o nm
ak i
ng
M
o st
r el
e v a nt t
og l
ob
al d
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e r s e ct
o r,p
e r c ep
t
io n s
d
et
e rm i
n et
h
eq
u e st
i
o n sw
e a sk
,d
et
e rm i
n e o u r r a nk i
ng
o
f
p
rio r
i
t
ie s
, a nd i
nf l
u e n c e o u r e xp
e ct
at
i
o n s an
d m
ot
i
v at
i
o n s.O
u rp
e r c ep t
io n s
d
et
e rm i
n et
h
eq
u e st
io n s
w
e a sk
a nd
t
h
ei
nf
o rm
at
i
o nw
e s e ek
,k
n
ow
n a sr e
l
e v a n c ep
a r ado x
(
C
h
a rm
o ck
,1
9 8
0
)
.O
n eg
e rm
a n e e x am
p
l
e of
t
h
e ef
f
e ct
of
r el
e v a n c ep
a r ad
o xo n
d
e ci
si
o n -m
ak in
g
i
nt
h
eg
l
ob
al d
ri
nk i
ng
w
at
e r s e ct
o ris
w h
e n,i
nt
h
e1
9
5
0
s, civ
i l
e ng
in e e r s
c a u s e
d
a n o ut
b
r e ak
of
s ch i
st
o s om i
a si
sb
y
b
ui
l d i
ng
i
r ri g
at
i
o n s ch
em
e sw
i
t
h
o ut
c o n si
d
e r at
i
o n of
s c
h i
st
o s om i
a sis
-c a r r
y i
ng
s n ai l
sC
o nt
r ol l i
ng
fl
ow
v elo c
i
t
i
e si
n o rd
e rt
o c o nt
r ol
s n ai l
sw
a s n ot
w i
t
h in
t
h
ei
rp
e r c ep
t
i
o n; t
h
ey
d i d
n ot
k
n
ow
t
h
at t
h
eU
ni
t
ed N
at
i
o n sh
ad
p
ub l i
sh
ed
g
ui d
el
i
n e s o nl
ow
-c o s
t
c o u nt
e rm
e a s u r e s an
d
t
h
ei m p
o rt
a n c e of
t
h
ei
ri
n cl
u sio n
i
n
ir r
i g
at
io n
s ch
em
e s(
C
h
a r n o ck
,1 9 8 0
)
.A
n ot
h
e r e x am
p
l
e of
r ele v a n c e
p
a r ad
o xi
s r el
at
ed
t
o a r s e nic
in
B
a ng
la
d
e sh
;
aft
e rr e c o
g
ni
t
io n
of
t
h
eh
a z a rd
of
a r s e ni
c, e ng
i
n e e r s c o nt
i
n u ed
t
od
ri
l
l w
el l
sw i
t
h
o ut
t
e st
in
g f
o r a r s e ni
cb
e c a u s et
h
ey p
e r c ei
v ed w
at
e rq
u a nt
i
t y
, o r a c c e s st
o cle a n
w
at
e r,t
ob
e am
o r e si
g
ni fi
c a nt
d
et
e rm
in a n
t
of h
e al
t
h
t
h
a nw
at
e rq
u al i
t
y
.P
e r c ep
t
i
o n s al
s o af f
e ct
o u r e xp
e ct
at
io n s
.F
o r e x am
p
l
e,w h
e n a ni
nd iv
i d
u al h
a s ar e
p
ut
at
io n
f
o rb
ei
ng
c om
i
c al
, a n a ud i
e n c eis
m
o r el i k
el y
t
ofi
nd
t
h
em
e nt
e rt
ain
i
ng
.Si m i l
a rl y
, a st
h
e ris
k
sd
u et
ot
h
at
a ct
i
vi
t
y
a sb
ei
ng
h i
g
h
a nd
t
h
eb
e n efi
t
s a sb
ein
g
l
ow
.C
o n v e r s el
y
,
i f
t
h
ey
f
e el
a n a c
t
iv
i
t
y
i
sf
a v o r ab l
e,
t
h
ey
j
ud
g
et
h
e ri
sk
s a sl
ow
a nd
t
h
eb
e n ef
it
s a sh i
g
h
(
B
ag g
et t
et
al
.,2
0 0 6
)
2
.2
P
e r c ep ti
o nL i
t
e r at
u r e r el
at
ed
t
od
ri
nk
i
ng w
at
e rW
o rk
o n u nd
e r st
a nd i
ng
t
h
ed
riv e r s o
f p
e r c ep
t
io n s
i
nt
h
eg
l
ob
al dr
i
nk i
ng
w
ate r s e c
t
o rh
a sf
o c u s ed
p
r ed
om i
n a nt
l
y
o nt
h
ep
e r c ep
t
i
o n s of
c o n s um
e r si
nde v e
l
op
ed
c o u nt
ri
e s, r eg
a rd i
ng
t
h
eir
d
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e rq
u al
i
t
y
(
E
a u , ci
t
ed i
nS
t
an
d
a rd
M
et
h
od
sf
o rE
x am
in a
t
i
on
of
W
at
e r an
d
W
a st
ew
at
e r,2 0
0
0
;
Jo n e s e
t
al
,2 0 0 7
an
d S
y
m
e a nd
W
i l l i
am
s
,1
9 9 3
)
.T
h
ef
ew
c r o s s-c o u n
t
ry
e x a
m
p
l
e sin c
l
ud
e a st
ud
y
b
y D
o ri
a et
al
.(
2
0 0 9
)
w h
of
o u nd
t
h
at
fl
a v o r, r
i
sk
p
e r c ep
t
io n
,c o n
t
e xt
u al
c u e s, a nd p
e r c ep t
io n s o
f
ch
em ic a
ls
, af f
e ct
a nin
d iv
i d
u al
's
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n of d
rin
k i
ng
w
at
e rq
u al i
t
y
in
t
h
eU K
a nd Po r
t
ug
al
(
D
o ri
a et
al
.,2 0 0 9
)
.T h
em
aj
o ri
t
y
of
st
ud ie s o n
t
h
ep
e r c ep
t
i
o n s of
n o n-c o n s u
m
e r st
ak
eh
ol d
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nt
h
eg
l
ob
al
d
rin
k i
ng
w
at
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ak
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t
i
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at
ed
t
ow
at
e r r e u s ei
nA
u st
r al i
a(
B
r ow
n et
al
,2 0
0 9
; D
obb ie a n
d B
r ow
n,2
0 1
1
a nd F
a r r el l
y
a nd
B
r ow
n,2
0 1
1
)
.B
r ow
n et
al
(
2 0
0
9
)
c o n cl
ud
ed
t
h
at
i m
p
l
em
e nt
at
io n
of
c e nt
r al iz e
d
a nd d
e c e nt
r al i
z ed
s u s
t
ain a
b le
w
at
e r sy
st
em
si
nA
u st
r al i
ah
a sb
e e nh
al
t
ed b
e c a u s e of w
at
e rp
r a ct
i
t
i
o n e r s'p
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t
i
o no
f
ri
sk
st
op
ub l i
ch
e al
t
h
;
a nd
F
a r r el l
y
a nd
B
r ow
n(
2 0 1 1
)
a s s e rt
ed
t
h
at
c o n c e r n o v e r sy
st
em f
ai l
u r eh
a sh i
nd
e r ed
p
r og
r e s st
o e n s u r e s u st
ain a
b l
e a c c e s st
ow
at
e rin
A
u st
r al ia
(
B
r ow
n et
al
.,
2
0 0 9
a nd
F
a r r el l
y
a nd
B
r ow
n ,2 0 1 1
)
.D
ob b i
e a nd
B
r ow
n(
2
0 1
1
)
d is c u s s e
d
t
h
ei m
p
o rt
a n c e of
e xp
e rt
p
e r c ep
t
i
o n sin
t
h
e u rb
an
w
ate r r e u s e s e c
t
o r of A
u
st
r al i
a a nd
t
h
ep
ot
e nt
ia
l d
ri
v e r s of
ri
sk
p
e r c ep
t
i
o ni
nt
h i
s s e ct
o r(
D
ob b ie
a nd
B
r ow
n,2
0
1 1
)
.T h
e s e st
ud i
e s s ug g
e st t
h
at
ri
sk p
e r c ep
t
i
o nr e
l
at
ed
t
o u rb
a nw
at
e ri
nA
u st
r al i
ai
s s ub
j
e ct
iv e
,h
a si
nfl
u e n c ed d
e cis
io n
-m
e n c u
m
b
e r ed
p
r og
r e s s r el
at
ed
t
ow
at
e r s e c u ri
t
y i
nA
u st
r al i
a,w
h
e r ep
op
ul
at
i
o ng
r ow
t
h
a nd
cl i
m
at
ec
h
a ng
e a r ep
ut t
i
ng
a n e xt
r em
e st
r e s s o nw
at
e r s up p
l
y
a nd
sw i ft
a ct
i
o ni
s n e ed
ed
.2
,3
R
i
sk
sf
r om D
ri
nk i
n
g
W
at
e rT
h
e r e a r eb
ot
h
p
r o xi m
al
a nd
d
i
st
al
c a u s e s of i l l
n e s sf
r om d
ri
nk i
ng
w
at
e r.P
r o xi m
al
c a u s e so
f
i l l
n e s s, o r ri
sk
s, a r et
h
o s ei
nw h
i
ch
t
h
e r ei
s ad i
r e ct
l
i
nk
b
et
w
e e nt
h
e ri
sk
a nd p
ot
e nt
i
al h
a rm
(
E i
s e nb
e rg
et
al
,2 0 0
7
)
.D
i
st
al
c a u s e s of i l l
n e s s, o r ri
sk
s, a r et
h
o s ei
n
w h i
ch
t
h
el i
nk b
et
w
e en
ri
sk
a n
d
p
ot
e nt
i
al h
a rm
h
a sm
a ny p
ot
e nt
i
al
p
at
h w
ay
s a nd
a c a u s al
r el
at
i
o n sh i
p
i
sl
e s s cl
e a r(
E
i
s e nb
e rg
e
t
al
,2 0 0
7
)
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n ei l l
u st
r at
i
o n of
p
r o xi m
al
a nd d i
st
al
c a u s e s of d i
a r rh
e al d i
s e a s e s r el
at
ed
t
o r o ad
p
r o xi m i
t
y i
s sh
ow
ni
nF i g
u r e(
E i
s e nb
e rg
et
al
,2 0
0 7
)
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h i
si m
ag
e,f
r om E i
s e nb
e rg
et
al
(
2 0 0 7
)
sh
ow
st
h
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et
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al
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sk
a nd
p
r o xi m
al
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a nd
t
h
ei
r ef f
e ct
s o nd i
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e al d
i
s e a s e.I
nt
h i
se x a
m
p
l
e, r o ad
p
r o xi
m
i
t
y
i
s ad i
st
al
c a u s e of d i
a r rh
e al d i
s e a s e.D
ef
o r e st
at
i
o n,d
em
og
r ap
h i
cc
h
a ng
e s, s o ci
al
c oh
e si
o n,w
at
e rq
u al i
t
y
, et
c. a r ep
r o xi m
al
c a u s e s(
E
i
s e nb
e rg
et
al
,2
0 0
7
)
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