A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Ph.D.
Rami Ginat
London School of Economics and Political Science, University of London
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ABSTRACT
THE SOVIET UNION AND EGYPT, 1947-1955
RAMI GINAT
This research deals with the political history of the
Middle East, with special reference to Egypt. It aims to
explore, describe and analyse the events which led to the
involvement of the Soviet Union in Egyptian affairs.
Attention is given to the domestic and foreign developments
in the U.S.S.R., Egypt and the Middle East in general, which
created a favourable atmosphere for Soviet penetration into
Egypt. It examines the change in the Soviet position towards
the Arab-Israeli conflict after the partition resolution of
29 November 1947 was adopted by the General Assembly of the
United Nations.
This study disproves the current belief that arms supplies
from the Soviet bloc to Egypt started in September 1955; it
shows that such supplies were reaching Egypt as early as
1948. Furthermore it shows that Soviet-Egyptian commercial
relations increased steadily from 1948 until 1955.
The dynamics of Soviet penetration into the area can only
be understood by tracing the roots and motives of Soviet
policy after the Second World War. The strengthening of
Soviet influence and the improvement of their position in
Egypt in the second half of 1955, was a result of a long
process of gradual political and ideological developments
in Egypt, beginning in the late 1940's. The pre-1955
agreements, so far neglected, are of vital importance in
the establishment of Soviet hegemony over Egypt and other
The study examines the interaction between political
history and the history of ideas. It assumes that there was
a gap between ideology and Realpolitik in the Soviet
approach towards the Third World generally and the Arab
World in particular.
The research is based upon extensive use of British,
American and Israeli official files, as well as Arabic and
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A b s t r a c t ... 2
Table of C o n t e n t s ... 4
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s ... 7
Part O n e : Doctrine vis-^-vis R e a l p o l i t i k ... 8
Chapter One: Soviet Doctrine Concerning the Arab W o r l d ... 9
A. Continuity and Change in Consolidating and Shaping Soviet Doctrine up to the early 1950' s ... 9
B. Methods and Vehicles for Carrying out the Soviet D o c t r i n e ... 14
a. Ideological W a r f a r e ... 14
b. Soviet Activity in the Greek Orthodox C h u r c h ... 19
C. The Soviet Union and the Local Egyptian Communist E l e m e n t s ... 24
Chapter Two: The Egyptian Communist Movement and its Role in the Internal Political Arena up to 1 9 5 5 ... 32
A. The Emergence of a Communist Party in E g y p t 33 a. The Egyptian Communist Movement in the Inter-War P e r i o d ... 33
b. Communist Activity in the Second World War and its A f t e r m a t h ... 35
B. Some Ideological Dimensions in the Communist Design Concerning the Egyptian National S t r u g g l e ... 38
a. British Imperialism - the Arab's E n e m y ... 38
b. The Internal Popular Struggle for Democracy and against C o l l a b o r a t o r s ... 40
c. The Need for Co-operation with External Forces for the Solution of the Egyptian P r o b l e m ... 41
C. Communist Political Activity and its Influence, 1 9 4 7 - 1 9 5 5 ... 43
a. Communist Activity and its Effects on Unification in 1 9 4 7 ... 43
b. The Establishment of D.M.N.L.- The Communists' "Golden E r a " ... 46
c. Continuous Internal Splits and External P r e s s u r e s ... 53
Chapter Three: The Relationship between Communism
and I s l a m ... 72
A. Communism and I s l a m ... 72
B. The Various Approaches to the Issue as Introduced by Egyptian and Arab
In t e l l e c t u a l s ... 79
Part T w o : The Beginning of the Soviet Involvement in Egyptian Affairs: The Dynamics of Penetration,
19 4 7 - 1 9 5 5... 88
Chapter One: The U.S.S.R. First Steps in the
Egyptian and Middle Eastern A r e n a ... 88
A. Soviet Support for the A r a b s ... 89
B. The Soviet Position Concerning the Palestine
Issue, 1 9 4 7 - 1 9 4 8 ... 102
Chapter Two: The Soviet Response to the Western Powers Attempts to Persuade Egypt and other Middle Eastern Countries to Form a Middle East Defence
Organization, 1 9 4 7 - 1 9 5 2 ... 121
A. The Crystallization of the U.S. Containment Policy and its Extension to the Middle
E a s t ... 121
B. Continuity and Change in Soviet-Egyptian
Relations after the Palestine W a r ... 132 a. First Soviet-Egyptian Commercial Agreements,
1948 - 1 9 4 9 ... 138
C. The Policy of the Wafd Government towards
the East-West Conflict, 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 5 2 ... 146 a. The Formation of the Policy of N e u t r a l i s m ... 146 b. The Tripartite Declaration and its
I m p l i c a t i o n s ... 151 c. The Egyptian Position towards the Korean War.... 154 d. The Strengthening of Relations between Egypt
and the U.S.S.R. - the Collapse of N a n a s '
G o v e r n m e n t ... 164 e. The Improvement of Economic Relations under
the Wafdist Government, 1 9 5 0 - 1 9 5 2 ... 191 Chapter Three: Soviet-Egyptian Relations under
Nasir, 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 5 5... 205 A. Soviet Response to the July 1952 Coup D'etat.... 205
B. Stalin's Successors' Policy towards E g y p t ... 211
C. Nasir's Neutralism and the B a g h d a d - P a c t ... 239
► i
D. Nasir and the Non-Alignment C a m p ... 264
Chapter Four: Egyptian Arm Deals with the Soviet
A. Negotiations for Arms, 1 9 5 4 - 1 9 5 5 ... 273
B. The Conclusion of Arms Deals with the Soviet
B l o c ... 278
C. British and American Response to the Arms
D e a l ... 296
Chapter Five: Soviet-Egyptian Economic Relations
under the Military Regime, 1 9 5 2 - 1 9 5 5 ... 301
C o n c l u s i o n ... 314
This thesis was carried out under the supervision of Professor
Elie Kedourie. I would like to express my deepest gratitude for
his unstinting help and advice and for his indefatigable patience.
I would like to acknowledge the assistance extended to me by
the staff of the following archives and libraries: The Public
Record Office, the British Library, the Library of the London
School of Economics and Political Science, the Middle East Centre
at Saint Antony's College and the B.B.C. Written Archives in Great
Britain; the Dwight D. Eisenhower Library, the Harry S. Truman
Library, the National Archives, the Washington National Records
Center, the Princeton University Library, the New York Public
Library and the United Nations Archives in the United States; the
Israel State Archives, the Dayan Centre Library and the Library of
the Tel-Aviv University in Israel.
I wish to display my appreciation to the Anglo-Jewish
Association, the Ian Karten Charitable Trust, Mr. Eric Nabarro and
the Lara Trust, the London School of Economics and Political
Science in London, Dr. Martin Peretz and the Clark Estates, New
York, for their generous research grants.
I would like to include Professor Israel Gershoni from the
U niversity of Tel-Aviv who supervised my M.A. thesis and provided
me with the necessary encouragement and inspiration to pursue my
Ph.D. studies. I would also like to mention Professor Itamar
Rabinovich and Professor Yaacov Ro'i from the University of
Tel-Aviv, former teachers, for their encouragement and knowledge.
This work could not have been carried out without the invaluable
support and generosity extended to me by Mrs. Sylvia Kedourie and
her family. It would therefore be appropriate to dedicate this
work to them, to convey my deepest gratitude and love.
Finally I would like to thank my parents and family for their
PAR^ ONE
DOCTRINE VIS-A-VIS REALPOLITIK
CHAPTER ONE
SOVIET DOCTRINE CONCERNING THE ARAB WORLD
A. Continuity and Change in Consolidating and Shaping Soviet Doctrine up to the early 1950,s_____________
In his study The Soviet Union and the Middle E a s t / Walter
Laqueur divided the Soviet doctrine towards the Arab world up to
1954, into five main periods. The first period was from November
1917, when the Bolsheviks took over up to 1921. There was little
information then and less interest in what really went on in
Asia, despite the fact that much lip service was paid to the
revolutionary potentialities of the East. The second period was
from 1921 up to 1928. During these years the Soviets had not
appreciated the potential role of the intelligentsia in the
national movement, and were unwilling to take advantage of the
great appeal of nationalist slogans. The third period had begun in
1928, when a significant change took place in the Soviet general
doctrine. This new line was shaped by the Sixth Congress of the
Comintern in 1928. A period of tensions and revolutionary conflict
had begun as a result of communist setbacks in Europe, the crisis
in the far East, and certain internal processes within the Soviet
Union. These changes pushed the Soviets to be more involved in the
Middle East political events. Their rigid doctrinaire line
regarding the role of the national bourgeoisie in the struggle for
liberation in the third world had been softened a little. This
period was ended sometime in 1935 as a result of political events
inside Europe. The fourth period was between 1935 and 1945. The
Soviet attention was focused on the Central European and Far
► •
Eastern danger zones. Less attention was paid to Middle East
Considerable stress was put on the national liberation movement in
Asia, but it was argued, at the same time, that this movement
would succeed only under communist leadership^-.
L a q u e u r 's division, apart from his argument concerning Soviet
policy towards the Middle East in the fifth period, is accepted.
This last period will be discussed at length in this study.
The Soviet Union's attempts to increase its influence in the
Arab world, and to bring it under communist control had become
apparent shortly after the 1917 Bolshevik revolution took place.
For instance, In 1919 Lenin published an appeal to the Muslims of
the world in which he declared inter alia:
"Muslims of the entire world, victims of the capitalists, wake up! Russia has abandoned the pernicious policy of the Czars with regard to you and offers you a helping hand in your efforts to overthrow British tyranny. Russia will give you full religious freedom and political
autonomy. Pre-war frontiers will be respected, no Turkish territory will be given to Armenia, the Dardanelles will remain Turkish and Constantinople will remain the
capital of the Muslim world... 11.
Lenin's appeal and the Soviets' efforts to increase their
influence were not crowned with success, mainly because of their
inconsistent attitude towards Islam. For instance, as opposed to
the above appeal, the Soviets organized a "communist congress of
the peoples of the East", at Baku, in September 1920; the congress
had been called to act in support of "proletariatism dictatorship"
based on an atheistic and materialistic philosophy which rejects
and scorns both Islam and Christianity . Prior to the congress,
1. Walter Laqueur, The Soviet Union and the Middle East ( L o n d o n :1959), p p . 7-158.
2. A report on "Communism and Islam", prepared by the research Dept, of the Israeli Foreign Ministry, 30 September, 1951, Records of Israel Foreign Ministry, (FM) 2530/8/A, Ginzakh Hamedina, Jerusalem (hereafter cited as I.S.A., FM with appropriate filing designation). See also: "Soviet policy towards the .Arab East" B u l l e t i n , Institute for the study of the U.S.S.R., Vol. 15, No. 3, March 1968, pp. 29-30.
L e n i n had r e ached the c o n c l u s i o n that the E a s t e r n peo p l e s need not
go t h r o u g h the c a p i t a l i s t s tage of d e v el op m e n t . T h i s could h a p p e n
w i t h the a ss is t a n c e of the S o v i et Union, and wo u l d lead to
C o m m u n i s m , w i t ho ut h a vi n g to pass t h r o u g h the c a p i t a l i s t stage^.
The Th i r d C o m i n te rn C o n g r e s s in June 1921 r e c o g n i z e d that the
p r o s p e c t of i m m ediate r e v o l u t i o n in the W e s t had f ailed and
t h e r e f o r e "without a r e v o l u t i o n in Asia, the p r o l e t a r i a n
r e v o l u t i o n cannot be v i c t o r i o u s " . The F o u r t h C o n g r e s s m
N o v e m b e r 1922 e m p h as i ze d the need of c o l l a b o r a t i o n wi t h the
n a t i o n a l m o v e m e n ts i r r e s p e c t i v e of the a b s e n c e of a r e v o l u t i o n a r y
wing w it h i n them. The r e s o l u t i o n s passed by the F i f t h C o m i n t e r n
C o n g r e s s in June 1924, r es t a t e d the need of c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h the
b o u r g e o i s n a t i o n a l i s t s on the ba s i s of a "united front" w h o s e
v a l i d i t y e nc o m p a s s e d the w h o l e East. S u p p o rt for the l e a d e r s h i p of
the n at i o n a l i s t m o v e ments, it was said, was u n c o n d i t i o n a l .
N e v e r th el es s, this d o c t r i n a i r e line was r ar el y t r an sl at ed into
action. In his first years in power, S ta l i n held the v i e w that the
r e v o l u t i o n could only be a c h i e v e d under c o m m u n i s t leadership. The
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of the M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t doctrine, wa s connected,
a c c o r d i n g to St a l i n ' s theory, w i t h the r e j e c t i o n of any
c o m p r o m i s e wi t h the c a p i t a l i s t world. S t a li n c on si d e r e d this
d o c t r i n e as "the s ci e n c e of the d e v e l o p m e n t of society, the
s c ie n c e of the w o rk in g class movement, the s ci e n c e of the
p r o l e t a r i a n revolution, the s ci en c e of the b u i l d i n g of the
c o m m un is t society; this s c ie nc e of h i s t o r y is b a s ed on a
10 M ay 1951, F 03 71 / 9 1 1 8 4 , E1024/20G, P ub l i c R e c o r d O ff ic e (hereafter cited as F0371 w it h a p p r o p r i a t e f il in g r e f e r ence). See also: M. Leshem, "Soviet p r op ag an da to the M i d d l e East", M i d d l e E as t e r n A f f a i r s , J a n u a r y 1953, pp. 1-3.
1. H a s h i m S.H. B e h b e h a n i , The So v i e t U n i o n and A r a b N a t i o n a l i s m 1 91 7 - 1 9 6 6 (London: 1986), p p . 5-7. D. Boe r s n e r , The B o l s h e v i k s and the N at i o n a l and C o l o n i a l P r o b l e m (Paris: 1954), p. 272. 2. M u s a Budeiri, The P a l e s t i n e C om m u n i s t P a r ty 191 9 - 1 9 4 8 (London:
Ithaca Press, 1979), p. 1.
d i a l e c t i c a l a na l y s i s w h i c h e x p l a i n s all h i s t o r y . . . i n terms of the
c on fl i ct and c o n t r a d i c t i o n in h u m a n affairs, in par t i c u l a r , of
c o nf l i c t b e t w e e n e c o n o m i c c l a sses". S ta li n said, that a c c o r d i n g to
this doctrine, the v i o l e n t t a k e - o v e r by the p r o g r e s s i v e classes,
f r o m the r u l i n g classes, was inevitable. "At the p r e s en t st a g e in
history, the s t r u g g l e is b e t w e e n C a p i t a l i s m and S ocialism. The
S o v ie t f o r m of state o r g a n i z a t i o n is the o n l y true Socialism,
w h i c h it is the duty of c o m m u n i s t p ar t i e s e v e r y w h e r e to e x t e n d by
all m eans w i t h i n their power^".
In Ju l y 1928, the S i x t h C o n g r e s s of the C o m i n t e r n d e cided to
s u p p o r t the na t i o n a l s t r u g g l e for l i b e r a t i o n of the c o lonial
p e op le s and those who a c h ie ve d only formal inde p e n d e n c e . D e s p i t e
the fact that the social c o nt en t of the n a t i o n a l i s t m o v e m e n t in
the A r a b w o r l d did not fit w i t h the M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t pattern, or
S t a l i n ' s theory, this ne w a c c o m o d a t i o n i s t a p p r o a c h was r e f l e c t e d
in S oviet b r o a d casts, w h i c h e n c o u r a g e d P e r s i a n and A r a b
N a t l o n a lism .
The p r o g r a m m e of the C o m i n t e r n r e g a r d i ng the s t r u g g l e a g a in s t
i m p e r i a l i s m in c o l o n i al and d e p e n d e nt a reas and the role of the
local c o m m u n i s t p a rt ie s m c o n d u c t i n g it w a s as f o l l o w s :
"To fight a ga i n s t f e u d a l i s m and the p r o - c a p i t a l i s t forms of e x p l o i t a t i o n and to d e v e l o p s y s t e m a t i c a l l y the p e a s a n t a g r a r i a n r e v o l u t i o n ... to fight a g a i n s t f o r e i g n i m p e r i a l i s m and for n a ti o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e ... the C o m m u n i s t I n t e r n a t i o n a l su p p or ts e very m o v e m e n t a g a i n s t i m p e r i a l i s t v i o l e n c e in the colonies, s e m i - c o l o n i e s and d e p e n d e n c i e s t h e m s e l v e s ... the c o m m u n i s t p a r ti es in the i m p e ri al is t c o u n t r i e s must r en d e r s y s t e m a t i c aid to the c o l on ia l r e v o l u t i o n a r y l ib er a t i o n m o v e m e n t and to the m o v e m e n t of o p p r e s s e d n a t i o n a l i t i e s g e n e r a l l y ... the c o m m u n i s t p a rt ie s in the c o l o ni al and
s e mi - c o l o n i a l c o u n t r i e s m u st ca r r y on a bold and c o n s i s t e n t s t ru g g l e a ga i n s t f o r e ig n i m p e r i a l i s m and u n f a i l i n g l y c o n d u c t
1. Paper on the " c o m m un is t st a t e in th e o r y and p ractice", p r e pa re d by the F.O., 29 M a y 1949, F 03 71 /8 67 31 , NS1 0 2 3 / 3 G . 2. Leshem, Ibic|, p p . 7-8.
3. I n f o r m a t i o n m e m o r a n d u m No. 26, "Soviet C o m m u n i s m " , Dept, of
p r o p a g a n d a in f avour of f r i e n d s h i p and u ni t y w i t h the p r o l e t a r i a t in the i m p e r i a l i s t cou n t r i e s " .
This p o l i c y was t r a n s l a t e d into ac t i o n in N o v e m b e r 1928/ w h e n
the U . S . S . R r e c o g n i z e d the c o m p l e t e i n d e p e n d e n c e and s o v e r e i g n t y
of the new state of Y e m e n in a tr e a t y of f r i e n d s h i p and trade
signed in Sana, the cap i t a l of Yemen. T r a d e a g r e e m e n t s had also
be en s igned w i t h Turkey, P e r s i a and A f g h a n i s t a n ^ .
The S ov ie t d ec i s i o n m a k e r s had r e a l i z e d that the r e v o l u t i o n a r y
p r oc es s in this area w o ul d be c o n ne ct ed w i t h an e x t e n d e d struggle,
in w h i c h the r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t was e x p e c t e d to pass t h r o u g h
th r e e d i f f e r e n t s tages :
a. The i m m e d ia te ai m was the e x c l u s i on of the c o l o n i a l i s t element;
that wo u l d be a ch i e v e d w i t h the c r e a t i o n of a u n i t e d n a t io na l
l i b e r a t i o n movement, w i t h the p a r t i c i p a t i o n of all classes.
b. After the n a ti o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e w ould be a c h i eved, the local
c o m m u n i s t pa r t y should lead the w o r k e r s and p e a s a n t s to w a r d s a
social r e volution.
c. The end of this p r o c e s s w o u l d be, the t ak in g of control by the
c o m m u n i s t party.
T his p o l i c y was f o r m u l a t e d c o m p r e h e n s iv el y, at the s e ve nt h
C o m i n t e r n c o n g r es s in 1935, and intended m a i n l y to induce the
n a t i o n a l i s t s e l e m e n t s to c o n d u c t a m a s s iv e s t r u g g l e a g ainst
w e s t e r n c ol o n i a l i s m . The S o v i e t s b e l i e v e d that w h e n the s t r u g g l e
ended, the road to p ower w o u ld be open for the c o m m u n i s t party.
The c on te n t of the n e w - l o o k p ol i c y r e g a r d i n g the b a t t l e a g a i n s t
c ol on ia l i s m , as it was a cc e p t e d and c o n f i r m e d by the S e ve nt h
C o m i n t e r n C o ng re ss was as follows:
1. Bulletin, Ibid, p . 30.
2. Ivar Spector, " p ro g r a m of a c t io n of the c o m m u n i s t party of
Egypt", M i d d l e East J o u r n a l , Vol. 10, No. 4 (Washington: 1956), p. 427; A. Yodfat, A r a b P o l i t i c s in the S o v i e t M i r r o r (Tel-Aviv: 1973), p p . 1-4; G. L e nc z o w s k i , "Soviet p o l i c y in the
M id d l e East", J o ur na l of I n t e r n a t i o n al A f f a i r s , Vol. 8, No. 1,
"In c ol o n i a l and s e m i - c o l o n i a l c ountries, the most
i mp or ta nt task of the c o m m u n i s t s c on si s t s in w o r k i n g to cr e a te an a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t p o pular front. To this end they must e n g a g e the br o a d m a s s e s in a n a t i o n a l - l i b e r a t i o n
m o v e m e n t ag a i n s t g r o w i n g i m p e r i a l i s t e x p l o i t a t i o n and cruel s l a v e ry and for e x p u l s i o n of the i m p er i a l i s t s and n at i o n a l inde p e n d e n c e , a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e in mass a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t m o v e m e n t s led by n a t i o n a l r e f o r mists, and a r r a n g e joint a c t i o n w i t h n a t i o na l r e v o l u t i o n a r y and n at i o n a l r e f o rm is t o r g a n i z a t i o n s on a b a si s of a c o n c r e t e a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t p l a t f o r m .
This was the So v i e t m e t h o d of i m p l e m e n t i n g its d o c t r i n e w i t h i n
the T hird World, mainly, up to the second w o r l d war, and a c c o r d i n g
to its a s s e s sment, the A r a b w o r l d was an integral part of it. The
A r a b c o m m u n i s t p a r t i e s b e c a m e the main e l em en t by me a n s of w h i c h
the S o v i e t s wi s h e d to d e e p e n their p e n e t r a t i o n into that pa r t of
the world. To a ch i e v e this purpose, they c o n c e n t r a t e d their
e f f o r t s on the n u r t u r e and e n c o u r a g e m e n t of local c om mu ni st
p a r t i e s in the ho p e that they w o u l d act as the r e v o l u t i o n a r y
v a n g u a r d w h o would lead the m a s s e s t o wards a r e v o l u t i o n and take
o v e r .
As s ug g e s t e d by G e o r g e L e n c z o w s k i , the So v i e t d o c t r i n e had two
7
e s s e n t i a l o b j e c t i v e s :
a. The e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a c o m m u n i s t s o c ie t y t h r o u g h v i ol en t m e a ns
if necessary?
b. L i n k i n g the area to the S ov i e t U n i o n in some f o r m of d e p e n d e n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p .
F r o m the Soviet v i ew p o i n t , up to the late 1 9 4 0 ' s, there w a s no
s ig n i f i c a n t c hange in their d o c t r i n e t o w a r ds the region. The same
goals and a s p i r a t i o n s c o n t i n u e d to m o t i v a t e their p o l it ic al
a c t i v i t y .
The e x t er na l image of the Sov i e t U n io n w i t h i n the A r a b w o rl d was
improved as a r e s u lt of S ov i e t en t r y into the S e c o n d W o r l d W a r on
1. R e z o l y u t s i i VII V s e m i r n o g o K on g r e s s a K o m m u n i s t i c h e s k o g o
i n t e r n a t s i o n a l a , Moscow, 1935, p p . 27-28, in: B u l l e t i n , ibid, p . 31.
the side of the allies. F ur th e r m o r e , the S o v i et a c h i e v e m e n t s at
the end of the war, p a r t i c u l a r l y their jo i n t o c c u p a t i o n of Iran,
w i t h Britain, gave t h e m a r e s p e c t a b l e i n t r o d u c t i o n to the M i d d l e
E a s t .
B . M e t h o d s and V e h i c l e s For C a r r y i n g Out The So v i e t D o c t r i n e
a . I d e o l og ic al W a r f a r e
One of the mo s t p o p u l a r m e a n s t aken by the S o v i e t s to a t tr ac t
p ub l i c a t t e n t i o n and i n f l u e n c e opinion, was the c o n d u c t of
i d e ol og ic al w a r f a r e in a v a r i e t y of media. This i d e o lo gi ca l
a ct iv it y f oc us e d on, and t o o k p l a c e m a i n l y in the s o - c a l l e d
"bourgeois c o u n t ries", and w i t h i n the c o l o n i e s and s e m i - c o l o n i a l
c ou n t r i e s w h i c h w e r e ruled by c a p i t a l i s t powers. I de ol og i c a l
w a r f a r e b ec a m e a p r o m i n e n t p o l i t i ca l weapon, in s i d e and o u ts id e
the Soviet Union, e i t h er to m i s l e a d p e o p le as to the s i g n i f i c a n c e
and v ir tu o u s m o ti ve s of the p o l i c i e s of the S o v ie t G o v e r n m e n t
c om pa re d to other, evil, powers, or a c t i v e l y to fo m e n t d is c o n t e n t .
Therefore, p r o p a g a n d a a c t i v i t y b e c a m e the p r i n c i p a l tool used by
the Soviet G o v e r n m e n t to e s t a b l i s h its superiority-'-. The
So v i et p u rp os e was not the c r e a t i o n of a n ew p o s i t i v e a t m o s p h e r e
in the i n t e r n a ti on al arena, but to m a n i p u l a t e and subvert. The
l o n g - t e r m a i m of their p ro pa ga n d a , was to speed up the wo r l d
D i s p a t c h 610 f r om B r i t i s h Embassy, Cairo, 25 A p r i l 1945, F 03 7 1 / 4 6 0 0 3 , JK1522. M e m o r a n d u m on " P r op ag an da D i r e c t e d to Egypt by the S ov i e t A u t h o r i t i e s " , fr o m B r i t i s h E m b a s s y - C a i r o ,
14 S e p t e m be r 1945, Ibid, J 2 9 6 2 / 4 4 0 / 1 6 .
On the Sov i e t p r o p a g a n d a a c t i v i t y see also: "The C om m u n i s t State in T h eo ry and P r a c ti ce " , a paper sent f r o m Joint
S e r v ic e s Staff College, L a t imer, C h e s h a m to S e r v i c e s L i a i s o n D e p a r t m e n t , F.O., 19 J a n u a r y 1950, F 0 3 7 1 / 8 6 7 3 1 , N S 1 0 23/3G; I n f o r m a t i o n m e m o r a n d u m No. 26, "Soviet C o m m u n i s m " , D e p a r t m e n t of State, 29 D e c e m b e r 1948, in: R e c o r d s of C h a r l e s E. Bohlen, 1942-1945, B o x 5. "Some C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S o v i e t P r o pa g a n d a " , D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e m e m o r a n d u m , 9 M a r c h 1949, F o r e i g n O f f ic e Posts of the* D e p a r t m e n t of State, R e c o r d G r o u p (RG) 84, C a i r o E m b a s s y - G e n e r a l R e c ords, 1949: 350.21, B o x 207, W a s h i n g t o n N a t i o n a l R e c o r d s Center, S u i t l a n d M a r y l a n d ( h e r e a f t e r c i t e d as
r e vo l u t i o n w h i ch wo u l d be the first step to w o r ld progress. The
fol l o w i n g p a tt er n was s h aped by L e n in in 1918, and adopted by his
f o l l o w e r s 1 :
" In t e r n a t i o n al policy: S u p p o r t the r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t of the s o c i al is t p r o l e t a r i a t in the a d v an ce d c ou nt ri es in the first place. P r o p a g a n d a . A g i t a t i o n . F r a t e r n i z a t i o n . A r u t h l e s s s t r u g g l e a g a i ns t o p p o r t u n i s m and s oc i a l
-c h a u v i n i s m (i.e., d e v i a t i o n from the d o-c t r i n e ) . Su p p o r t of the d e m o c r a t i c and r e v o l u t i o n a r y m o v e m e n t in all
c o u n t r i e s in g e n e r a l , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y , in the col o n i e s and d e p e n d e n t countr i e s . E m a n c i p a t i o n of the colonies, f e d e r a t i o n ,as a t r a n s i t i o n to v o l u n t a r y a m a l g a m a t i o n " .
The p o s s i b i l i t i e s of t u r n i n g the p e o p l e s of the M i d d l e East
a g ainst the B r i t i s h had be e n e a r n e s t l y c o n s i d e r e d by the So v i e t
leaders, i n c l u d i n g L e n i n and Stalin; they w i s h e d via the
i d e o l o g i c a l v e h i c l e s to a g i t at e the m as s e s a g ai ns t the British,
and c r e a t e a be t t e r a t m o s p h e r e for their fu t u r e p e n e t r a t i o n .
Soviet i d e o l o g i c a l activity, or p r o p a g a n d a a c t i v i t y in
w e s t e r n terms, b e g a n to g a t h e r m o m e n t u m in the A r a b c o u n t r i e s
after the end of the second w o r l d war. In Egypt, this a c t i v i t y had
been o r g a n i z e d and c a r r i e d out t h r o u g h the S ov ie t U n i on l e g at io n
in Cairo, h e a d e d by *Abd a l - R a h m a n Sultanov, a s e c o nd s e c r et ar y
of M u s l i m origin, and Sakolov, the Press A t t a c h ^ . In A pril
1945, it was r e p o r t e d by the B r i t i s h E m b a s s y in Cairo, that the
p r i n c i p a l Soviet v e h i c l e s for the d i f f u s i o n of p r o p a g a n d a w e r e
b ooks and p am p hl e ts for sale to the public, and m a t e r i a l issued to
the press. M o s t of the m a te r i a l did not c o n t a i n d i r e c t c o m m u n i s t i c
p r o p a ganda, it was said, but t ended to d i s p l a y to the E g y p t i a n
p eo p l e all the a d v an ta g es of the Soviet U n i o n c r e a t e d by the
1. Paper e n t it l ed "Some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S o v i e t P r o p a g a nd a" p r e pa re d by the D e p a r t m e n t of State, 9 M a r c h 194-9, in: RG 84, C airo E m b a s s y - G e n e r a l R e cords, 1949: 350.21, B o x 207.
2. Top se c r e t re p o r t fr o m A m e r i c a n Embassy, Cairo, 8 A pril 1945, G e n e r al R ec o r d s of the D e p a r t m e n t of State, R e c o r d G r o u p (RG)
59, 8 6 1. 20 2 $ 3 /4 -8 4 5, Nati onal Archives, W a s h i n g t o n D.C.
c o m m u n i s t system. Some of the bo o k s w e r e w r i t t e n by local
a u t h o r s in Arabic, and some w e r e t r a n s l a t e d into Arabic. For
example, B o l s h e v i k R u s s i a , by (Isam M u h a m m a d Sulaiman, d e s c ri be d
the r e a s o n s for the S o v i e t a c h i e v e m e n t s in d o m e s t i c and f o r e i g n
affairs; L e n i n and S t a l i n , p r in t ed in the U . S . S . R . , talked about
the h i s t o r y of the r e v o l u t i o n and of R u s s i a ' s c o n t r i b u t i o n to
victory; S o v i e t C u l t u r e s by A. Y u d i n has as its m a i n theme that
all c u l t u r e s but the Soviet, w e r e decadent; c i t in g that, b e f or e
the war, t here we r e ten times m o r e s t u d e n t s in the U.S.S.R. than
in G e r m a n y ^ .
The S o v i e t s did not focus all their e f f o r t s on d i s t r i b u t i n g
books; the s e l e c t i on of bo o k s and p a m p hlets, and the e x tent of
sales w e r e ve r y limited. E v e n so, there was a g r e a t demand for
i n f o r m a t i o n about the S o v i e t wa y of life. It was also r e p o r t e d by
the B r i t i s h E m b a s s y that r e v o l u t i o n a r y l ea f l e t s w e r e being
d i s t r i b u t e d by S oviet ag e n t s to w o r k e r s in the towns. The
f o l l o w i n g leaflet d e m o n s t r a t e d the a d v a n t a g e s of S o c i a l i s m and
c l a i m e d that S o c i a l i s m was not i n c o m p a t i b l e w it h Islam:
" S o c i a l i s m is not a g a i n s t Is l a m or a g a i n s t any other r e l i gion. It does not o p p o s e any creed or any fo r m of w o r s h i p or devotion, but it is the u ni v e r s a l panacea.
It is the cure and s a l v a t i o n of the poor and the fruit of a gr e a t eff o r t of the w i l l . . . I t has proved itself s t r o n g and s t e a d f a s t in all troubles. It has spread its w i n g s over di v e r s c o u n t r i e s , and in the end S o c i a l i s m will t r i u m p h .
S ince its e s t a b l i s h m e n t in 1943, the S o v i e t l e g a t i o n in Cairo,
had a t t e m p t e d to pr e s s the E g y p t i a n a u t h o r i t i e s to permit
p u b l i c a t i o n of a n e w s p a p e r w h i c h w ould be w r i t t e n in c o ll oq ui al
Arabic; th e y w i s h e d that by the use of an u n d e r s t a n d a b l e language,
the p r o c e s s of d i f f u s i n g their ideas to the m a s se s wo u l d b ec o m e
e a s i e r and their m e s s a g e s w o u l d be d e l i v e r e d d i r e c t l y to the
people. The Egyptian authorities gave permission to the Soviet
legation to print a weekly publication, Bulletin de la Presse
S o v i e t i q u e . By doing so, they prevented the Soviets from reaching
the Egyptian masses in their own language. In addition, the Soviet
legation had heavily subsidised the Egyptian communist magazine,
al-Fajr a l - J a d l d . Oral propaganda, by Arabic radio broadcasts from
the U.S.S.R. to the Arab world, was used as another pipeline for
the Soviets, to advance their interests*.
The Soviets were also involved in the founding and financial
support of Egyptian trade unions, teacher unions and student
unions (affiliated to the World Federation of Trade Unions) .
The Soviet legation in Cairo became the main active centre
for the transmission of communist propaganda in Egypt. In April,
1945, it was reported by Nuqrashi Pasha, the Egyptian Prime
Minister, that there was tangible evidence that the Soviet
legation was involved in the creation of subversive cells inside
the Egyptian Army and in attempts to spread Soviet propaganda in
the industrial classes. Nuqrashi pointed out that until 1945,
there had been no definite indication of such activities in Egypt,
but that since he had assumed office in February 1945, he had
received reports from the Ministry of the Interior to the effect
that the Soviet Legation in Cairo had become active in the
spreading of propaganda which, in his opinion "was of a
sufficiently serious character as to cause his government some
concern" .
1. Ibid, appendix c. See also dispatch 986 from American Legation, Cairo, 20 August 1945, RG 59, 861.20283/8-2045.
2. See a note on Communism in the Sudan, prepared by the Secretariat Central office, Khartoum, 16 February 1949, in: F0371/73471,
J1855/10113/16.
3. Top secret letter from American Embassy, Cairo, 8 April 1945, RG 59, 861.20283/4-845. It was also reported that documentary films were being shown at the Soviet Legation and intended to introduce to the Egyptians the positive aspects of the
A very interesting description of Soviet activity in Egypt was
given by P.M. Denieprov, the Charge d'affaires of the Soviet
Legation. In a conversation which took place on 4 January 1946,
with Lyon, a member of the American Legation^-, Denieprov
complained of a feeling of uneasiness in Egypt because of the
number of arrests which had been made of alleged communists.
Denieprov said that the Soviet Legation had arranged an exhibition
at the Agricultural Society, which contained exhibits from the
various Soviet Republics, photographs, pamphlets, copies of the
constitution of the U.S.S.R., etc. He pointed out that certain
Egyptian students had found this exhibition interesting and had
requested pamphlets. The Egyptian Government had done all possible
to "limit the influence of the exposition" said Denieprov.
According to his words, Arabic copies of the Soviet constitution
were printed in Moscow and sent to Egypt for distribution. These
copies had been favourably received and had created much interest
but had also met with governmental opposition. Denieprov said that
all the stories about the propaganda being spread by the Soviet
Legation were exaggerated. "You have heard them, they are really
scared of us, aren't they?", said Denieprov to Lyon. Lyon
emphasized that Denieprov never denied that the Soviet Legation was
disseminating a considerable amount of propaganda, but he obviously
intended to give the impression that the allegations referred to
were ridiculous. Denieprov mentioned the influence of the events in
Iran on the Soviet position in Egypt. He said that the fact that
Egyptians were saying that the whole business was being engineered
by the Soviets was causing anxiety in Egypt among a few officials;
in his view, most people were quite indifferent to the whole
situation and the average Egyptian was very little concerned
1. Enclosure No. 1 to dispatch 1260 from American Legation, Cairo,
about anything that did not touch him personally. Denieprov said
that very few Egyptians were interested in Communism "the people
are completely without hope or desire...the people are just
deadened and have no expectations". The upper ruling classes, said
Denieprov, "with which we come in contact are entirely motivated
by fear of Communism, but in the middle class there is slight
interest in Communism, as well as among the so-called
intelligentsia". He emphasized that there was no revolutionary
movement or activity in Egypt, and that the only interest in
Communism was a slightly academic one. Denieprov said that the
Soviet Legation had very little contact with the Egyptians either
during working hours or socially, and while the Egyptian officials
and important Egyptians accepted all the invitations extended to
them by the Legation, hospitality was never returned. "They seem
really to be afraid of getting into close contact with the
S o v i e t s "*.
b. Soviet Activity in The Greek Orthodox Church
Despite the fact that there was no room for religion in
communist doctrine, the Soviets attempted to assert control over
the Orthodox Church in the Middle East and to use it as a
political instrument for their own purposes.
The Patriarchs of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem and
Constantinople were invited to Moscow in January 1945 to attend
the General ecclesiastical Assembly convoked to elect a new
Patriarch of M o s c o w .Several months later, in May 1945, the
Church's new head, Aleksei, arrived for a visit in the Middle East
which included Syria, Lebanon, Palestine and Egypt. These
religious contacts, said Sir R. Campbell, had obviously a
political background, namely, the promotion of Russian, and
therefore also, communist influence among the Orthodox minorities
of Egypt and the Middle East*.
In addition to the Soviet Church's direct links with local
clergy, said Yaacov Ro'i in his book Soviet Decision Making
in P r a c t i c e , the Soviet diplomats assigned to Near Eastern
capitals began to reveal an interest in the Holy Places,
pilgrimages and the various organizations and institutions
7
connected with the Church and the Orthodox religion .
In Egypt, this activity was concentrated mainly in Alexandria,
but it extended to Cairo as well. Soviet aspirations were crowned
with success in the Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria as a
result of support given by Christophoros II, the Greek Orthodox
Patriarch of Alexandria, mainly after his return in January 1945
from Moscow where he had participated in the election of a new
P a t r i a r c h 0 .
Father Alexis, Priest of the local Russian Orthodox Church of
Alexandria, was involved in communist activity and it was
well-known that the Soviet Legation had financially supported his
Church. Consequently, tn March 1947, he was given fifteen days
to leave Egypt by the Egyptian authorities4 .
1. Sir R. Campbell was the British Ambassador in Egypt at this time. See dispatch 106 from Campbell, Cairo, 3 February 1947, F0371/63046, J 6 7 5 / 4 2 2 / 1 6 G . Yaacov Ro'i, Soviet Decision Making in Practice (New Jersey: 1980), p p . 34-35.
2. R o 1i , i b i d , p . 35.
3. On the visit of Christophros II, and on the inter-Orthodox
relations, see: dispatch 513 from the American Legation, Cairo, 26 January 1945, RG 59, 883.404/1-2645;
Paper on "The Russian Church and the Eastern Patriarchates" prepared by the Research Department of the F.O., March 1950, F0371/81977, E1781/2. See also Record of Conversation, took place on 15 December 1948, at the Department of State, between Baxter, Division of Greek, Turkish and Iranian Affairs, the Greek Ambassador and Athenagoras, the newly elected Ecumenical Patriarch, RG 59, 883.404/12-1548.
In 1946 the Patriarch of Alexandria went on another visit to
M o s c o w and in 1947 the Patriarch of Moscow, Sergei Alexis visited
Alexandria-*-. Christophoros II had close relations with the heads
of the Soviet Legation. Towards the end of 1948, it was reported
that he had received three separate visits by the First Secretary
of the Soviet legation in Cairo, and at his request, had accepted
as an employee in the Patriarchal Library, a Greek subject who was
known to be pro-communist. Later on, the librarian was arrested by
the police and placed in an internment camp following an
i n vestigation which disclosed that he was engaged in communist
activities. Efforts to have the librarian released were made by
Ch r i s tophros II, but his efforts were not successful because the
arrest was carried out upon orders from the Ministry of
Interior . In addition, the Head of the Patriarchal Labor
Emplo y m e n t Office was a communist who had engaged communists to
w o r k with the British Forces in the Suez Canal Zone .
Moreover, in the election of the Patriarch of Istanbul,
Chris t o p h o r o s II favoured the candidate who was nominated by
M o s c o w 4 . On 14 November 1948, at the ceremony when the Greek
O r t h o d o x Patriarchal Library was transferred to new quarters, a
place of honor in the front row was given to Alexis Shvedov, First
1. D i s p a t c h 83 from American Consulate, Alexandria, 15 November 1948, RG 59, 883.404/11-1548.
2. Ibid. See also dispatch 84, ibid, 17 November 1948, 883.404/11 -1748. Dispatch 101, ibid, 20 December 1948, RG 59, 883.00B/12 -2048. Broadly speaking, a significant number of communist activists in Egypt were of Greek origin and many of them had come to Egypt as refugees after the German occupation in 1941. It would be therefore possible to assume that the Patriarch's pro-S o v i e t attitude was not exceptional among the Greek
p o p u l a t i o n in Egypt. See dispatch 96, ibid, 9 December 1948, 883.404/12-948. Dispatch 116 from American Consulate,
Alexandria, 2 March 1955, RG 59, 774.00/3-255. On the activity of G r eek communists in British camps located at the Suez Canal zone, see, dispatch 61 from American Consulate, Port Said, 26 July 1949, RG 59, 883.0 0 B / 7 - 2 6 4 9 .
3. D i s p a t c h 11 from American Consulate, Alexandria, 17 January 1949, RG 59, 883.404/1-1749.
Secretary of the Soviet legation in Cairo. The attendance of a
Soviet official at a religious ceremony was a matter of interest
because as a rule no representative of the Soviet Government was
allowed by his superiors to attend such a ceremony*.
At the beginning of 1949, it was reported that the Patriarch of
A lexandria was going to assent to the establishment in Alexandria
of a chapel to be run or directed by the Patriarch of Moscow,
A l e x i s ^ .
Whether or not we accept Christophoros II's defence that he was
anti-communist and that there had been a misunderstanding about
some of his activities , the main point was, that the homeland
of atheism, which waged an internal, continuous campaign against
all religions inside her boundaries, was ready to sacrifice
some of the basic ideas in her doctrine in order to achieve a
political benefit. The use of the Orthodox Church as a shelter for
hiding communists, or conducting subversive activity on behalf of
Soviet interests, was an essential change in their doctrine, which
took place as a result of Soviet foreign policy developments after
the second world war. For the realization of their goals in the
Middle East, they were ready to support and encourage every local
group who had a sympathy for, or any sort of link to, the
U.S.S.R., not necessarily on the basis of ideology. A further
illustration, according to British and American reports, concerns
the Egyptian Armenians. The Armenians desired to see the Armenian
provinces in Turkey freed and linked to the Armenian Soviet
1. see dispatch 84, ibid.
2. Dispatch 11, ibid, 17 January 1949, RG 59, 883.404/1-1749.
3. This statement was made by Christophoros II on 21 January 1949, during a conversation with Robert L. Buell, American Consul General to Alexandria, and Charilaos Zamarias, Greek Consul General to Alexandria. See record of conversation in dispatch
Republic, therefore, they supplied propaganda agents for the
Soviets. It was stated that the Charg^ d'affaires of the Soviet
Legation, Denieprov, was in touch with local Armenian cultural
organizations in promoting Soviet cultural propaganda*.
Yet, up to the late 1940's, Soviet political activity
concentrated mainly in nurturing and preparing the local
communists to be able to lead the future revolution.
1. Memorandum from the American War Department to the Department of State, 23 May 1946, RG 59, 861.20283/5-2346.
Dispatch 536 from British Embassy, Cairo, 11 April 1945, F0371/46003, J1412. On this subject see also, Intelligence Report No. 5914, "Problems and Attitudes in the Arab World: Their Implication for US Psychological Strategy", 19 May 1952, U.S. Declassified Documents Reference S y s t e m , U.S., 1979, 314A.
C. The Soviet Union and the Local Egyptian Communist
Elements ____ ______________________
Soviet strategic interests in the Middle East up to the late
1940's concentrated mainly on I r a n 1 . Yet, the guiding principle
for communist activity in the Arab world had been formulated
by the Sixth and Seventh Congress of the Comintern .
The principle of struggling against imperialism for national
independence had served as a guiding light for all the communists
in the Near East for a long period. The tactic adopted by them
was, on the one hand, a massive attack on imperialism and its
handmaiden domestic reaction, and on the other hand, to picture
the U.S.S.R. as a powerful friend of small peoples who were
struggling for their national independence. They hoped that once
the imperialist powers had been expelled and independence
achieved, they would be able to take over.
Soviet legations opened in some Arab countries in 1943. The
Soviets took great care that their representatives should be able
to integrate themselves easily and speedily in the new milieu.
For instance, Daniil Solod, the first Soviet minister in Syria
and Lebanon, spoke Arabic; the second secretary in the Cairo
Legation, *Abd Al-Ra^iman Sultanov was a M u slim and Arabic
1. The Soviets were involved in internal political affairs in Iran mainly, with a massive support to the Communist Party-the
Tudeh. The Tudeh was almost strong enough to take over the government in 1947. On the political capacity of the party and its interaction with the Soviet Union, see C.I.A. report
entitled: "The Tudeh Party: Vehicle of Communism in Iran", 18 July 1949, President's Secretary's Files, Subject File: Central Intelligence Reports-ORE 1949 (No. 17-24, Box 256), Harry S. Truman Library, Independence Missouri. "Communist Party
Capabilities in the Middle East and North Africa", Department of State Intelligence Report, 24 November 1952, R&A Reports, IR 6044, National Archives, Washington D.C. See also,
The T i m e s , ibid.
2. See pp. 11-13. See also, report on "The strategy and tactics of world Communism", U.S.A. Government printing office,
speaker* .
The Soviet Legation in Beirut served as a centre for communist
activities in the Middle East. Representatives of Telegrafnoe
Aqentstvo Sovetskogo Soiuza (T a s s - Telegraphic Agency of the
Soviet Union) in Beirut were also actively engaged in
communist contacts and activities. Furthermore, visits of
representatives of the Cominform to Lebanon were known. Communist
representatives from Eastern European countries, mainly Yugoslavia
(up to the crisis with Moscow on 1948), were thought to be active
2
propagandists .
According to Egyptian press reports the Yugoslav legation in Cairo
gave material and moral support to Egyptian communists. The Soviet
Legation, it was said, attempted to avoid suspicion and therefore
refused to receive the Egyptian communists, abstaining
from having any connection with them. The Soviets used the
Yugoslavs for pursuing the Soviet goals of encouraging subversive
movements and providing for their needs. By doing so, the Soviets
wished to prevent any diplomatic friction with the Egyptian
•a . . . . .
authorities . Indeed, the activities of the Yugoslav legation in
Egypt created a lot of tension with the Egyptian authorities.
For instance, in July 1948, the police closed a club in Alexandria
which was run by Yugoslav agents and used as a centre for
communist activity4 . However, it would be an exaggeration to say
that the Soviet Legation in Cairo was not involved in local
communist activity. The legation sought to become the patron of
1. Y. R o 'i , Soviet Decision Making in P r a c t i c e , pp. 33-34. 2. F.O. Research Department memorandum of 21 July 1948, on
Communism in countries outside the Soviet o r b i t ,'F 0 3 7 1 / 7 1 6 5 1 , N9471/31/G. The T i m e s , ibid.
3. See dispatch 275 from American Embassy, Cairo, 3 April 1948, RG 59, 883 .0,0/4-348 .
E g y p t 1s workers. According to Egyptian press reports, the Soviet
Union sent financial support to workers striking in Egypt and
organized the student and worker demonstrations that hit Egypt in
February-March 1946. The Soviet Legation's short-range aim was the
establishment of a national united front in Egypt to struggle
against Britain*.
In the Egyptian elections at the beginning of 1945, members of
the Soviet legation had been in touch with the communist
candidate. In addition, the Soviet minister in Cairo warned the
Egyptian Prime Minister, that there must be no harassment to
communist candidates. The Soviet Minister said that he was not
"disposed to argue or discuss varying national ideologies as the
Egptian public, so largely illiterate, were not fitted for such
stuff, and as the Egyptian Prime Minister he must see to it
. , On
that they were not subjected to it *
In April 1945 it was reported that King Faruq worried about
local communist activities and particularly about the role the
Soviets might have played in them. The Egyptian Director General
of Public Security, Hassanain Pasha, was quoted as saying that he
was convinced "that the Russians will aim at the capture of Egypt
as being the heart and nerve of the Middle East". That was the
reason for his opposition to the establishment of diplomatic
relations with the U.S.S.R. He put the blame on Nafthas Pasha for
having been too forward in this matter .
Hassanain said inter alia, that Henry Curiel, an Egyptian Jew,
the founder and leader of the Communist party M.E.L.N. (the
Egyptian Movement for National Liberation), ran a bookshop in
which Soviet propaganda literature was prominently displayed. The
1. Ro'i, p p . 35-36.
2. Dispatch 25 from British Embassy, Cairo, 25 January 1945, F0371/46003, J1440.
literature presented different aspects of Soviet social activities
in an attractive light/ and found its readers mainly among
Egyptian students*.
The attitude of the Soviet Legation to Egyptian communist
activity, seemed to be ambivalent. On the one hand, to prevent any
friction w ith the Egyptian authorities, they avoided direct
support of the local communist movement. On the other, there was
evidence of a steady support, mainly moral and financial, which
was given to individuals and organizations to propagate pro-Soviet
s e n t i m e n t s .
As was pointed out previously, the qualifications of <Abd
al-Rahman Sultanov were useful in carrying out his activities.
He became the most popular member of the Soviet legation. As
a Muslim, his prestige among Muslim circles was high. It
brought him into much closer contact with the population as
a whole. He was known to have paid several visits to Al-Azhar. In
these visits, he demonstrated his knowledge of Islam and attempted
to prove that Islam and Communism can co-exist. Likewise, Sultanov
was active in organizing communist meetings to stimulate the
development of cells. He even attended meetings in some of
t h e m ^ .
Of the local communists activists, Fathi al-Ramli was known to
be one of the most prominent figures who had direct contact with
the Soviet legation. He was supported financially by the Soviets
in order to diffuse their propaganda. Despite the fact that Ramli
did not have an official party which connected him to the
communist movement, he was known by most educated people as a
1. Ibid. On Henry Curiel see also p p . 35-36. On Soviet communist activity in the Sudan see: letter No. 22(36.11.17) from the Governor of the Sudan to the British Ambassador, Cairo, 13 March 1947, F0371/63082, J1450/16G.
2. Report on "The Development of Communism in Egypt" from British
communist. Those who had heard of him, mainly through his articles
in the press, considered him as one who was supposed to have an
unaccountable supply of money. For instance, it was said that
students cynically took money from him; they considered him as
"an eccentric whose pockets were full of ready cash"^.
An American secret report based upon information given by
Egyptian communists who worked according to Soviet orders,
outlined the Soviet methods of implementing their interests
o , ,
in the Middle East . According to this information, Odessa was
an important centre of the Soviet Intelligence High Command in
the Middle East and was in direct contact with Istanbul, Haifa,
Beirut, Port Said and Alexandria. From Odessa, secret
instructions, communist propaganda in Arabic, and specially
trained Soviet agents infiltrated through these ports to the
interior of Arab countries. Two Soviet Black Sea command vessels
were engaged in servicing Soviet intelligence requirements,
under cover of commercial and repatriation activities. Communist
and Soviet intelligence activities in the Middle East were for
a time financed exclusively by shipments of gold and platinum,
which were usually transported by these vessels to Beirut, where
the Greek Navigation Lines Co. received the cargo for distribution
elsewhere. Communist agents at Alexandria and Port Said handled
the allotment for Egypt, sending the metal to Cairo. The
Alexandria division of Soviet Intelligence, emphasized the report,
had been proved responsible for the subversive activities in
harbour, docks and customs houses of Alexandria. The report
1. Report on "Propaganda directed to Egypt by the Soviet
Authorities" from British Embassy, Cairo, 14 September 1945, ibid, J 2 9 6 2 / 4 4 0 / 1 6 .
2. Secret report on "Ramification of Soviet Intelligence System", from American Embassy, Cairo, 10 February 1947, RG 59,
also indicated direct contact between Odessa and Henri Curiel,
and that Dnieprovski, the commercial attache of the Soviet
Legation in Beirut, had twice visited Egypt after June 1946 to
bring orders from Odessa to C u r i e l 1 . Likewise, the Egyptian
Under-Secretary of State for the Interior, <Abd al-Ra^iman lAmir,
said that the Egyptian police was informed that communists had
infiltrated into the Muslim Brotherhood, the Mi?r al-FatSt and
into the Wafd, as the Communist Party was illegal and communists
could not act openly. The Soviet Legation, it was said, "had
supplied their agents with funds to pass on to their adherents in
these societies" .
The role to be taken by the local communist parties, was based
upon the theory of Dimitrov, the Communist ideologist, and was
adopted by the mainstream of the Egyptian communist movement.
This theory proposed:
"We wish to make out of our parties a political power for the working class movement in the capitalist countries and to establish them as a political factor with the highest degree of activity. We want them to follow a strong Bolshevist plan for the masses, not to confine themselves to propaganda and criticism; also to give the masses slogans for the fight to realist the dictatorship of the proletariat ".
A British intelligence memorandum on the development of
Communism in Egypt confirmed that the general policy of the
Egyptian communists was in step with the line adopted by communist
movements elsewhere. In Egypt, the first step was to achieve
1. Ibid. _
2. M e m orandum of conversation between *Abd al-Ra£man fAmir and P.H. Ireland, First Secretary of American Embassy, Cairo, 18 November 1948, in dispatch 944, from American Embassy, Cairo,
19 November 1948, RG 59, 883.00/11-1948.
3. Letter No. (E)200/128 from R.M. Shields, a representative of the British Security Services (S.S.R.), Cairo, to T.C.