A task analysis of pier side ship-handling for virtual environment ship-handling simulator scenario development

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(1)Calhoun: The NPS Institutional Archive Theses and Dissertations. Thesis Collection. 2000-09. A task analysis of pier side ship-handling for virtual environment ship-handling simulator scenario development Grassi, Charles R. Monterey, California. Naval Postgraduate School http://hdl.handle.net/10945/7806.

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(6) NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL Monterey, California. THESIS A TASK ANALYSIS OF PIER SIDE SHIP-HANDLING FOR VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT SHIP-HANDLING SIMULATOR SCENARIO. DEVELOPMENT by Charles R. Grassi. September 2000 Thesis Advisor:. Rudolph. Thesis Co- Advisor:. Barry Peterson. Approved. for public release: distribution. is. unlimited. P.. Darken. •.

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(8) REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE. OMB. Form Approved. No. 0704-. 0188 Public reporting burden for this collection of information. is. estimated to average. 1. hour per response, including. the time for reviewing instruction, searching existing data sources, gathering and maintaining the data needed, and. completing and reviewing the collection of information. Send comments regarding other aspect of this collection of information, including suggestions for reducing. this. burden estimate or any. this. burden, to Washington. headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and Reports, 1215 Jefferson Davis Highway, Suite. 1204, Arlington,. VA. 22202-4302, and DC 20503.. to the Office of. Management and Budget, Paperwork Reduction. Project. (0704-0188) Washington. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave blank). 1.. 2.. REPORT DATE. 3.. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED. September 2000. TITLE AND SUBTITLE:. 4.. Tide (Mix case. Master's Thesis 5.. letters). FUNDING NUMBERS. Task Analysis of Pier Side Ship-Handling for Virtual Environment Shipflandling Simulator Scenario Development i. 6.. AUTHOR(S). 7.. PERFORMING ORGANLZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES). Grassi, Charles R. .. 9.. SPONSORING / MONITORING AGENCY NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES). 10.. SPONSORING / MONITORING. AGENCY REPORT NUMBER. N/A. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES. 11.. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION. IREPORT NUMBER. Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93943-5000. The views expressed. in this thesis are those. of the author and do not. reflect the official. policy or position of the Department of Defense or the U.S. Government.. 12a.. DISTRIBUTION/ AVAILABILITY STATEMENT. Approved 13.. 12b.. DISTRD3UTION CODE. for public release; distribution is unlimited. ABSTRACT (maximum 200 words). Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Divisions (NAWCTSD) in Orlando, FL have developed a testbed for the Conning Officer Virtual Environment (COVE) Ship-handling simulator. The purpose of this task analysis was to provide a workable document that they could use in the development of pier side ship-handling scenarios for their simulator. The task analysis not only identified the general procedures and methodologies used by a conning officer during pier side ship-handling evolutions but also provided inventories of the perceptual cues that were used specifically for these evolutions. The approach taken was to use a Goals, Operators, Methods, Selection Rules (GOMS)-like Researchers. model. at the. to represent the logical. sequence of methods used by the conning. Inventories (CCI) were then developed to supplement the the cues used along with detailed descriptions of. or audibly identified.. The accuracy of. Critical. Cue. GOMS. model by providing a list of was used and how it was visually side ship-handling task analysis was then. why. the pier. officer.. the cue. by interviewing Surface Warfare Officers with several years of ship-handling (CDM) knowledge elicitation process. 14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF Ship-Handling, Virtual Reality, Cognitive Task Analysis, Surface Warfare, Computer Simulation, Pier PAGES . , validated. experience by using the Critical Decision Method. .. 144. Side Evolutions, Computer Graphics, Virtual Environment.. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF. 18. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS. 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF. REPORT. PAGE. ABSTRACT. 17.. Unclassified. NSN. 7540-01-280-5500. Unclassified. Unclassified. 16.. PRICE CODE. 20.. LIMITATION. OF ABSTRACT UL. Standard Form 298 (Rev. 2-89) Prescribed by ANSI Std. 239-18.

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(10) Approved. for public release; distribution. is. unlimited. A TASK ANALYSIS OF PIER SIDE SHIP-HANDLING FOR VIRTUAL ENVIRONMENT SHIP-HANDLING SIMULATOR SCENARIO. DEVELOPMENT Charles R. Grassi Lieutenant, United States. Navy. B.A., University of Idaho, 1993. Submitted. in partial fulfillment of the. requirements for the degree of. MASTER OF SCIENCE IN COMPUTER SCIENCE from the. NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL September 2000.

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(12) DUDLEY KNOX LIBRARY. ABSTRACT. Researchers. (NAWCTSD). at. the. in Orlando,. Monterey ca. 93943-5101. Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Divisions. FL have. developed a testbed for the Conning Officer Virtual. Environment (COVE) Ship-handling simulator. The purpose of. this task analysis. was. to. provide a workable document that they could use in the development of pier side ship-. handling scenarios for their simulator.. The. task analysis not only identified the general. procedures and methodologies used by a conning officer during pier side ship-handling evolutions but also provides inventories of the perceptual cues that were used specifically. for these evolutions.. The approach taken was (GOMS)-like model officer.. Critical. to represent the logical. Cue. Methods, Selection Rules. sequence of methods used by the conning. Inventories (CCI) were then developed to supplement the. GOMS. why. the cue. model by providing a. list. was used and how. was. it. to use a Goals, Operators,. of the cues used along with detailed descriptions of visually or audibly identified.. The accuracy of. the pier side. ship-handling task analysis was then validated by interviewing Surface Warfare Officers with several years of ship-handling experience by using the Critical Decision. (CDM) knowledge. elicitation process.. Method.

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(14) TABLE OF CONTENTS. I.. INTRODUCTION MOTIVATION B. OBJECTIVE. 1. A.. 1. 2. C.. APPROACH. D.. THESIS QUESTIONS. 3. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS BACKGROUND. 4. 3. E. II.. A. B.. C.. C.. Conning Officer Virtual Environment (COVE). (VESUB). 11. 3.. Commercial Systems. 12. COGNITIVE TASK ANALYSIS. 14. 2.. Applications of a Cognitive Task Analysis. 15 15. 17. 1.. Why use GOMS?. 2.. Shortfalls of. 3.. GOMS Notation. 18. GOMS. 19 20. CRITICAL DECISION METHOD 1.. CDM Process. 2.. Critical. Cue Inventory. BASIC SHIP HANDLING FUNDAMENTALS 1.. 2. 3. 4.. 5.. Forces Affecting the Ship Pivot Point Twisting. Standard Commands Pilots and Tug Boats Restricted Maneuvering and Emergency Responses. PIER SIDE HANDLING OVERVIEW 1.. 2.. 21 21 22. TASK OVERVIEW. Getting Underway from a Pier Mooring to a Pier. METHODOLOGY B.. 14. Definition. METHOD GOMS MODEL. A.. 9. 1.. 2.. IV.. 9. Virtual Environment for Submarine Handling Training. E.. B.. 7. 1.. SELECTING A COGNITIVE MODEL AND ELICITATION. A.. 5. 2.. D.. F.. III.. 5. DEVELOPMENT OF A SHIP DRIVER CURRENT TRAINING OPTIONS CURRENT RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TASK ANALYSIS CONSTRUCTING THE GOMS MODEL vii. 25 25 25 29 30 31. 32 33 35 36 39 43 43 43.

(15) 1.. 2.. C.. V.. VALIDATING THE MODEL 1.. Participants. 2.. Visual Aid Model. 3.. Process of validation. TASK ANALYSIS GETTING UNDERWAY SAFELY FROM A PIER A. 1.. 2. 3.. B.. C.. Unit Task Level Analysis Functional Task Analysis Detailed Level Task Analysis. MOOR SHIP SAFELY TO A PIER 2.. Unit Task Analysis Functional Task Analysis. 3.. Detailed Task Analysis. 1.. VI.. Scenario for Evolutions Developing Models. CRITICAL CUE INVENTORIES. CONCLUSIONS B.. DISCUSSION THESIS QUESTIONS. C.. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK. A.. 1.. 2.. D.. Development of Additional Ship-handling Scenarios Implement Task Analysis Using Modeling Tool. HOW TO USE THE TASK ANALYSIS. 44 45 46 47 47 48 51 51 51 52 54. 80 80 81 83 102 113 1 13 114 116 1 16 118 118. APPENDIX A: STANDARD COMMANDS. 119. APPENDIX B: VALIDATION DOCUMENTS. 121. LIST OF REFERENCES. 127. INITIAL DISTRIBUTION LIST. 129. Vlll.

(16) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS many. This research was possible through the assistance and cooperation of people.. I. would. first like to. Darken and Barry Peterson. recognize and thank both of. for their guidance. with. the. simulator. I. would. like to. at the. Their intellectual. through this project to completion.. thank the researchers and military staff members associated. Naval Air Warfare Center Training Systems Division. Finally, I. Her. would. inspiration. my. in Orlando,. FL. for. and incessant assistance.. like to. acknowledge the love and support given. to. me by my. and motivation has had an immeasurable influence on. here at the Naval Postgraduate School.. through. me. Rudy. Conning Officer Virtual Environment (COVE) prototype ship-handling. their technical support. Sandi.. thesis advisors, Dr.. and unending support.. insight and continuous enthusiasm helped guide. In addition,. my. studies over the past. two. I. my. wife. success. truly appreciate her continuous support. years.. IX.

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(18) INTRODUCTION. I.. MOTIVATION. A.. Since the beginning of the. measure of a naval officer was his For officers. holds true.. skill,. ship-handling. is. a. is. it. has been. commonly accepted. ability to "drive" a ship.. Even today,. that the true. this belief still. United States Navy's Surface Warfare community, ship. in the. handling or ship "driving". Navy. way. of. life.. Often described as an. art,. a science and a. an individual's ability to apply science to develop the. competently maneuvering a vessel safely and. efficiently.. art. of. Therefore to be a skilled. shiphandler, one must master the science, understand the knowledge, and display the. art,. whenever and wherever required. [DNHM89] Today, whether assigned. to a large, nuclear aircraft carrier or a small frigate,. surface warfare officers are continually required to demonstrate their ship handling skills.. Therefore, one would assume that. onboard his. first ship, his. many SWO's have been. handling experience.. a. young surface warfare. officer. (SWO). walks. naval training should enable him to competently demonstrate. the required ship handling skills.. years,. when. Unfortunately, this. reporting to their. is. first. not often the case.. command. In recent. with minimal ship. This problem was not due to the fact that these officers knew. nothing about the "science" or fundamentals of ship-handling, but rather that they were not given the proper training to acquire the "art" of ship-handling.. training. young surface warfare. source and. at their six. month. officers. were receiving. at their. Despite the intensive. respective commissioning. indoctrination course, they were not getting any "real" ship. driving experience.. 1.

(19) The Navy, plagued by numerous budgetary cutbacks, was being forced. to train. its. surface warfare officers without the benefit of actual ships to train on. However, with the. advances in technology and the development of cost-effective simulators, the surface warfare. community has now. turned. its. attention. supplementing traditional methods for training Virtual. Environment (VE). SWO's. are. now. Through. trainers.. its. towards. the. consideration. young SWO's through. of. the use of. the benefit of these simulators,. young. being able to gain invaluable ship driving experience prior to reporting to. their first tour at sea.. In addition, the skill of ship-handling cannot be learned. or observing someone. else.. many. Like so. proficient at something without practice.. other things in. by solely reading books. life,. one cannot become. Hence, by training junior officers with these. ship-handling simulators, the young ship drivers will be allowed to practice different types of ship-handling scenarios by themselves in a safe environment where they are. allowed to make mistakes,. try different. methods, and begin to acquire the. art. of ship-. handling or "seaman's eye.". B.. OBJECTIVE With. specific goals provided. by the Surface Warfare Officers School (SWOS),. Naval Air Warfare Center, Training Systems Division developed a "real time, high simulator.". Virtual. [TNNY99]. fidelity,. networked. virtual. (NAWCTSD). researchers have. environment (VE) ship-handling. This simulator serves as a prototype for the Conning Officer. Environment (COVE) system. that is currently. being commercially developed for. the purpose of training ship-handling to surface warfare officers.. currently has the ability to replicate an. The protoype simulator. Underway Replenishment (UNREP) 2. scenario in.

(20) which officers practice conning alongside evolutions. also. begun. to. In addition, the researchers. have. implement other ship-handling scenarios, including pier side ship-handling. and amphibious operations.. The. objective of this thesis. is. to provide a. thorough task analysis of pier side ship. handling that will support further development of both the prototype and simulator's pier. work. scenarios.. A. secondary objective. is. COVE. to provide an inventory of. perceptual cues that are extensively used during pier side evolutions.. C.. APPROACH This thesis format follows that developed by Steve Norris.. [NORR98]. It. contains. a cognitive task analysis of a conning officer during two specific pier side evolutions:. these are getting a ship. underway from a. analysis will be using the previously used. tasks of the conning officer.. pier and. GOMS. mooring a ship notation. The. task. to present the. two. to a pier.. method. Additionally, the thesis will also present a perceptual cue. inventory that represents items that cannot be successfully annotated on a. D.. GOMS model.. THESIS QUESTIONS The following questions. •. What. are addressed in this thesis:. specific tasks are required of a conning officer while getting a ship. underway from a pier?. •. What. specific tasks are required of a conning officer while. mooring a ship. a pier?. •. What are. the perceptual cues used during pier side ship handling ?. to.

(21) •. E.. Is the. GOMS representation suitable for incorporating the perceptual cues?. SUMMARY OF CHAPTERS The remainder of this. •. Chapter. II. broken down into the following chapters:. thesis is. provides a detailed review of the current training methods of. surface warfare officers.. It. will also discuss the current state of. simulators as well as the research that. being done. is. in. maritime. support of the. COVE. project.. •. Chapter. m. Additionally,. analysis.. its. •. discusses the purpose and methodology of conducting a task. it. will. examine. in detail the. GOMS. model, including. advantages and disadvantages.. Chapter IV will review the pier side ship handling task and provide basic ship handling fundamentals.. In addition,. used by a conning officer during the. it. will. review the standard commands. task, as well as the. emergencies he. may. encounter.. •. Chapter. V. Additionally,. provides. it. the. task. analysis. including. supporting. narration.. includes the perceptual cue inventory.. •. Chapter VI discusses the results of the validation process of the model.. •. Chapter VII presents a. final. discussion of the results of this thesis and. describes areas requiring further research..

(22) BACKGROUND. II.. DEVELOPMENT OF A SHIP DRIVER. A.. Once her. first. selected into the surface warfare. new. a. ship,. known. indoctrination class,. selected. officers,. into. (SWOS). the. in. surface. who. attend. a. warfare. This course, held. at. the. tour as division officers afloat.. Academy. receive extensive training. SWOS. through the academy's fleet of Yard Patrol (YP) craft and report to. skills.. six-month. community, with the necessary. first. graduate from the United States Naval. comprehensive ship-handling. to his or. Newport, RI, provides newly commissioned. information and skills to be successful in their. Ensigns. (SWO) must. officer. as the Division Officer Course.. Surface Warfare Officers School naval. warfare. surface. community and before reporting. with. Unfortunately, the majority of newly commissioned. Ensigns come from other commissioning sources, such as the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps 1990's,. SWOS. (NROTC), and was. receive minimal ship-handling experience. Until the early. also able to utilize. Officer Course.. However, due. these assets are. now. to the. unavailable.. YP's. in teaching ship handling during the Division. age of the. YPs and. [NORR98] Thus,. commissioning sources other than the Naval Academy, in acquiring the basic. lack of funds to replace them,. for junior officers. SWOS. coming from. represents their. fundamentals on ship handling. Therefore,. many SWO's. first. step. are. now. forced to master the "art" of ship-handling through on the job training exclusively.. The young. SWO begins on the job training immediately as he walks on board his. first ship.. Realizing that the learning curve for ship-handling. watch. coordinators,. bill. sections, quickly put. who. new. is. very steep,. many. ships'. are responsible for assigning personnel to specific watch. officers. on the bridge so 5. that they. can begin standing watches.

(23) under instruction. The purpose of learn the traits of bridge. this practice is to. allow the junior officer to begin to. watch standing and the basic fundamentals of ship-handling by. observing the actions of the more experienced ship drivers.. A. watch section consists of a team of crew members who, together, perform a. required job or function onboard the navy vessel, such as the watch section that. responsible for safely driving the ship. usually. made up of two. enlisted personnel (the. the. is. the bridge watch team.. status. watch. stations. The Officer of. officer.. all. is. of the verbal orders to the. of the ship's crew and the. work with. have anywhere from two to. As. different. its. crew during. He. the. Helmsman and Leehelmsman, who. are. six. Depending on the. size. qualified to stand a particular watch. watch sections. Additionally, the watch. personnel between the watch sections in order to give. to. charge of the entire. is. number of personnel. for at least four hours at a time.. Deck (OOD),. responsible for driving the ship.. responsible for properly executing the rudder and engine orders.. station, a ship will. is in. the. also responsible for the safety of the entire ship and. hour watch. The Conning Officer. one who gives. five. on the bridge also include positions for a radar. usually the most experienced ship-handler in that watch section,. his four. and. board keeper). However, on larger naval ships, such as. watch officer and communications watch. is. officer). is. Boatswain Mate of the Watch, the quartermaster, the Helmsman,. aircraft carriers, the officer. He. bridge watch team. deck and a conning. officers (an officer of the. Leehelmsman, and the. watch section.. A. is. all. bill. that will. be on watch. coordinator will shuffle. of the team. members. a chance. watch standers.. junior officers begin to stand watches on the bridge, they not only learn from. observation, but they also gain invaluable experience as they begin to conn the ship.. 6. Most.

(24) often, the. new SWO's. be assigned to the watch team as a conning officer and be. will. paired with a very experienced officer of the deck that will act as their teacher on the. bridge.. During. critical evolutions,. such as underway replenishments and pier side ship-. handling, the young conning officers are also mentored by the. Depending on. commanding. their leadership traits, the. commanding. OOD. Depending on. underway schedule, the process of becoming a qualified. OOD. to 18. months. Once a. underway, he or she continues. to. SWO has hone. Only when the young. and. SWO. officer as a competent ship driver will he. ever be considered for promotion to the position of. anywhere from 8. officer.. officer will offer advice. constructive criticism on the junior officer's performance.. has gained the confidence of the. commanding. OOD. the ship's. can, unfortunately, take. attained the status of being a qualified. his or her ship-handling skills. by standing. hundreds of hours on the bridge.. Although. this. way. of training eventually produces competent ship drivers,. places the young officer in a harsh learning environment.. nervous and inexperienced when they conn a ship for the. up being a "parrot" where officer.. Or they. all. time that they usually end. repeat orders given by the. make numerous. his first squadron, he spends. B.. is. first. officers are so. OOD. or. commanding. get frustrated because they don't fully understand the fundamentals of. ship-handling and therefore. skill. they do. Most junior. it. needed to be a proficient. mistakes.. Before a naval aviator reports to. hundreds of hours flying in a jet or simulator to acquire the pilot.. Why should it be any different for a SWO?. CURRENT TRAINING OPTIONS Recognizing the fact that new. experience prior to reporting to their. SWO's were. first. command, 7. not receiving any ship-handling the Surface Warfare. community.

(25) realized that. was imperative. it. that they provide an alternate. method of teaching. ship-. Therefore, following in the Naval Aviation community's footsteps, the. handling.. Surface Warfare community began to develop ship-handling training through the use of virtual. environment simulators.. Currently,. new. basics in ship-handling with the assistance of. Center (CIC). Team. stand watch in. all. Trainer.. The. simulator,. surface warfare officers are taught the. SWOS's. which. is. Bridge and Combat Information. designed to train officers on. how. to. of the required stations on a ship's bridge and in a ship's CIC, exposes. the students to several critical ship-handling evolutions such as. formation steaming,. UNREPs, man. open ocean. overboard, and harbor transits.. transits,. However, due. to its. inability to allow twin-screw ships to operate with different engine orders, the simulator. currently cannot conduct extremely. Moreover, the. complex ship-handling events, such. as pier work.. shallow water have on the ship.. To compensate. [SWOS98]. for the inability of their in-house ship-handling simulator to. handle complex scenarios,. SWOS. spends a considerable amount of. money sending. students to the Marine Safety International (MSI) facility where they are exposed to. complex ship-handling captains.. room. scenarios.. MSI. mock-up. The second simulator. is. that is. in. two. different manners.. more. simulator. is. a. used for harbor transiting and pier side ship-handling.. overboard and underway replenishment scenarios.. SWOS. One. a replica of a standard bridge wing, which. locations on both the East and. its. a commercial operation run by retired navy. is. These simulators are constructed. sized bridge. used by. and. trainers cannot correctly reflect the effects that the winds, currents,. West Coast,. used for. man. The MSI. simulators, even with. demand.. For not only are they. are in high. students, but are also available to other. 8. is. navy ships and commercial.

(26) mariners. In fact, students. who. attend the six-month department head class, only receive. 10 hours of training and must wait until after eight o'clock in the evening before they can use the simulator. at. MSI. Although. the simulators at. MSI. provide an excellent training. tool for ship drivers, they are extremely expensive to operate. Therefore, with the cost of. sending bridge teams to use the. facilities. reaching as high as $2,000 for two nights of. service, smaller ships with limited training budgets cannot afford to. send. all. of their. officers through this type of training.. CURRENT RESEARCH. C.. Computer-driven ship-bridge simulators have been around since the 1960's.. However, rapid advancements from being limited-task is. in technology. to multi-task. and. full. have allowed these simulators to evolve mission simulators. The following section. a review of the current projects, military and commercial, that are being developed in. support of. VE. based ship-handling systems including the Navy's. projects as well as the. commercial projects. that are available to. Considered to be the future training tool for. system. is. merchant mariners.. such that. ships as well.. all. surface warfare officers, the. being designed to train surface warfare officers in both the. science of ship-handling.. portability,. VESUB. and. Conning Officer Virtual Environment (COVE). 1.. COVE. COVE. it. COVE. is. will eventually. In response to. also being developed to allow for. be used not only. SWOS's need. at. SWOS,. for an alternative. art. and. maximum. but on deployable. method. in training its. students in ship-handling, the Office of Naval Research. (ONR). is. sponsoring the Virtual. Environment Training Technology (VETT). which. is. being conducted by. NAWCTSD. researchers. and. assistant. project,. scientists.. 9. [NORR98]. The. VETT. program,.

(27) initiated in 1993, is. designed to develop, demonstrate, and evaluate virtual environment. technology for training applications. Therefore, the primary goal of the to provide a testbed. system. that. can be used to demonstrate. how. VETT research. is. well ship-handling skills. trained in a virtual environment transfer to real world situations.. Figure. One. 1. .. View of COVE prototype during mooring. of the primary requirements defined by. SWOS. is to. evolution.. have a "performance-. driven system" that trains ship handlers in acquiring a seaman's eye. greatest challenge of the. COVE. officer. would. use of. COVE's head mounted. utilize in the real. system. is to. accurately display the visual cues a conning. environment. display. This challenge. (HMD). is. successfully met. that presents a full. 360 degree. view which closely resembles the view a conning officer would see actual ship.. use of the. Therefore, the. if. enhances the feeling of "presence" by the subject. 10. the. field of. he were on an. Unlike large expensive bridge simulators currently being used. HMD. by. at. SWOS,. Presence. is. the. often.

(28) referred to as the ability for one to feel that they are really in the world that. instructor intensiveness.. COVE. system addresses. being. [STEU92]. represented by the computer other than their true physical location.. Another key requirement the. is. is. the ability to reduce. Currently, in order to correctly operate one of the bridge. mock-. up simulators, human experts are required to be present so that they can evaluate each. However, the. individual student's performance.. provide state of the. art intelligent tutor. would. also provide. The. system. is. being developed to. techniques that will allow multiple students. individual stations to be evaluated simultaneously.. would not only allow the students. COVE. The. intelligent tutor aspect of. to use the simulator at their. immediate feedback and constructive. own. at. COVE. convenience, but. criticism.. COVE prototype simulator currently provides a ship-handling scenario for an. underway replenishment (UNREP) evolution between an Arleigh Burke Class destroyer and an. AOE-6. class auxiliary ship.. In addition, scenarios for pier. landing evolutions are also in development.. Researchers from. work and amphibious. NAWCTSD. continuing to conduct experiments with the intelligent tutor to evaluate. its. are also. integration. within the virtual environment.. 2.. Virtual Environment for Submarine Handling Training. (VESUB). Experiencing similar deficiencies in ship-handling training as the Surface Warfare. Community, the United. States. an alternate training method for. Navy's Submarine community has also found a need for its. officers standing. OOD watches on. submarines.. extremely limited resources to properly train submarine officers in the handling, the submarine. that. would. community asked. integrate the already existing. NAWCTSD. art. Due. to. of ship-. researchers to develop a system. Submarine Piloting and Navigation (SPAN) 11.

(29) training simulator with a stand-alone virtual reality-based system.. [NAVA98]. This. system became known as the Virtual Environment for Submarine Handling Training. (VESUB). VESUB's concept and in that. it. objectives are similar to those of the. provides the student an opportunity to acquire. experience while reducing the instructor workload.. It. COVE. much needed. also utilizes a. presents a simulated 360-degree visual environment containing. all. simulator. ship driving. HMD,. which. of the required cues. associated with harbor transits under varying environmental conditions.. [NAVA98]. Originally developed as an exploratory system designed to evaluate the potential. of training submarine officers in a virtual environment,. Due. reviews by the submarine community.. VESUB. foundation for the. 3.. VESUB. to its success,. it is. has received excellent. now. being used as the. 2000 procurement.. Commercial Systems. Unlike the Navy's surface warfare community, the commercial maritime industry has been utilizing computer-based simulators to train ship-handling since the early 1990s.. [COMM96] Due. to the increased public. concern for maritime safety and the recent trend. of smaller crew sizes onboard merchant vessels, commercial mariners also began to. integrate. marine simulation into. Contrasting simulators with. now developing. its. the. highly. their. mariner training programs.. structured. environment. of. commercial. air. well-defined classifications and standards, the marine industry. a standard terminology for describing simulators.. The. carrier. is. just. International. Maritime Organization (IMO) proposes a simulator classification system that separates maritime simulators into four major categories: task,. and 4). special-task.. [COMM96]. 1) full-mission, 2) multi-task, 3) limited-. Full-mission and multi-task simulators place the. 12.

(30) trainee inside a bridge. mock-up with. and harbor. transits.. And. fully functional. and. Limited task simulators place the trainee. configured emulations of bridge equipment. inside a training environment that is. equipment or. actual bridge. more limited. in its capabilities to simulate navigation. finally, special task simulators are similar to limited task. simulators except that the trainee. is. located outside of the environment. (i.e.. sitting. behind. a desktop computer).. many commercial. Today, there are. organizations that provide training to both. merchant and military mariners through the use of. mock-up. their full. One such company, Ship. simulators.. mission or multi-task bridge. Analytics,. offers. a Full Mission. Shiphandling Simulator that provides a 360 degree viewing area, visual environmental effects,. and a comprehensive. complex evolutions.. list. In addition,. and evaluation system. of ship-handling scenarios ranging from basic to very. Ship Analytics also provides a performance monitoring. that allows the trainee to receive a. performance. [SHIP00]. Ship Analytics serves. thorough review of his. many commercial. mariners and, on a. limited basis, navy and coast guard teams in the Pacific Northwest region.. Recognizing the outstanding capabilities offer,. the. that. Navy's surface warfare community continues. supplemental ship-handling training tool not only for those serving in the. fleet.. this. negative outlook. cannot afford to send. its. to. use these services as a. officers. who. attend. SWOS. but. Unfortunately, the high operating costs and limited availability. of these commercial simulators. behind. commercial maritime simulators. many. is. make them an that. unfeasible long term option.. The reason. most ships have very limited training funds and. of their officers,. if. any. only a small number of officers serving in the 13. at all, to. fleet. these commercial. sites.. Since. are able to actually use these.

(31) commercial simulators. it. is. inevitable that the future ship-handling tool for surface. warfare officers will resemble the. COVE simulator.. COGNITIVE TASK ANALYSIS. C.. As. previously discussed, there are a. number of ship-handling simulators. used to improve the ship driving performance of the "novice". Yet, in order for. trainee.. these simulators to be successful, their developers must understand individuals, "experts," perform the task of ship-handling.. By. that are. how. proficient. studying in detail the. general knowledge, specific information, and reasoning processes an expert uses, a model. of the task can be constructed that exhibits some of the properties of the expert being. modeled.. [KCMC88] Although. one method,. in particular, has. there. is. no standard way of obtaining. this information,. been successful in capturing the necessary knowledge and. processes that are utilized by the expert in his particular domain. This method. is. known. as a cognitive task analysis.. Definition. 1.. A. traditional. behavioral task analysis. is. generally defined to be the direct. observation of a person performing a certain action, in which the data gathered from this observation. goal.. A. is. then used to describe, in detail, the tasks needed to accomplish a specific. cognitive task analysis, however, seeks to relate the behavioral concerns of a. traditional task analysis with the internal. [ZRHC99] expert, but. knowledge concerns of cognitive. Thus, a cognitive task analysis not only. it. also examines the. way. elicits the explicit. science.. knowledge of an. the expert tries to accomplish the specific task. through his perceptual and information-processing. 14. abilities..

(32) Applications of a Cognitive Task Analysis. 2.. Cognitive task analyses have been used in. human performance. in decision. making. many ways. Some. tasks.. to. improve the quality of. of these applications include,. studying the differences between novices and experts so that predictions of performances. can be modeled, evaluating expert systems, and analyzing skilled performance for identifying training requirements.. development. of. executable. Cognitive task analyses have also been used in the. models. cognitive. a. in. complex. real-time. making and. Additionally, cognitive task analyses are used to study team decision. situation awareness.. was used. to. Embedded. CHI Systems,. Inc. recently. model team decision making Training System (AETS).. domain.. developed a cognitive task analysis that. for an intelligent tutoring system, the. [ZRHC99]. The scope of. the. AETS. Advanced. application. required that the cognitive task analysis and resultant executable cognitive model deal. with the. full. range of individual activity in a ship's combat information center, from. The. high-level strategy to low level keystroke sequences.. showed. significance of this project. the flexibility of a cognitive task analysis in that the expert performance data. was. collected for an entire team and not just an individual expert.. D.. SELECTING A COGNITIVE MODEL AND ELICITATION METHOD There are two key challenges. in. conducting a task analysis:. 1). selecting an. appropriate cognitive representation, and 2) choosing an efficient knowledge elicitation. method. Selecting a cognitive representation. no standard model Oftentimes a model. that. is. is. is. made. difficult. because there. is. currently. universally used in constructing cognitive task analyses.. chosen due to the nature of the task that. Additionally, since the cognitive task analysis process. 15. is. is. being analyzed.. continually refined with every.

(33) model must be able. iteration, the selected. to efficiently. handle the constant updating of. information.. knowledge. In selecting a. One. area of concern. how. to. why. they perform the. perform a. to explain. explain. it.. explicit. just. way. they do. For example,. it. when. know when. a ship. the ship. it. is.". Knowledge. by implicit knowledge. knowledge. For. is far. is. when an. expert ship-handler was asked. enough away from the pier so. that its stern. getting underway, he responded with, "I can't. Another area of concern. in proficient task. is sufficient. this thesis,. elicitation. is. the tendency to emphasize. two. model was selected. methods should describe the function served. performance so that. for proficient performance.. distinct. analysis of pier side ship-handling.. rules). areas as well.. knowledge, yet overlook the contribution made by implicit knowledge and by. perceptual learning.. explicit. many. do not always have the explicit knowledge about how or. how he knows when. I. in. with the experts themselves. Experts have implicit knowledge of. is. task, but they. will not collide with. method, problems arise. elicitation. methods were chosen. A GOMS. it. should not appear that. [KCMC88]. to elicit. and represent the task. (Goals, Operators, Methods, and Selection. to provide the detailed structure for performing the pier side. ship-handling task, which would represent the "science" of pier side ship-handling.. would present a to successfully. logical sequence of procedures that. must be completed. in order for. It. one. perform a standard pier side evolution. The Critical Decision Method. (CDM) [HOFF98] was. used to efficiently. elicit. expert knowledge, since. necessary procedures to conduct comprehensive knowledge elicitation.. it. provided the. In addition,. it. allowed the knowledge elicitor to compile a Critical Cue Inventory (CCI) of the key perceptual cues that were used for the task of pier side ship-handling. Together, the. 16. Cue.

(34) Inventory and. GOMS. notation address the implicit knowledge of the expert ship driver. and represent the "art" of pier side ship-handling. E.. GOMS MODEL Developed. GOMS. is. a useful. as an information processing theory of. method. human -computer. interaction,. for describing a specific task through the specification of the. procedures a user must perform to successfully complete the task. principle that behavior can be described as a. primary goal, or the desired. final state.. officer during pier side evolutions. model using four. [MRTZ95]. Operators, Methods, and Selection Rules.. The Goals. For example,. would be. GOMS. based on the. constructs:. Goals,. represent the user's. the primary goal of a conning. either to get the ship. the pier. Operators represent the actions or subgoals used. is. underway or moor. by the individual. it. to. to achieve the. primary goal. In the case of ship-handling, an operator would be the orders or commands. Methods are. given by the conning officer.. For instance, the method of giving a verbal rudder. designed to accomplish the goal. order to a. helmsman would be. the procedural sequences of operators. to specify the direction the. rudder should be. moved. followed by the amount of rudder angle desired. Finally, Selection Rules are the rules by. which the user chooses. in deciding. available to accomplish the goal.. officer can execute a port turn.. what method. to use. when. For example, there are. However,. if. there are multiple methods. many ways. in. which a conning. the situation required that the ship be turned. around as quickly as possible, the conning officer would then choose the turning method that satisfies the rule for turning the ship quickly, like the. degrees rudder.". 17. method of using a. "left. 30.

(35) Why use GOMS?. 1.. There are one, a. GOMS. many. analysis. make. behavior and. reasons. is. why someone would want. very successful in. its. to use a. It. model.. can also be used to predict not. only the sequence of operators a user will perform, but the also the time. complete the given or. design. task.. Additionally,. focus. ideas,. design. GOMS. effort,. For. produce models of human. ability to. predictions of user performance.. GOMS. it. takes to. analyses can be used to evaluate systems. suggest. redesigns,. and even. structure. user. documentation. [JOHN95]. The. GOMS. approach. is. useful in that. modify. For example, several academic technique in a few lectures to. CS. it. GOMS. is. a very easy concept to leam and. researchers have successfully taught the. undergraduates in introductory. GOMS models are so simple that they can be built by hand,. HCI. classes.. [JOHN95]. or with generic tools such as. spread sheets or word processors. Even though researchers are trying implementation of. GOMS models with sophisticated computational cognitive architectures such as SOAR or COGNET,. its. relative simplicity. and ease of learning were the main reasons. it. was. selected for this thesis.. GOMS. is. also quite flexible.. layout once changes occur,. GOMS. Allowing easy modifications to. version. is. the Keystroke-Level. Newell. The. GOMS),. GOMS. KLM,. structure. and. affords flexibility for the various stages of refinement. during the knowledge elicitation process. different versions of. its. in use. In addition, the fact that there are at least four. today reinforces. its. flexible characteristic.. One. Model (KLM), which was developed by Card, Moran and. a simplified version of the their original. GOMS. formulation. (CMN-. uses keystroke-level operators where the only thing listed in the model are the 18.

(36) keystrokes a user must perform to complete the task.. GOMS. Language. NGOMSL. is. (NGOMSL). Another version. which was proposed by David Kieras.. programming language. similar to a computer. procedures and rules of thumb the operator must use. activity version called the Critical Path. Additionally, there. a. also demonstrate,. What. elicitation. this. family of. to. is. a suitable. GOMS. models. method of representation. Shortfalls of. Despite the. offers is the. this thesis will. knowledge. for various. many. GOMS. uses and flexibility of. does not provide sufficient. results.. problem-solving behavior.. What. One this. GOMS,. area in particular. means. is. few areas. there are a. is. GOMS'. that although. sequence of operators will be for a given task and present. it. it. in. example, a his. GOMS. model may show. may. rudder because he observed the distance between. However, what the. GOMS. model. knowledge the conning. officer. was using. decreasing.. fails to. show. is. it. can predict what the. in a structured. that an expert ship driver. which. inability to predict. manner,. problems explaining what the expert was thinking when accomplishing each. implicit. activities. methods.. 2.. shifting. a parallel-. show how. wide range of cognitive task analysis applications. As. GOMS. is. Method (CPM)-GOMS which was developed by. can be performed in parallel. [JOHN95]. fit. [KIER94]. that provides very detailed. Bonnie John and uses cognitive, perceptual and motor operators. flexibility to. the "Natural". is. it. task.. has. For. take the action of. the. ship. and pier. what perceptual cues or. to determine the. change. in distance.. Therefore, since the task performance of a conning officer conducting pier side ship-. handling evolutions requires perceptual knowledge which. 19. GOMS. does not account. for,.

(37) another knowledge representation technique must be used in conjunction with a. GOMS. model.. GOMS Notation. 3.. So how. are. GOMS. models described? Created. the primary goal, or task to. be modeled. is. in a similar fashion as an outline,. identified first. and positioned on the. first line. of the model. Next, the sub-goals, or operators, of the primary goal are then established.. They represent. the next immediate steps that. must be. satisfied in order for the. primary. goal to be accomplished. These sub-goals are positioned underneath the primary goal in the sequence that they occur during the task.. further into the respective. methods. the hierarchical relationship. dots at the. left. that are. The sub-goals. show. sub-goals and methods, the. its. the depth of the goal stack.. [CARD83]. multiple methods for accomplishing a specific subgoal, a selection rule right of the subgoal to indicate. example of the. CMN-GOMS. why. the user. notation. is. down even. used to accomplish them. In order to represent. between the primary goal and. of each line. are then broken. is. annotated to the. would choose one method over. shown. If there are. the other.. An. in Figure 1.. Adjust_Rate_Of_Swing_Of_Stern Increase_Rate_Of_Swing .if rate determined too slow [select: Increase RPM on port engine .swing direction is stbd .swing direction is port Increase RPM on starboard engine Increase RPM on both engines] .swing dictated by rudder goal: Decrease_Rate_Of_Swing .if rate determined too fast [select: Decrease RPM on port engine .swing direction is stbd Decrease RPM on starboard engine .swing direction is port swing dictated by rudder Decrease amount of rudder being used]. goal:. goal:. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Figure. 2.. .. .. .. Example of CMN-GOMS Notation.. 20.

(38) Depending on. the desired level of detail. needed from the task. Card, Moran, and Newell referred to as the "grain of analysis," the. composed having more or three. model. were. levels. utilized in this thesis: the Unit. Level, and the Detailed Task Level.. Task Level.. Here the primary goal. greatest degree of detail. at the. identified along with. the Unit. By. the three models.. its. GOMS. notation,. immediate sub-goals or. Task Level and represents. like its. further. name, provides the. decomposing the methods. Functional Task Level, the Detailed Task Level begins to. nature of the. show. the sequential. model.. CRITICAL DECISION METHOD The. eliciting. Critical. Decision Method. (CDM) was. used for. this thesis as a. knowledge from expert ship handlers. Originally derived from. Critical Incident. the. among. model can be. Task Level, the Functional Task. The Detailed Task Level, much. the next level of detail.. F.. is. which. level of detail is presented at the Unit. The Functional Task Level decomposes. operators.. used. The lowest. GOMS. CMN-GOMS. In accordance with the. less detail.. analysis,. CDM. guide in. J.C. Flanagan's. Technique [FLAN54], Klein, Calderwood and MacGregor developed. process.. [KCMC89]. critical or. non-routine incident.. elicitation. methods. is that. It. involves having experts recall and retrospect about a. What makes. by continuing. specific events during the incident,. the. CDM. different. to ask the experts. it is. from other knowledge. probing questions concerning. able to progressively uncover. many. perceptual. cues used in the decision-making process.. 1.. Once expert's. CDM Process a specific task or critical incident. knowledge. in three distinct phases.. is. selected, the. The 21. first. CDM technique elicits the. phase establishes the order of.

(39) events or procedures that took place during the task.. This. is. accomplished by allowing. Once. the expert to recall the entire event without being interrupted.. finished,. the. interviewer then. retells. the. story. and. tries. The second phase of. understanding of the incident.. to. the. arrive. CDM. the expert. at. leads. a. is. common a. to. more. comprehensive and "contextually rich account" of the incident. [HOFF98] As the expert goes through the task a second time, the interviewer. which are specific points the outcome.. a third time.. The. third. During. in the incident. phase of the. this. phase the. tries to identify. "decision points,". where the expert makes judgements. that affected. CDM process has the expert go through the event for. elicitor asks the expert a. number of probe. questions in. an attempt to get even more detailed information about the incident. The interviewer also inquires about the informational cues that were used in the initial description throughout.. In addition to the probe questions, the elicitor poses various. identify. "What if questions. to. any inaccuracies, differences between experts and novices, and any alternative. methods. [HOKF98] 2.. Critical. As mentioned a. list. Cue Inventory. earlier,. one of the key benefits of the. of perceptual cues used during the task or. CDM is. critical incident.. its. ability to generate. Since. many. of these. cues are not always considered to be relevant by the expert, they are often not discussed until the final. two phases of the. CDM.. For example, when experts were asked. to first. describe the task of getting a ship underway from a pier, they often failed to mention the. perceptual cues that they used in making an. effects. that. on the. ship.. It. was only. after asking. initial. assessment of the environmental. how he determined. the current of the water. he began to explain his use of visual cues, such as wakes being made by the channel. 22.

(40) buoy, to. make an. assessment.. Table. 1. is. an example of. This example shows a set of cues reported. Critical. by. Cue Inventory: Early Warning Signs. how. medical. a. CCI can be. constructed.. personnel for recognizing. of Cardio-Pulmonary Distress. Cue Category. Description. Skin tone. changes in skin color (skin losing pinkness and becoming blue/grey), especially at extremities. Eyes. glazed, unfocused look; pupils. Skin. cold,. Breathing. may be. clammy. feel:. may be. dilated. sweaty, greasy. rapid, shallow breathing. may show. "air hunger";. struggling to get air into lungs; a crackling, bubbling noise at. Table. Example of. 1.. both inhale and exhale. a Critical. early signs of cardiopulmonary distress.. of. all. of the key. perceptual. cues. Cue. Inventory.. [KCMC88]. The CCI not only provides. utilized during. a comprehensive. list. the task but also provides a tool. in. which cue elements can be associated with other types of similar the. CCI was used. to. supplement the pier side ship-handling. perceptual cues of an expert ship driver.. tasks.. GOMS. For. this thesis,. model with. the. This enables the cognitive task analysis to. examine not only the way the expert performed the. method over another.. 23. task, but. why. he chose a certain.

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(42) TASK OVERVIEW. III.. A.. BASIC SHIP HANDLING FUNDAMENTALS Before presenting an overview of the task of pier side ship-handling,. it. is. imperative that this thesis examines the fundamentals of ship-handling in order to provide a basic foundation for readers unfamiliar with the skills. and theories of ship driving. This. overview will focus on the science aspect of ship-handling by discussing the types of forces that act on a ship and. standard. commands used. how. the ship responds to these forces.. will also discuss the. It. during pier side evolutions as well as those that are involved. with pier side evolutions.. Forces Affecting the Ship. 1.. There are. six general sources of force,. through the water. tackle, the wind,. wind and motion.. They. affect the. are the propellers, the rudders, the. and the current. The. first. movement. mooring. of a ship. lines, the. four are controllable from the ship. ground. The. itself.. the current, though not controllable, can be utilized to manipulate the ship's. Although volumes can be written about each force, the focus here. describe in general terms,. them.. which can. how. these forces affect the ship and. Since pier side ship-handling extensively uses. how. will. be to. a ship responds to. of these forces, a competent. all six. conning officer must thoroughly know and understand them.. A However,. ship's propeller provides the thrust that drives the ship through the water.. it. does not only affect the ship. propeller turns through the water. quite appreciable.. it. [CREN75] The. in the. forward or backward direction.. produces a side force side force,. at. As. the. the stern of the ship which. is. which varies depending on the type of the. ship, represents the direction of rotation of the propeller.. 25. For example, a propeller.

(43) turning. tend to force the stern to. left will. left.. Figure 2 clearly illustrates. how. the side. force affects the stern of the ship. Side forces created by the propeller are very useful to a. conning officer during pier side evolutions because. becomes with. its. ineffective.. very slow speeds the ship's rudder. Therefore, the conning officer has the ability to maneuver a ship. engines and propellers alone.. The needed. at. rudder, located astern of the propeller, provides the primary steering force. to turn the ship.. We actually steer the ship by setting the rudder at various angles. Single Screw Going Ahead. Ahead. Astern. Twin Screw. S ide F o rce B o Figure. swing. will force the. to the left.. A. left. bow. [CREN75]. of the ship to. rudder order will. however, does not work well when the ship speed, oftentimes considered to be. working on the. m. Side Force on a propeller as viewed from astern of the ship. 3.. with respect to the centerline of the ship.. moving ahead,. tto. ship.. This. is. known. 1. move. move is. the. Applying right rudder, when. to the right. bow. by forcing. to the left.. nearly dead in the water.. knot, a rudder. as a ship losing. 26. is. the stern to. This technique,. Below. a certain. unable to overcome the forces. "steerageway.". When. the ship has.

(44) lost. steerageway,. steered. its. heading can no longer be controlled by the rudder alone and must be. by the use of the. propeller.. [CREN75]. 6. PIER. FORWARD. AFTER. BOW. BOW. SPRING. SPRING. Figure. Mooring. FORWARD. AFTER. STERN. QUARTER. QUARTER. LINE. SPRING. SPRING. Standard Mooring Line Configuration. 4.. lines not only provide the. method. in. which a ship. is. moored. to a pier,. but are also used in positioning the ship alongside a pier. Figure 3 illustrates the standard. mooring. line configuration. Larger vessels, such as. used by most navy ships when they are tied up to a. aircraft carriers. configuration, and can use. up. to 12. mooring. of that part of the ship from the pier.. position of the ship with respect to. and amphibious. its. During pier side evolutions, mooring. A. lines.. A. lines are. from a pier but has another ship directly. in front of. swung out away from. on the. pier.. used by the conning officer to work the it is. to get a ship. underway. To. prevent the ship from hitting. bow. spring line to hold the ship's. him.. the pier.. 27. necessary to hold the ship in a. may need. the ship in front, the conning officer could use the after. is. "breast line" controls the distance. "berth," the ship's designated position. For example, a conning officer. position while the stern. ships, utilize a different line. "spring line" controls the forward and aft. ship in against the pier as well as in situations where. particular position.. pier..

(45) Another important force acting on the ship. by blowing on. "sail area," the structure. its. is. the wind.. The wind. affects the ship. above the waterline, and moving the ship. wind can present many problems. downwind. Although. the. also be very useful.. For example, a ship can clear a pier without using. rudder,. ship. by simply taking. away from. in all of. its. mooring. for the. conning. lines if the wind' s direction is. relatively small, if the. wind. motion of the. needed before the additional force from the rudder. overcome is. also. the wind.. made. difficult. is. Additionally, the act of maneuvering a ship under. due to. its. its. A common. rule of. able to efficiently predict. making. its. to current that has. water, affects the ship's. The. wind because. how much. knows. is. is. sufficient to. an affect on the ship.. Current,. body under the water and. the density of the. medium. officers is that. 1. is. is. he should compensate for. that the ship will. is. it.. carries. much. much. larger. greater.. knot of current. the affect of currents, a conning officer. approach to the pier where a current. the conning officer. blowing the. windy conditions. force resulting from a current. thumb used by conning. To overcome. equal to 15 knots of wind.. is. due. directional flow.. than that resulting from. [CREN75]. engines or. constantly changing direction and magnitude.. movement of the. the ship along with. can. very strong, a considerable amount of headway, or forward. Finally, there is the force. defined as the. its. it. However, since the side forces available from the propeller. the pier.. ship, is. officer,. For example,. flowing from right to. is. must be if. a ship. left at 1. knot,. be swept away from the pier by the current.. Therefore, he must compensate for the current by positioning the ship further to the right. of the pier. Until a ship handler fully understands the forces that act on the ship, and. can be controlled, he will have a difficult time maneuvering the ship.. 28. how. they.

(46) Pivot Point. 2.. With a general understanding of area of discussion. how. is. over. is. varies. The. and rudder.. of. moving. between ship types,. own. act. the stern. from side. on the. [NOEL84]. when. ship's pivot point so that he can reference. harbors and pier areas. For instance,. when. As mentioned. the rudder. is. put. Since the location of the pivot point. imperative that the conning officer. it is. ship, the next. to side through the use of. point about which the ship turns. referred to as the pivot point.. position of his. may. the ship reacts to the application of these forces.. earlier, turning the ship is a result. the propeller. of the forces that. all. it. is. familiar with the. while making turns in. a ship departs the pier area and. makes. a turn. out into the channel, the conning officer will not put his rudders over until the pivot point. of the ship. is. beyond. the. head of the. clipping the head of the pier as. it. pier.. If. makes. its. he doesn't do turn.. The. changes depending on the direction of the engines and Normally, when the ship. is. making headway,. length of the ship. If the ship. is. this,. location of the pivot point also. how. the pivot point. the ship sits in the water.. is in. 5.. the forward one-third. making sternway or going backwards, the pivot point can. Pivot Point. Figure. the ship runs the risk of. Pivot Point of a Ship Twisting.. 29.

(47) back as being just forward of the rudders themselves.. shift as far. heavier the ship the farther. aft the. pivot point will be.. Twisting. 2.. During pier side evolutions, confined area.. To accomplish. pivot point with. little. or no. options in twisting the ship.. engines and rudder.. would put. it is. often required to be able to turn the ship in a very. this, the. ship handler tries to "twist" the ship about the. One. option. is to. For example,. in order to twist to the left, the. conning. the rudder over to the left and order a "backing" bell on the port screw. The. on the starboard screw.. slowly to the. about the pivot point of the ship.. drivers. The conning. by using a combination of the. Ships that have twin screws, or propellers, can twist by utilizing. bell. young ship. conning officer has a couple of. twist the ship. and an "ahead" left. A. headway or sternway.. opposing forces of their screws. officer. Additionally, the. how. resulting. An. motion has the ship twist. interesting technique used to teach. to twist ship with multiple screws is called the "bicycle theory.". officer imagines he is holding. mentally turns the handle bars as. if. on. He. to the handle bars of a bicycle.. he were making a. left. turn on the bike.. The. then. resultant. position of his hands on the handle bars represents the direction the ship's engines should. be in order to twist the ship to the ends. in the. left.. In this. example, the conning officer's. back position so the port engine should be order "back.". left. hand. His right hand. is. forward, so the starboard engine should be ordered "ahead." Ships that only have one screw, such as frigates, twist with the assistance of their auxiliary. which are small, rotating thrusters located underneath the bow.. 30. power. units. (APUs).

(48) Commands. Standard. 3.. In conducting pier side evolutions,. only. know. all. it. imperative that the conning officer not. is. of his standard engine and rudder orders (see Appendix A), but he must. also be fluent in the. commands used. exclusively for mooring to or getting underway from. a pier. Like standard rudder and engine. line. to line handling stations. In order to prevent confusion, each order given by the. are given in a specific sequence.. conning officer to the. commands, orders given. handling stations should be succinct, clear, and consistent.. Because misunderstanding or ambiguity can quickly lead be no possibility of an order being misinterpreted. the. men. at. to disaster, there. A. [NORR98]. list. of orders given to. the line stations appears in Table 2, with explanations of each.. SEND THE LINES OVER:. Pass the lines to the pier, place the eye. over the appropriate bollard, but take no. TAKE A STRAIN ON ONE: SLACK ONE:. Take. all. Put. line. number one under. tension off of line and let. TAKE LINE _ TO THE CAPSTAN:. it. hang. strain.. tension.. slack.. Lead end of line the capstan, take slack. out of line, but take no strain.. HEAVE AROUND ON LINE: AVAST HEAVING:. CHECK LINE:. Apply tension on. line with capstan.. Stop the capstan.. Hold heavy tension on. line but ease out to prevent parting. of. the line.. SINGLE UP: Take. in all bights. part of each of the. DOUBLE UP:. and extra. line so there. normal mooring. Pass an additional bight on. all. remains only a single. lines.. mooring. lines so that there are. three parts of each line to the pier.. TAKE IN ALL LINES: Table. 2.. have the ends of. all lines. cast off. from the. pier.. Standard Orders to Line Handling Stations.. 31. must.

(49) 4.. Pilots. and Tug Boats. Most harbors and naval shipyards have harbor pilot must. move. in ship-handling, is. the ship's. all. ships. when within. certain defined waters.. commanding. officer. and bridge team. handling characteristics.. officer,. who. Therefore,. in pier side evolutions.. and the habits of the. years of ship driving experience, the pilot. conning. The. pilot, a. master. very familiar with the local channel conditions, provides assistance to. entire harbor ranges, the landmarks,. many. regulations that require that a licensed. is. it. He knows. local shipping.. the. Despite the. not necessarily an expert on the ship's. is. imperative that the. commanding. are familiar with the ship's characteristics,. officer. and. work together with. the. pilot during pier side evolutions.. The companion of the. pilot is the tug.. getting ships in and out of tight places.. Designed. combination of its engines, rudders, and. Figure. 6.. [CREN75] Tug to. lines, a tug. Example of berthing a. 32. boats are used to assist in. be able to push or pull through the can produce a force in almost any. ship with a single tug..

(50) desired direction.. The. pilot,. berths.. larger ships that are unable to. in the pier area, tugs also aid smaller ships in getting into. Normally secured. movement of. passes intructions to the tugs via a hand held radio,. Used exclusively by. usually controls the tugs.. by themselves. who. the ship's. extremely tight. forward portion of smaller ships, tugs help control the. to the. bow. maneuver. as well as keep the ship. from. hitting other objects. when. entering or leaving the berth area.. 5.. Restricted Maneuvering. During. critical. required that. all. ship-handling evolutions, such as mooring to a pier, the. ships follow specific procedures in order for. any type of casualty. Maneuvering Doctrine, machinery. critical to. prior to getting. that. may. occur.. unit,. it. However, during a. maneuver due. These procedures, known. as the Restricted. it. available.. For example,. port, all available engines, generators,. restricted. maneuvering. if. a ship. and steering. were. situation, if a casualty. machinery allows stand-by units. to lose an. maneuvering. does occur,. to. be automatically shifted. is. restricted in its ability to. units.. situation exists. when. a ship. to being very close to shoal water or other ships.. imperative that the ship be able to maintain control of otherwise,. made. all. take several minutes to get a back-up unit running and. over to cover the loss of the primary restricted. respond quickly to. Under normal steaming operations,. may. the configuration of critical. A. has. to. propulsion and steering online and. underway or entering. engine or steering. them. Navy. specifies a certain engineering plant configuration that places. units are put into operation.. operational.. and Emergency Responses. its. During. this situation. propulsion and steering units,. runs the risk of colliding with another ship or running aground.. Restricted Maneuvering Doctrine also requires additional stations to be. 33. it is. manned. The. that are.

(51) normally not manned during standard operations.. maneuvering. situations, a qualified. after steering. room. steering. is lost. For example, during restricted. helmsman and conning. to provide an alternate. means of. officer are stationed in the. controlling the rudders in the event. on the bridge.. Although casualties rarely happen during these evolutions, the conning officer. must be prepared. to handle. them. in the. event they do. The following. or emergencies that are specific to pier side evolutions and. conning •. may. is. a. list. of casualties. be encountered by the. officer.. Loss of steering:. A. condition in which the. helmsman. This casualty. control the ship with the rudder.. is. loses his ability to. usually indicated. alarm on the helm console sounding off and the indicator unit in operation flashing on. and. light to the steering. Another indication. off.. by an. is that. the rudder. does not respond to the action of the wheel being turned by the helmsman.. The response of steering unit.. the conning officer. If the. after steering station. rudder.. rudder. still. is to. immediately. shift to the stand. does not respond, an alarm. where the personnel immediately take. If after steering is still. officer can use the engines. is. sounded. by. in the. local control of the. unable to control the rudder, the conning. and assisting tugboat to maintain the ship's. position while the mechanics fix the problem.. However,. if. it. appears that the. ship begins to drift towards other ships or shoal water, the conning officer can. let. •. go of the anchor. to. keep the ship from drifting into a hazard.. Loss of propulsion: Caused by the ship. is. loss of the engines.. Since the speed of the. very slow during pier side evolutions, the only indication that the. 34.

(52) conning officer may have. Watch (EOOW). is. reporting the casualty.. the rudder the ship will rapidly lose. option the conning officer has position or. •. let. from the Engineering Officer of the. the call. is. its. In addition, with. steering capability. Therefore, the only. to use the assisting tug to hold the ship's. go the anchor.. Loss of gyrocompass repeater: Caused by the most. common. no water flow over. loss of the. gyrocompass. The. indication to the conning officer will be that the. alarm will sound on the bridge.. gyrocompass repeater. will not. Other indications might be that the. move. with the changes in the ship's direction. or begins to spin wildly out of control. Although this. is. the primary. monitoring the ship's heading, the conning officer must. magnetic compass, which. is. gyrocompass. means. for. shift to using the. normally located next to the gyrocompass. repeater.. B.. PIER SIDE HANDLING OVERVIEW Pier side ship-handling. performed by a conning. is. officer.. one of the most basic, yet extremely It is. also one of the. critical,. most rewarding evolutions. For. conning officer can smartly and safely accomplish a pier side evolution, to his peers. how good. evolutions. of a ship driver he or she really. is.. it. if. demonstrates. Successfully accomplishing this. evolution, however, takes planning, advance preparation, training, and the. teamwork of. everyone involved.. [DODG81]. sufficiently trained to. be able to successfully conduct pier side ship-handling evolutions.. Therefore,. a. conning officers must be prepared and. Getting a ship underway from a pier and mooring a ship to a pier. make up. the. two. fundamental components of pier side ship-handling. Since navy ships cannot stay. 35.

(53) underway repairs. Unlike. forever, they. must periodically return. and supplies, as well as allow sea. special. evolutions. their. such. as. to port so that they. crews to receive some. can receive needed rest. and. underway replenishments or plane guard. assignments to aircraft carriers, which don't always take place when a ship side evolutions. relaxation.. happen every time a ship enters and leaves. is at sea,. pier. port.. Pier side evolutions are very complex in that they require the ship-handler to be. very knowledgeable in vessel. many. areas including the ship-handling characteristics of the. and the effects the environment impose on the. ship.. The conning. officer. must. fully. understand the general principles involved with pier side ship-handling to be successful. Additionally, he. must be able. anticipate. to. what action must be taken next and. immediately recognize when something appears incorrect.. 1.. Getting Underway from a Pier. Getting underway from a pier. This. is. because unless there. takes very. little. effort to. is. underway. Typically, the. is. usually the easier of the two pier side evolutions.. a current or. maneuver. presence of wind or currents can ship safely. is. wind forcing. the ship out. make. up against the. the pier.. more challenging,. pier,. it. Although the. the steps to get a. are very straight forward.. first. departments have a check the. away from. this evolution. step in getting. underway from a pier. ready to go to sea. This preparation phase. get. the ship. list. ship ready for sea.. is. is. to ensure that the ship. very comprehensive. Each of the ship's. that outlines, in detail, everything they are required to. For example, the engineering department. is. responsible for getting the ship's propulsion and steering systems ready, but. charge of disconnecting and removing. all. do. to. not only. is. also in. of the shore services, such as water, electricity,. 36.

(54) and sewage. lines,. which. are. needed by the ship while. it. underway. usually started at least 48 to 72 hours prior to the scheduled. department completes. its. check. executive officer and informs. the respective department. list,. him. that the. department. Generally, an hour before the ship. ordered to. man. to get the ship. their sea. and anchor. head reports. which represent the watch. as. all. of the stations have. station reports to the officer of the. Once a. to the ship's. all. is. stations required. underway. The stations include the bridge watch team, the. As soon. are. ready to get underway.. the engineering watch team, and those standing watch in the. (CIC).. time.. lists. scheduled to get underway, the crew. is. stations,. is. The check. inport.. is. line handlers,. combat information center. of the required personnel present, each. deck (OOD) on the bridge. that they are. manned and. ready.. On is. the bridge the. OOD. maintains the ship's official check. list. and ensures. complete before reporting to the commanding officer that the ship. underway. With the underway check tugboats,. if. Next, the. commanding. CO,. After doing so, the. officer. it. ready to get. complete, the harbor pilot on the bridge and the. list. needed, standing by, the ship. is. that. is. now. ready to get underway from the. (CO) gives permission. the conning officer,. and the harbor. to get the ship. pilot,. pier.. underway.. an expert on ship-. handling and local harbor characteristics, position themselves on the ship's bridge wing that faces the pier the ship is. moored. order to "single up. which means. all lines,". to.. The. CO. tells the. to take in all bights. remains only a single part of each of the normal mooring. by visually checking. conning officer to give the. lines.. and extra. lines so there. [DODG81] At. this point,. the tension in the lines, the conning officer is be able to observe. the environmentals are having any effect on the ship.. 37. If the. lines. become. slack,. if. it.

(55) indicates that the ship. current.. being "set on" or pushed against the pier by the wind and/or. If the tension increases. away from is. is. the pier.. on the. lines,. then the ship. The absence of any noticeable change. no considerable wind or current acting on the. ship.. is. being "set off or pushed. in the lines indicates that there. Depending on which. situation. occurs, the conning officer will apply the appropriate strategy needed to get the ship. safely clear of the pier.. situation, for this thesis,. And it is. although there are numerous strategies for each type of. assumed. that there is. no. effect. on the ship by the wind or. current.. Therefore, with no noticeable environmental effect on the ship, the next step. tie. up a tug on the bow, take. away from its. the pier.. engines.. By. As. doing. its. stern out. the stern slowly swings out, the tug is ordered to back. down on. away from. Once. in all lines,. this, the. from swinging back into the out. and use the ship's engines to swing. is to. bow. pier.. moved. is. out. away from. the pier, thus preventing. These two actions enable the ship. to. it. be maneuvered. the pier in a parallel fashion.. clear of the pier, the ship. the direction of the channel.. During. is. then maneuvered so that the. this time, the. bow. is. pointed into. conning officer monitors the ship's. position in relation to the pier and neighboring vessels, and takes every measure to. prevent any risk of collision with them. Finally, with the ship safely clear of the pier area, the tug boat. pilot is not. needed for the remaining harbor. to assist other vessels. transit,. is. cast off.. If the. he disembarks onto the tug and leaves. needing his services. The ship, meanwhile, continues to maneuver. out into the channel and prepares to transit the harbor channel and head out into the open ocean.. 38.

(56) Mooring. 2.. The more The reason why. to a Pier. difficult evolution of pier side ship-handling is. is that it. momentum. thesis, a ship's inability to. The biggest challenge. As. through the water.. respond quickly,. slow speeds and. in. Unlike parking a. car, the ship driver. it. its. is. being able to. be discussed. will. engine and rudder orders. very. maneuverability alongside a. pier.. cannot just put on the brakes and stop the ship.. come. to a. It. complete stop. For instance, the distance. takes an aircraft carrier, doing 20 knots, to stop dead in the water. is. over 1,000 yards.. Therefore, the conning officer must be able to stop the ship in time so that collide with the pier, while at the. later in this. at. if at all, to. shallow water, greatly reduces. takes a great deal of time for a ship to. it. to a pier.. presents the conning officer with several challenges that are not. encountered when getting the ship underway. control the ship's. mooring a ship. same time maneuver. it. it. does not. into the correct. mooring. positions.. Similar to getting a ship underway from a pier, the procedures for mooring to a pier are very straight forward.. complete. all. The. step,. first. as. it. is. with getting underway,. the special sea and anchor detail stations.. from the harbor control. make. station. and manning up. and the consent of the commanding. familiarity of the channel, the ship will pick. channel or right after transiting the channel earlier, the. lists. purpose of the. all. of. Only when the ship has received permission. the inbound transit of the channel.. mentioned. to. of the preparatory procedures prior to the ship arriving to the entrance of the. harbor channel, such as completing the "entering port" check. to. is. Depending on the up the harbor. when. the ship. officer, will. begin. ship's bridge team's. pilot at the entrance of the. is. entering the pier area.. pilot is to assist the ship's bridge. 39. it. team. As. in navigating.

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