Professional School Counselors and Relational Aggression: Training, Perceptions, Barriers, and Interventions

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University of New Orleans University of New Orleans

ScholarWorks@UNO

University of New Orleans Theses and

Dissertations Dissertations and Theses

Spring 5-16-2014

Professional School Counselors and Relational Aggression:

Training, Perceptions, Barriers, and Interventions

Catherine G. McDermott

University of New Orleans, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation

McDermott, Catherine G., "Professional School Counselors and Relational Aggression: Training, Perceptions, Barriers, and Interventions" (2014). University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations. 1824.

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Professional School Counselors and Relational Aggression: Training, Perceptions, Barriers, and Interventions

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of New Orleans in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy in

Counselor Education

By

Catherine Geoghegan McDermott

B.A. Samford University, 2006

M.S. Loyola University of New Orleans, 2009

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DEDICATION

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To Bryan. Thank you for all the times you listened to me complain, fed, bathed, and put the baby to sleep when I was at class, supported my decision to get my doctorate, and never let me give up. You are my rock. And to June, you are the coolest little girl I’ve ever met. I love you!

To my mom—Gigi, thank you for filling in the holes and making it possible for me to get to class on time. Thank you for watching June so I could work on my dissertation, and seeing me through all these life changes. And to the rest of my family, Dad, Sara Beth, Eddie, and David thank you for your support and belief in me.

To Kellie. I would not, could not have done this without you. Thank you for never letting me give up, for reminding me of deadlines, for setting an example, and for pushing me to be a better student. I’m so lucky that I got to go through this with you!

To Dr. Watson, thank you for your thoughtful help through the process of writing my dissertation and your belief in the importance of this subject. I am grateful for your presence on my committee.

To Dr. Ebrhaim, thank you for seeing potential in me and encouraging me to do

something I didn’t think I could. Thank you for listening to me, helping me walk through grad school, my professional life, and this dissertation.

To Dr. Bonis, thank you for serving as my methodologist. It meant so much to me that you didn’t mind me bringing June to meetings, especially when she tore your office apart. And thank you for your thoughtful feedback and help throughout the process.

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Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLES ... viii

ABSTRACT ...x

CHAPTER ONE ...1

INTRODUCTION ...1

Background ...1

The Professional School Counselor and School Counseling ...3

Purpose of the Study ...6

Significance of the Study ...7

Research Questions ...7

Assumptions of the Study ...8

Limitations and Delimitations of Study ...9

Definition of Terms...9

CHAPTER TWO ...13

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...13

Relational Aggression ...14

A History of Relational Aggression Research ...14

Relational Aggression Defined ...15

Multicultural Aspects of Relational Aggression ...17

Gender ...17

Popularity Status ...18

Culture/Ethnicity ...19

Developmental Issues ...20

Relational Aggression as a Social Justice Issue ...21

Effects of Relational Aggression Victimization ...22

Effects of Relational Aggression Bullying ...23

Effects of Relational Aggression Bullying/Victimization ...24

The School Counseling Profession ...25

School Counseling History ...25

The Role of the Professional School Counselor ...26

Leadership ...27

Advocacy ...27

Collaboration...29

Systematic Change ...29

School Counselor Perceptions of Relational Aggression ...30

School Counselor Training ...32

School Counselor Graduate Education ...32

Continuing Education ...34

Relational Aggression Barriers and Interventions ...34

Barriers to Relational Aggression Intervention ...35

Relational Aggression Interventions ...36

Ethical Considerations ...39

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CHAPTER THREE ...43

METHODOLOGY ...43

Survey Design ...43

Variables ...44

Research Questions ...44

Participants ...45

Characteristics of the Sample...45

Instrument Development ...58

Expert Panel ...62

Data Collection Procedures...64

Data Analysis ...66

CHAPTER FOUR ...70

RESULTS ...70

Survey Design ...70

Instrumentation ...70

Analysis of the Research Questions ...70

Research Question 1 ...71

Additional Comments ...108

Summary of Findings ...110

CHAPTER FIVE ...116

DISCUSSION ...116

Overview of the Study ...116

Discussion of Findings ...116

RA as a Problem with Serious Consequences ...116

Differences by Training, Gender, and School Type ...118

Training ...118

Gender ...119

School Type ...120

School Level ...121

Barriers to RA Identification and Intervention ...122

Interventions for RA ...123

Limitations ...126

Implications for the Study ...126

Professional School Counselors ...126

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Counselor Educators ...127

Recommendations for Future Research ...127

Conclusion ...130

REFERENCES ...131

APPENDIX A: School Counselor Perceptions of Relational Aggression...142

APPENDIX B: First Electronic Letter ...156

APPENDIX C: Second Electronic Letter ...158

APPENDIX D: Final Electronic Letter...160

APPENDIX E: IRB Approval Letter ...163

APPENDIX F: List of Other Certifications and Licenses ...165

APPENDIX G: List of Other Professional Affiliations ...168

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List of Tables

Table 1 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Gender and Ethnicity ...48

Table 2 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Year Graduated ...49

Table 3 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Years as a PSC ...50

Table 4 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Highest Degree Earned ...51

Table 5 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Current Certifications and Licenses ... ...52

Table 6 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Professional Affiliations ...53

Table 7 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Grade Level...54

Table 8 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Type of School ...55

Table 9 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by Number of Students ...55

Table 10 Frequency Distribution of Respondents by State ...57

Table 11 Instrument Development- School Counselor Perceptions of Relational Aggression ...61

Table 12 Frequency Distribution of Respondents for SCPRA Items 18-21...73

Table 13 Means and Standard Deviations for SCPRA Items 18-21...74

Table 14 Frequency Distributions for SCPRA Items 23 and 24 ...75

Table 15 Means and Standard Deviations for SCPRA Items 23 and 24 ...75

Table 16 Frequency Distribution for SCPRA Item 25 ...76

Table 17 Means and Standard Deviations for SCPRA Items 12 and 13 ...78

Table 19 Spearman Correlations Matrix for SCPRA Items 18-21 with Items 12-17...81

Table 20 Spearman Correlations for Gender with SCPRA Items 18-22 ...81

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Table 22 Kruskal-Wallis Test Ranks for SCPRA Item 18 ...85

Table 23 Spearman Correlations for SCPRA Item 8 with Items 18-21 ...87

Table 24 Frequency Distributions for SCPRA Items 15-17 ...89

Table 27 Model 1 Significant Barriers...93

Table 28 Model 3 Significant Barriers...94

Table 30 Model 1 Significant Interventions ...102

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Abstract

Relational aggression (RA) is a type of bullying in which the relationship is used as the

agent of harm (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). RA behaviors are intended to impair or ruin

reputations, friendships, and feelings of inclusion in a peer group (Putallaz et al., 2007).

Professional School Counselors (PSCs) are charged to be social justice advocates for students;

RA is a social justice issue because the effects of RA bullying, victimization, and

bullying/victimization lead to poor academic achievement. Recent literature suggests that PSCs

do not perceive the effects of RA to be as serious as the effects of physical and verbal bullying;

however, training can increase RA sensitivity and willingness to intervene (Jacobsen & Bauman,

2007). No studies have explored PSC training, PSC perceptions regarding RA, PSC perceived

barriers to RA intervention, and PSC intervention strategies.

The purpose of this study was to examine PSC training for RA, PSC perceptions of RA

as an issue with serious consequences for students, PSC perceived barriers to RA care, and the

interventions PSCs currently use for RA. This study also examined if sex differences, grade

level with which PSC worked, and school type in which PSC worked existed in PSC perceptions

of RA as an issue with serious consequences for students. A substantial amount of PSCs

surveyed strongly agreed (24.5%), agreed (39.8%) and somewhat agreed (26.8%; a cumulative

of 91.2% of participants) that RA was an issue with serious consequences for students with

whom they work. RA was recognized by PSCs as an issue with serious consequences for

students with no significant differences by training, gender, and school type at which the PSC

worked. Significant differences were found by school level with which the PSC worked.

Several barriers to RA care were identified including lack of time, parents, issues with students

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interventions were identified including individual counseling with the victim and/or bully, using

outside resources, group counseling, and focusing on school wide bullying interventions.

Implications for PSC practice and training were given in addition to implications for

future research.

Keywords: relational aggression, bullying, relational aggression intervention, barriers to

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, an overview of the study is presented. Relational aggression (RA), the

professional school counselor (PSC) and the school counseling profession, barriers to RA

intervention, and RA interventions are discussed. The purpose and significance of the study are

presented, as well as research questions, assumptions of the study, and delimitations of the study.

The chapter ends with a list of terms that have been defined.

Background

Bullying and bullying intervention have become relevant topics in schools and in the

media in recent years, partially due to a series of bully-related adolescent suicides (Bullying

Statistics, 2009). Suicide is the third leading cause of death for adolescents between the ages of

10 and 24, with 4,600 deaths each year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012).

Participation in bullying activities has been found to increase the risk of suicidal ideation and/or

behaviors in adolescents (Kim & Leventhal, 2008). Beyond the risk of suicide, “depression,

anxiety, substance abuse, trouble with the law, poor performance in school and work, and lack of

involvement in socially accepted activities” (Austin, Reynolds, & Barnes, 2012 p. 288) are some

of the other issues that result from bullying. Up to 160,000 students stay home on any school

day due to fear of being bullied (Austin et al., 2012). As a result, strict anti-bullying policies

have been created in schools, and legislation that directly addresses bullying has been passed in

at least 45 states (Austin et al., 2012; Walker, 2010).

According to Mason (2013), bullying is defined as unwanted, aggressive behavior among

school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance where a child who bullies

intends to cause fear, distress, and/or harm to the victim’s body, feelings, self-esteem, or

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aggression (RA) is a type of bullying in which the relationship is used as the agent of harm.

Crick and Grotpeter (1996) defined RA as “harming others through purposeful manipulation and

damage of their peer relationships” (p. 711). Relationally aggressive behaviors are intended to

impair or ruin reputations, friendships, and feelings of inclusion in a peer group (Putallaz et al.,

2007). Relational victimization occurs when a student is bullied through relational means

(Crick, 1996).

It is impossible to know exactly how many students RA affects because secrecy is a

hallmark of RA. In 2011, the U.S. Department of Education conducted a study of 11,561

students in the third through eighth grades in Oregon schools regarding relational and overt

aggression; the researchers found that between 41.4% and 48.1% of girls and 30.6% and 41.7%

of boys reported experiencing relational victimization (Nishioka, Coe, Burke, Hanita, & Sprague,

2011). Additionally, between 20.7% and 27.9% of girls, and 20.3% and 24.2% of boys reported

engaging in RA bullying behaviors (Nishioka et al., 2011). O’Brennan, Bradshaw, and Sawyer

(2009) found that 41% of students surveyed in their study were frequently involved in bullying:

23% as victims, 8% as bullies, and 9% as bullies who also victimized others (bully/victims).

RA in the school is an issue of social justice because the harm experienced by RA bullies,

victims, and bully/victims may create barriers to academic, personal/social, and ultimately career

success (ASCA, 2012; Crick, 1996; Goldstein, Young, & Boyd, 2008; O’Brennan et al., 2009).

RA victims have reported experiencing depression, loneliness, social anxiety, peer rejection, low

self-esteem, and intense anger or retaliatory feelings as a result of aversive RA experiences

(Crick, 1996; Crick & Bigbee, 1998; Putallaz et al., 2007; Rose & Swenson, 2009; Yoon, Barton,

& Taiariol, 2004). RA bullies were found to be disliked more by peers, have issues with

externalization, lack prosocial behaviors, have high levels of depressions, use substances, and

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Esposito, & Affuso, 2009; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Goldstein et al., 2008; Prinstein, Boegers, &

Vernberg, 2001; Yoon et al., 2004). RA bully/victims experience both the negative effects of

being the bully and the negative effects of being the victim (O’Brennan et al., 2009), reporting

high levels of depression and anxiety; they have difficulty coping when other peers are

aggressive because of their lack of interpersonal resources (O’Brennan et al., 2009). RA bullies,

victims, and bully/victims all perceive the school environment to be unsafe and they disengage

from school, which leads to poor academic achievement (Buhs, Ladd, & Herald, 2006;

Goldstein, et al., 2008; O’Brennan et al., 2009).

Researchers have advised that the development of different coping skills in victims,

bullies, and bully/victims could help break the cycle of RA. Crick and Bigbee (1998) suggested

that “peer victims may need help coping with difficult feelings, making friends among their

peers, and changing some of the ways that they interact with their peers (e.g., becoming more

assertive or changing their own reactions to peers so that they do not reward aggressors and

invite future attacks” (p. 346). Putallaz et al. (2007) proposed that students involved with RA

work on improving conflict resolution, prosocial skills, and inclusive behaviors.

The Professional School Counselor and School Counseling

The PSC is the most appropriate school professional to help RA bullies, victims, and

bully/victims. The focus of school counseling, according to the American School Counselor

Association (ASCA), is to remove barriers to student academic achievement (ASCA, 2012c).

Dahir (2009) reported that “Twenty-first-century school counselors are social justice advocates

who ensure that academic, career, and interpersonal success is woven into the fabric of education

for every student” (p. 87). Therefore, the PSC has both a preventative and responsive role with

students, especially in regards to RA (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). The school setting is an ideal

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harassment and victimization” (Walker, 2010, p. 598). Unfortunately, very little literature exists

to describe PSCs’ perceptions about RA, PSC training for RA, barriers to RA intervention, and

RA interventions.

Jacobsen and Bauman’s (2007) study represents one of the few studies that examined

PSC perceptions towards RA severity. PSCs in the study reported perceiving physical and

verbal bullying was more severe than RA bullying (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). PSCs also

reported feeling more empathy towards victims of physical and verbal bullying than towards

victims of relational bullying (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). Many PSCs recommended stronger

interventions for physical and verbal bullying than for RA (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007).

Jacobsen and Bauman (2007) also took into account RA training and found that RA training was

positively associated with increased RA sensitivity in PSCs. Based on their findings, the

researchers proposed that RA training in graduate school and continuing education

post-graduation could increase PSC sensitivity towards RA victimization (Jacobsen & Bauman,

2007).

An essential element to PSC success in responding effectively to RA is graduate

education. Paisley (1999) suggested that PSCs are not adequately prepared to meet the

educational needs of today’s youth (as cited in Coker & Schrader, 2004). Bemak (2000)

proposed that current training has resulted in “school counselors who are frequently out-of-step

with current educational policies and practices, and essentially unprepared for the rigors of

today’s schools.” Coker and Schrader (2004) asserted that school counselors are not learning

skills of coordination, collaboration, evaluation, and advocacy in the classroom or field

experience. Jacobsen and Bauman (2007) warned that, without “bullying prevention and

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deal with all forms of bullying. Jacobsen and Bauman (2007) explained that the RA training

school counselors “are currently receiving is not having the optimal effects” (p. 7).

Even when PSCs are well trained to deal with RA and bullying, they still encounter

significant barriers to job efficacy, as well as obstacles to relational aggression intervention.

Some of the major barriers school counselors experience include the lack of training, time to

work with students, support from administration and faculty, resources, supervision, and space

(Ebrahim, Steen, & Paradise, 2012). Some other identified barriers included differing

administration priorities such as the push for PSCs to perform interventions with measurable

behavior outcomes and to primarily focus on academics (Ebrahim et al., 2012). Additionally, the

student to PSC ratio, competing with teachers for time to see students, and rocky relationships

with administration are also potential barriers to RA intervention (Brown & Trusty, 2005).

Interventions for RA are abundant in the literature. Interventions include supporting RA

victims through comforting, encouraging, and helping to identify and develop positive coping

techniques (Putallaz et al., 2007). PSCs can also discuss conflict management and better ways to

deal with aggression with RA bullies (Putallaz et al., 2007). Informing the parents or caregivers

of both victims and bullies in addition to the school authorities can help to end the cycle of RA

(Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). Also, collaboration with parents/caregivers, teachers, and

administration at the school to address specific issues of RA and bullying can be effective (Crick

& Bigbee, 1998; Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). In order to deal with bullying on a school wide

level, many researchers advocate the creation of a bullying task force that includes students,

parents, administration, teachers, and other community stakeholders (Austin et al., 2012).

Educating students, parents, and teachers about RA identification and intervention is also an

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school counselors are called to advocate for victims of RA at the legislative level (ASCA,

2012b).

According to Remley and Herlihy (2014), school counselors are ethically bound to

prevent bullying of any kind. The preamble to the ASCA code of ethics explicitly states, “Each

person has the right to feel safe in school environments that school counselor help create, free

from abuse, bullying, neglect, harassment or other forms of violence” (ASCA, 2010). The

American School Counselor Association (ASCA) code of ethics calls for PSCs to support the

best interests of students and work against factors that may interfere with student achievement

(ASCA, 2010). Dahir (2009) proposed “when school counselors embrace the ethical and moral

obligation to reduce and eliminate the institutional and/or social barriers that may stand in the

way of every student’s academic, career, or personal-social development…they advance the

moral dimensions of school to include a strong social justice agenda to ‘close the gap’”(p. 4).

Purpose of the Study

The primary purpose of this study was to examine professional school counselors’ (PSC)

training for relational aggression (RA), PSC perceptions of RA as a problem with serious

consequences for students, the barriers that PSCs encounter in dealing with RA, and the methods

they use to intervene in RA. A second purpose was to determine how school counselor gender,

school level (elementary, middle, secondary/high school, and K-12), and school type (private,

public, faith-based, charter, and other) are related to PSC perceptions of the problem. To gather

data, I surveyed PSCs who are members of ASCA to assess their training and preparedness to

deal with RA, beliefs regarding RA, perceived barriers to relational aggression intervention, and

intervention strategies.

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There is a breadth of literature and research available on bullying and relational

aggression among students; however, the current research and literature offers very little about

school counselors and their relational aggression beliefs and training (Jacobsen & Bauman,

2007). The results of this exploratory study helped to establish a baseline of information

regarding PSC beliefs about relational aggression, training and preparedness for dealing with

RA, barriers to intervention, and intervention strategies.

Students are being bullied through RA and would benefit from help. School counselors

can provide that help if they are trained to identify and intervene effectively. The results of this

study help to identify the extent to which school counselors believe they are trained in relational

aggression and resulted in suggestions for counselor educators of school counseling students.

This study also helped to identify PSCs’ perception of the seriousness of RA consequences, and

resulted in suggestions for counselor educators of school counseling students as well as PSCs

who may present at conferences. The results of this study helped to identify PSC perceived

barriers to RA intervention, which may result in PSC advocacy for barrier removal. Finally, this

study helped to identify interventions PSCs most commonly use to deal with RA.

Research Questions

This research questions for the study are:

1. To what extent do professional school counselors (PSCs) believe that relational

aggression (RA) is a problem with serious consequences for students?

2. What do PSCs perceive to be their role in dealing with RA?

3. How frequently do PSCs encounter instances of RA in their work?

4. Is there a significant relationship between school counselors’ training (courses with RA

content, workshops/institutes) and their perceptions of the seriousness of consequences of

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5. Are there significant differences between male and female PSCs in their perceptions of

the seriousness of consequences of relational aggression?

6. Are there significant differences by school level (elementary, middle, secondary/high

school, and K-12) in PSCs’ perceptions of the seriousness of consequences of relational

aggression?

7. Are there significant differences by school type (private, public, faith based, charter, and

other) in PSCs’ perceptions of the seriousness of consequences of relational aggression?

8. To what extent do PSCs perceive themselves as being prepared to deal with instances of

RA?

9. What barriers to relational aggression intervention do PSCs experience?

10.What interventions do PSCs use in responding to relational aggression?

Assumptions of the Study

It was assumed that the instrument, the School Counselor Perceptions of Relational

Aggression [SCPRA] was valid and accurately measured PSCs’ beliefs about RA as a problem

with serious consequences for students, barriers to intervening in RA, and methods for RA

counseling interventions. Additionally, it was assumed that the PSC participants answered

survey questions honestly, candidly and willingly. A final assumption was that the sample was

representative of the population of ASCA members.

Limitations and Delimitations of the Study

Limitations and delimitations applied to this study. A potential limitation was that the

SCPRA, due to its construction, did not adequately or accurately measure PSC perceptions of the

seriousness of the consequences of RA, PSC training regarding RA, PSC perceived barriers to

RA, or interventions used for RA. Additionally, data from the SCPRA rely on the responses of

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may not be representative of all PSCs because the survey may only have been answered by PSCs

who were interested in and had professional experience with RA; PSCs who were not interested

in and did not have much professional experience with RA could have been underrepresented.

This study was delimited to ASCA members. ASCA’s membership is over 31,000

school counselors; however, 105,000 school counselors were employed in the 2010-2011 school

year (ASCA, 2012e); therefore, ASCA members are not inclusive of the entire population of

school counselors. Ultimately, this study is generalizable only to PSCs who are members of

ASCA.

Definitions of Terms

Aggression: A goal oriented sequence of behaviors that intend to inflict pain (Feshbach, 1969).

American Counseling Association: A non-profit, educational, and professional organization

whose focus is to enhance on counselor growth and the counseling profession (American

Counseling Association, 2013).

American School Counselor Association (ASCA): The school counseling division of ACA,

which is made up of more than 31,000 professionals. ASCA provides professional development

opportunities to its members, attempts to define and enhance school counseling programs, and

researchers school counseling practice (ASCA, 2012a).

Bullying: Bullying is unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a

real or perceived power imbalance where a child who bullies intends to cause fear, distress,

and/or harm to the victim’s body, feelings, self-esteem, or reputation. The behavior is repeated,

or has the potential to be repeated, over time (Mason, 2013).

Charter School: A public school that is autonomous that was “created by a contract between a

sponsor, as a local school district or corporation, and an organizer, as a group of teachers or a

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Counseling: The collaborative effort between a counselor and client wherein the counselor uses

mental health, human development, and psychological principals to define client goals, discuss

potential solutions to emotionally charged problems; communication, coping skills, and self

esteem are potentially improved, and an overall attempt to promote behavior changes is made

(American Counseling Association, 2013).

Counsel for the Accreditation of Counseling Related and Educational Programs

(CACREP): An independent agency that provides accreditation for masters degree programs in

addiction counseling, career counseling, clinical mental health counseling, marriage, couple, and

family counseling, school counseling, and student affairs and college counseling. CACREP also

provides accreditation for doctoral programs in counselor education and supervision (Council for

the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs, 2013).

High School: School grades 9 through 12.

K-12: School grades Kindergarten through 12.

Lower Elementary: Grades consisting of Pre-Kindergarten through 1.

Middle School/Junior High: Grades consisting of 5 through 8.

Perceived Popularity: A type of popularity that is associated with high levels of aggression, in

addition to high levels of prosocial behaviors; students with high perceived popularity are not

always well liked (Puckett, Aikins, & Cillessen, 2008).

Private School: A school that is maintained by a private group rather than the government that

usually charges tuition for students to attend (Dictionary.com, 2013b).

Professional School Counselor (PSC): The “certified/licensed educators with a minimum of a

master’s degree in school counseling” (ASCA, 2012e, para. 1) who assists students in the school

setting with academic achievement, career development, and social/personal development in

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Professional School Counselor Role: “All of those tasks and activities [school counselors]

engage in as they work to enhance the functioning of students, their school, and their program”

(Brown & Trusty, 2005, p. 152)

Public School: A school in the United States that is free for students of the community to attend

and maintained through public expense (Dictionary.com, 2013c).

Relational Aggression (RA): “Harming others through purposeful manipulation and damage of

their peer relationships” (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995, p. 711), with the intention to impair or ruin

reputations, friendships, and feelings of inclusion in a peer group (Putallaz et al., 2007).

Examples of RA include rumor spreading, gossiping, purposeful exclusion of a peer, and

non-verbal gesturing (Simmons, 2002).

Relational Aggression Bully: A student (male or female) who participates in unwanted,

aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power

imbalance where a child who bullies intends to cause fear, distress, and/or harm to the victim’s

body, feelings, self-esteem, or reputation. The behavior is repeated, or has the potential to be

repeated, over time (Mason, 2013), through relationally aggressive means.

Relational Aggression Victim: A student (male or female) who is the target of unwanted,

aggressive behavior among that involves a real or perceived power imbalance (Mason, 2013)

through relational means (Crick, 1996).

Relational Aggression Bully/Victim: A student (male or female) who is “highly disliked by

some peers and highly liked by other peers” (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995, p. 720) who experiences

both the negative effects of being the bully and the negative effects of being the victim

(O’Brennan et al., 2009).

Religious/Faith Based School: A school created and run by a religious organization (e.g., the

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Social Justice Issue: Issues that create inequity, oppression, and injustices for clients (ACA,

2013c). Social justice issues in schools create barriers to academic, relational, and future career

success (ASCA, 2012c).

Sociometric Status: A type of popularity associated with low aggression and high prosocial

behaviors; students with high sociometric status are generally well liked and emulated by peers

(Puckett et al., 2008).

Stakeholders: Stakeholders in the school community include parents, teachers, administrators,

board members, community leaders, and anyone who has a vested interest in student success.

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CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In this chapter, the literature and research related to relational aggression (RA),

professional school counselor (PSC) perceptions regarding RA, PSC training, barriers to RA

intervention, and different types of RA interventions are presented. The school counseling

profession, school counselor role, and school counselor training are described to provide the

context for the study of PSC perceptions, training, barriers, and interventions with respect to RA.

The chapter is organized into four sections. The first section begins with a brief history of RA

research and RA is defined. Then multicultural aspects of RA including gender, popularity

status, and culture/ethnicity are examined, as are developmental differences. Finally, RA is

established as a social justice issue, through an understanding of the effects of RA victimization,

RA bullying, and RA bully/victimization.

The focus of the second section is the school counseling profession; the section begins

with a discussion of the history of school counseling. The current role of the PSC as a social

justice advocate is addressed. The role of the PSC is defined by ASCA’s National Model

(2012c) themes of leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and systemic change. The final topic

addressed in this section is current PSC perceptions of RA found in research.

The third section of this chapter focuses on school counselor training, both at the

graduate level and post-graduate continuing education levels. The Council for Accreditation of

Counseling and Related Education Programs (CACREP) Standards (2009) and American

Counseling Association (ACA) school counselor competencies (2003) are discussed in regards to

graduate level education. PSC continuing education is discussed.

The fourth section addresses the common barriers PSCs experience that interfere with

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RA and bullying research. Finally, this chapter ends with an examination of ethical

considerations related to RA and PSC.

Relational Aggression

History of Relational Aggression Research

The concept of RA has been researched for over a century; originally, investigations were

tied to gender (Feshbach, 1969). Feshbach (1969) researched aggression differences between

boys and girls, citing earlier research that found boys to be more aggressive than girls. In her

work on indirect aggression, Feshbach (1969) concluded that girls used indirect aggression more

than boys.

In 1995, Crick and Grotpeter published their seminal work on gender differences in

aggression. Before this work, researchers believed that boys were generally more aggressive than

girls (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Crick and Grotpeter (1995) hypothesized that girls used RA to

damage social relationships, whereas boys used physical aggression to obtain dominance over

one another (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). The researchers reported that girls were significantly

more relationally aggressive than boys, whereas boys were significantly more physically and

overtly aggressive than girls (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995).

Underwood (2003) noted that not all researchers agree on the term relational aggression.

Other researchers have used the terms social aggression and indirect aggression. Social

aggression, defined by Cairns, Cairns, Neckerman, Ferguson, et al. (1989), is when students use

“alienation, ostracism, or character defamation” to manipulate peer group acceptance (p. 323).

Galen and Underwood (1997) defined social aggression as intent to damage the self-esteem and

social status of another through the use of direct aggression (e.g., negative facial expressions)

and indirect aggression (e.g,. gossip). Feshbach (1969) described indirect aggression as “social

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perpetrator of indirect aggression is often unidentified, and thereby avoids retaliation. A great

deal of overlap exists among all three definitions of aggression (Underwood, 2003). Young et al.

(2006) noted that the similarities among the three terms far outweigh the differences. RA is the

term chosen term for use in this study because RA research is vast and encompassing (Leff,

Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010).

Relational Aggression Defined

Olweus (1993) defined bullying as the repeated exposure to negative actions by one or

more students. Smith and Sharp (1994) added that a systematic abuse of power usually exists

between the bully and the victim. More recently, Mason (2013) defined bullying as unwanted,

aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power

imbalance where a child who bullies intends to cause fear, distress, and/or harm to the victim’s

body, feelings, self-esteem, or reputation. The behavior is repeated, or has the potential to be

repeated, over time (Mason, 2013). Crick and Grotpeter (1995) defined RA as “harming others

through purposeful manipulation and damage of their peer relationships” (p. 711). RA

victimization occurs when a student is bullied through relational means (Crick, 1996).

Relationally aggressive behaviors are intended to impair or ruin reputations, friendships, and

feelings of inclusion in a peer group (Putallaz et al., 2007). Examples of RA include rumor

spreading, gossiping, purposeful exclusion of a peer, and non-verbal gesturing (Simmons, 2002).

French, Jansen, and Pidada (2002) suggested that RA behaviors mainly occur in three

forms: social ostracism, relational manipulation, and malicious rumor spreading. Social

ostracism prevents a person from feeling included, such as when one student is intentionally not

invited to a party (French et al., 2002). Relational manipulation occurs when an aggressor

manipulates the peer relationship for gain (French et al., 2002); for example, one student

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to damage reputations through rumors and gossip (French et al., 2002; Simmons, 2002), which

can spread quickly and on a much larger scale than was true in previous decades due to the

availability of social media. RA behaviors can encompass other types of bullying behaviors such

as cyber bullying. In first world countries, particularly, where students spend a large portion of

their time online, RA often occurs through the use of electronic devices such as cell phones and

computers (Snell & Englander, 2010). RA can occur at times in normal adolescent friendships

(Chesney-Lind, Morash, & Irwin, 2007; Crick, & Nelson, 2002) and can happen once or

repeatedly over time, either escalating or staying at the same intensity level (Chesney-Lind et al.,

2007; O’Brennan et al., 2009).

Unlike physical or verbal aggression, RA is difficult to identify (Young et al., 2006).

Young et al. (2006) provided this example: “Students who instigate relational aggression can

easily say, ‘I didn’t do anything. Is it a crime to not talk to someone?’” (p. 299). RA is covert,

and happens most frequently during adolescence when peer relationships are very important

(Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010). Adolescents often will tolerate a large degree of abuse in

order to remain accepted rather than tell an adult (Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010). Older

adolescents are often distrustful of adults and reticent to disclose incidents of RA because they

think adults will not help, and that adult intervention may make the bullying worse (Mishna,

2004).

RA actions can be direct or indirect (Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010). An example of

direct RA is the statement, ”I don’t want to be your friend.” Direct RA is often utilized by

younger students, and is easier for adults to identify than indirect RA (Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick,

2010). Indirect RA is when a student uses covert means to circuitously harm a person, such as in

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2006). As students get older and more socially complex, instances of relational aggression

become more indirect and difficult to identify (Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010).

According to Young et al. (2006), RA can either be instrumental or reactive. Instrumental

RA is manipulation for gain; for example, when one child tells another, “I won’t be your friend

unless you do things my way.” Reactive RA happens as a response to feeling angry or

threatened by another (Young et al., 2006). The distinction between instrumental or reactive RA

is important to understand because it illustrates that the motivation behind RA varies, which may

influence adult intervention (Young et al., 2006).

It is impossible to know exactly how many students are affected by RA. The U.S.

Department of Education conducted a study of 11,561 students in grades 3-8 in Oregon schools

regarding relational and overt aggression and found that between 41.4% and 48.1% of girls and

30.6% and 41.7% of boys reported experiencing relational victimization (Nishioka et al., 2011).

Additionally, between 20.7% and 27.9% of girls, and 20.3% and 24.2% of boys engaged in RA

behaviors. In a different study, O’Brennan et al. (2009) found that 41% of students surveyed

were frequently involved in bullying; 23% as victims, 8% as bullies, and 9% as bullies who also

victimized others (bully/victims).

Multicultural Aspects of Relational Aggression

Gender

Current research suggests that both boys and girls use RA to manipulate relationships;

however, girls typically use RA exclusively, whereas boys tend to use RA in tandem with

physical aggression (Archer, 2004; Crick & Bigbee, 1998; Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010;

Putallaz et al., 2007; Radliff & Joseph, 2011). Some girls use relational aggression to maintain

and keep friendships as well as to retaliate when they feel threatened (Simmons, 2002).

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higher physiological response (e.g. systolic blood pressure) to RA. Girls also stand to gain more

social benefits (e.g., higher popularity status) from the use of RA than boys (Rose, Swenson, &

Waller, 2004). However, Crick (1996) found that RA related negatively to future friendship

acceptance for girls. Elsaesser, Gorman-Smith, and Henry (2013) found that girls reported

supporting beliefs about RA as appropriate conflict management more than boys.

Several researchers have found that boys use RA and physical aggression in equal

proportions (Crick, 1996; Crick, & Bigbee, 1998; Putallaz et al., 2007). Crick (1996) discovered

that boys reported less emotional pain in response to relational victimization than girls. Putallaz

et al. (2007) found that boys who relied on RA were likely to use physical aggression. Exposure

to high levels of RA was a predictor for boys bringing a weapon to school in some cases (Leff,

Waasdorp, Paskewich et al., 2009).

Popularity status

RA is an adaptive social strategy that many students utilize to gain the common social

goal of popularity (Puckett et al., 2008; Rose et al., 2004). Dijkstra, Berger, and Lindenberg

(2011) perceived popularity to be one of the most significant determinants of friendship selection

for students. Salmivalli, Kaukiainen, and Lagerspetz (2000) suggested the use of RA requires a

certain degree of social intelligence and an average popularity status among peers. Puckett et al.

(2008) added that RA bullies must understand social behavior and have the ability to “operate

within a social network” (p. 564) to effectively utilize RA.

According to Puckett et al. (2008), two types of popularity exist: sociometric popularity

and perceived popularity. Sociometric popularity is associated with low aggression and high

prosocial behaviors; students with high sociometric status are generally well liked and emulated

by peers (Puckett et al., 2008). Perceived popularity is associated with high levels of aggression,

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always well liked (Puckett et al., 2008). Students with high perceived popularity are more likely

to use RA (Rose & Swenson, 2009). Perceived popular students often use RA to gain and

maintain social status (Rose, & Swenson, 2009; Rose et al., 2004). These students may exert

significant social influence in their peer groups (Puckett et al., 2008). RA victims are more

likely to forgive perceived popular RA aggressors in order to gain sociometric status (Rose &

Swenson, 2009). Perceived popular students may experience positive emotional responses for

RA use; therefore, they often continue to victimize other students (Leff et al., 2010; Rose &

Swenson, 2009). In a longitudinal analysis, Rose et al. (2004) found “initial perceived popularity

predicted increased relational aggression” (p. 385) for boys and girls in fifth through ninth grade.

Rose et al. (2004) suggested that “perceived popularity may lead to even greater relational

aggression among girls as they attempt to enhance their status further” (p. 385), thus creating a

cyclical pattern of relational victimization.

Culture/Ethnicity

Literature related to culture/ethnicity and RA is still in development and not yet

conclusive (Young et al., 2006). U.S. cultural/ethnic RA research is somewhat flawed because

U.S. researchers have used non-representative samples of mostly White, middle class subjects

(Putallaz et al., 2007). According to Putallaz et al. (2007), another problem is that

socioeconomic status is often not controlled for, which is a significant confounding problem for

exploration of race/ethnicity. Leff, Waasdorp, and Crick (2010) suggested that more research is

needed on both racial and ethnic use of RA so that interventions for RA may be more culturally

sensitive.

Most of the literature that addresses culture/ethnicity in RA originated in countries

outside of the US; RA has been studied in Italy, Australia, Austria, India, Indonesia, China, and

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2008; Swit & McMaugh, 2012). Research results suggested that a strong cultural identity and

multicultural focus can buffer the effects of RA. Flanagan et al. (2011) examined how Canadian

Aboriginal cultural identity acted as a protective factor against physical aggression and RA. The

findings showed that students with strong cultural identities experienced fewer incidents of RA

(Flanagan et al., 2011). Kawabata and Crick (2011) studied the protective factors of

cross-racial/ethnic friendships in classrooms, finding that students who formed cross cross-

racial/ethnic-friendships in classrooms were less likely to experience RA victimization (Kawabata & Crick,

2011). Therefore, strong cultural and ethnic identity can buffer the effects of RA.

Developmental Issues

In one sense, RA is a developmental issue that peaks in the middle school years (Leff,

Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010; Swit & McMaugh, 2012). However, RA manifests at other

developmental stages, as well. Instances of RA are apparent in children as young as three

(Ostrov, Woods, Jansen, Casas, & Crick, 2004). Leff, Waasdorp, and Crick (2010) reported

observing preschoolers engaging in simple, more direct forms of RA such as covering their ears

to indicate they were ignoring a peer. However, preschool students were observed by Ostrov et

al. (2004) in a different study using sophisticated and subtle forms of RA such as telling secrets

and gossiping.

RA behaviors become more complex and intense as students enter middle school (Leff,

Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010; Swit & McMaugh, 2012). Peer relationships and reputations gain in

importance during early middle school, making this a pivotal time for intervention (Leff,

Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010). Goldstein et al. (2008) found that middle school students reported

RA more frequently than high school students. Archer (2004) found girls reported RA incidents

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school students’ use of RA, so it is unknown how often high school students engage in RA

behaviors.

Archer (2004) suggested that RA is an issue with which people deal throughout their

lives in varying degrees of frequency (Archer, 2004). This is contrary to the long-held

assumption that RA is strictly a developmental phase (Young et al., 2006). RA changes in

appearance and frequency with development (Leff, Waasdorp, & Crick, 2010). Rose et al.

(2004) explained that the “ability to aggress strategically in ways that are socially dominant, that

display superiority, and that result in perceived popularity likely requires advanced interpersonal

skills that may develop with age” (p. 2385), implying that RA may not disappear after

adolescence, but may actually become more sophisticated and harder for an outsider to witness.

Relational Aggression as a Social Justice Issue

The American Counseling Association (ACA, 2013) defines social justice issues as those

that create inequity, oppression, and injustices for clients. Social justice issues in schools create

barriers to academic, relational, and future career success for students (ASCA, 2012c). RA is a

social justice issue because it causes major obstacles for student academic, social, and career

achievement.

RA is damaging to its bullies, victims, and bully/victims, and predicts future social

maladjustment (Crick, 1996; Goldstein et al., 2008; O’Brennan et al., 2009). RA is stable over

time (Young et al, 2006; Crick, 1996; Crick & Bigbee, 1998). Elsaesser et al. (2013) found

“interpersonal school climate and school safety were related to both relational aggression and

perpetration and victimization” (p. 244). A common issue for RA bullies, victims, and

bully/victims is that they feel unsafe at school; therefore, they may not achieve academically or

socially (Baker, 1998). Psychological and physical perceptions of safety precede academic

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Effects of Relational Aggression Victimization

RA victims experience serious adjustment issues (Crick & Bigbee, 1998; Rose &

Swenson, 2009). Putallaz et al. (2007) correlated RA victimization with depression, loneliness,

social anxiety, and peer rejection. RA victims often have low self-esteem and come to believe

they deserve RA victimization (Crick, 1996; Crick & Bigbee, 1998; Putallaz et al., 2007; Rose &

Swenson, 2009; Yoon et al., 2004). Putallaz et al. (2007) reported that RA victims reported

avoiding social situations and worried about negative evaluation.

Crick and Bigbee (1998) found that RA victimization led to high levels of internalizing

problems; these researchers proposed that exhibiting emotional difficulties could make victims

an easy target for additional abuse. They also found that victims reported issues with

self-restraint such as “more difficulty inhibiting anger and greater impulsivity” (Crick & Bigbee,

1998, p. 346). Crick and Bigbee (1998) suggested that restraint issues might contribute to further

victimization by provoking aggressive peers. Victimized children may experience intense anger

or retaliatory feelings as a result of the aversive experiences of RA (Crick & Bigbee, 1998).

Victimized students were found to be “significantly more submissive than their peers” (Crick &

Bigbee, 1998, p. 346); the researchers suggested that submissiveness may be “a hallmark of

victimization” (p. 346). Finally, Crick and Bigbee (1998) noted “victims were significantly more

maladjusted than nonvictims” (p. 346).

Buhs et al. (2006) found chronic peer exclusion for children in kindergarten through 5th

grade led to disengagement from school and poor academic achievement. Victims reported

feeling less safe at school, which has been found to lead to bad sleep habits, alcohol use, bringing

weapons to school, and retaliatory bullying behaviors (Elsaesser et al., 2013; Goldstein et al,,

2008).

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The effects of RA bullying are far reaching. Crick (1996) found RA behaviors were

stable over 1-month and 6-month periods for 3rd -6th

grade students and concluded that RA

students would likely remain aggressive over time without intervention. RA related negatively

to future peer acceptance for girls (Crick, 1996). Crick and Grotpeter (1995) found RA bullies

were “significantly more disliked than other children” (p. 719). Prinstein et al. (2001) reported

that RA bullies had problems with externalizing issues, and that in some cases peer aggression

was related to oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. In a study by Werner and

Crick (1999), RA was found to be significantly associated with borderline personality disorder

features and the development of bulimia for college aged females. RA bullies often report high

levels of depression and substance use (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Goldstein et al., 2008; Yoon et

al., 2004). Talbot, Celinska, Simpson, and Coe (2002) suggested that RA can lead to the use of

physical forms of aggression.

RA bullies reported feeling unsafe at school and had negative overall social school

experiences (Goldstein et al., 2008). According to Bacchini et al. (2009), RA bullies often had

conflicted and negative relationships with teachers. Stipek and Miles (2008) conducted a

longitudinal study that followed 300 children from kindergarten through fifth grade, assessing

aggression and achievement. They found that increases in student aggression predicted increases

in teacher-student conflict, which then predicted changes in how engaged the student was in

learning, finally predicting student achievement. The results of this study suggest that

aggression promotes poor academic achievement (Stipek & Miles, 2008).

Effects of Relational Aggression Bullying/Victimization

Crick and Grotpeter (1995) defined RA bully/victims as students who are “highly

disliked by some peers and highly liked by other peers” (p. 720). RA bully/victims may have the

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of being the bully and the negative effects of being the victim (O’Brennan et al., 2009).

According to O’Brennan et al. (2009), bully/victims often provoke negative social interactions

with their peers, are socially avoidant, and are perceived by others as outcasts. Bully/victims

report high levels of depression and anxiety; they have difficulty coping when other peers are

aggressive because of their lack of interpersonal resources (O’Brennan et al., 2009). At school,

bully/victims retaliate quickly, often when retaliation is unwarranted (Austin et al., 2012;

O’Brennan et al., 2009). Schwartz (2000) suggested that bully/victims “were characterized by

poorly modulated affect and behavior” (p. 189). Teachers rated bully/victims highly for

emotional dis-regulation, hyperactivity, and impulsive behavior (Schwartz, 2000). Schwartz

hypothesized that this “overly reactive behavior…might be one important reason that they

emerge as persistent targets of bullying” (p. 189) as they reward other aggressors with displays

of excessive anger and distress. O’Brennan et al. (2009) found that bully/victims perceived the

school environment as unsafe and felt disconnected from school. As bully/victims disconnect

from school, their ability to achieve academically also suffers.

The School Counseling Profession

The PSC is a social justice advocate for students who addresses inequity, inequality, and

the achievement gap in the United States (Dahir, 2009). Students affected by RA can benefit

from a PSC to help them learn to cope while simultaneously advocating for school wide change.

However, PSCs and PSC training are largely missing from the literature regarding RA (Jacobsen

& Bauman, 2007).

School Counseling History

The school counseling profession began over 100 years ago, with the purpose of

providing vocational guidance to students (ASCA, 2012c). Administrators and/or teachers

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(ASCA, 2012c). During the twentieth century, the position evolved in response to research, new

organization structures, and the passage of national legislation (ASCA, 2012c). Yet, the nature,

function, and purpose of the PSC still needed a unified purpose and strong governing body; the

profession lacked cohesion, focus, and a unified mission (ASCA, 2013; Dahir, 2004). As a

result, PSCs were often undervalued and spent their time doing administrative and clerical tasks

(Dahir, 2004).

The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) was formed in 1952 to help focus

school counseling (ASCA, 2012c). The education reform of the 1990s initiated substantial

professional changes (Dahir, 2001) with legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act of

2001 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, which placed responsibility for student

achievement on schools and teachers (Dollarhide & Lemberger, 2006). PSCs were missing

entirely from the reform agenda, prompting PSCs to unify and advocate for their profession in

order to remain relevant (Dahir, 2001).

ASCA created the National Model in 2003 to provide “a framework of components that

all school counseling programs should exhibit” (ASCA, 2012c, p. x). The National Model

established accountability for PSCs to “help every student improve academic achievement,

navigate personal and social development and plan for successful careers after graduation”

(ASCA, 2012c, p. x). The National Model standardized school counseling programs nationwide,

and provided credibility to the profession (ASCA, 2012c). The National Model and ASCA

helped PSCs to be recognized as an “integral to academic achievement and overall student

success” (ASCA, 2012c, p. xi).

The focus of school counseling, according to the National Model (ASCA, 2012c) is to

remove barriers to student academic, personal/social, and career achievement. The National

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provided by state credentialed school counselors, and attempts to close the academic

achievement gap by valuing the diversity in each individual (ASCA, 2012c). Dahir (2009)

reported that “Twenty-first-century school counselors are social justice advocates who ensure

that academic, career, and interpersonal success is woven into the fabric of education for every

student” (p. 87).

The Role of the Professional School Counselor

The National Model notes: “the objective of school counseling is to help students

overcome barriers to learning” (ASCA, 2012c, p. xi). According to Dahir (2009), the vision of

the National Model has become common practice for PSCs nationwide. The PSC has both a

preventative and responsive role with students, especially in regards to RA (Jacobsen & Bauman,

2007). To that end, the National Model discusses leadership, advocacy, collaboration, and

systemic change to help define the PSC’s role.

Leadership

An effective PSC must be a solid leader; there are four contexts in which PSC leadership

can be understood: structural, human resource, political, and symbolic leadership (Dollarhide,

2003). Structural leadership includes building the foundation for an operational, effective

school counseling program (Dollarhide, 2003). Duties for structural leadership include defining

the focus for the school counseling program, evaluating PSC competency, and providing

opportunities for PSC growth in areas of deficiency (Dollarhide, 2003). Human resource

leadership relates to the empowerment of others; for PSCs, this means they believe in students’

potential for academic, personal/social and career achievement. PSCs must be able to

communicate that belief and empower students to succeed (Dollarhide, 2003). Political

leadership relates to the PSC’s understanding of the political power within the organization of

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use that power to advocate for students with education stakeholders (ASCA, 2012c; Dollarhide,

2003). Stakeholders in the school community include parents, teachers, administrators, board

members, community leaders, and anyone who has a vested interest in student success. Finally, a

PSC with symbolic leadership skills is able to create a vision for how the school community

must change to become safe for all students (Dollarhide, 2003). Symbolic leadership begins with

a strong vision for the school that the PSC communicates with both students and stakeholders.

Advocacy

The ASCA National Model states that “advocating for the academic achievement of

every student is a key role of PSCs and places them at the forefront of efforts to promote school

reform” (2012c, p. 4). The twenty-first century PSC is a strong social justice advocate (Dahir,

2009) who addresses issues that impede student achievement (ASCA, 2012c). According to

Ratts, DeKruyf, and Chen-Hayes (2007), “social justice advocacy is warranted to right injustices,

increase access, and improve educational outcomes for all students” (para. 2). Dixon, Tucker,

and Clark (2010) submitted that PSCs are perfectly positioned to be “social justice leaders in the

schools” (p. 103), advocating not only for individuals but also for groups of students, parents,

and even teachers.

According to the ACA school counselor Advocacy Competencies (ACA, 2003), PSCs act

with students to empower them to overcome barriers through school counseling curriculum,

individual student planning, and responsive services (ASCA, 2012c). PSC competencies needed

to empower students include the abilities to identify student strengths and resources; identify

different social, political, cultural and economic factors that impact the student; and “recognize

the signs indicating that an individual’s behavior and concerns reflect responses to systematic or

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The PSC also advocates on behalf of students (ACA, 2003). Student advocacy occurs

when the PSC becomes “aware of external factors that act as barriers to an individual’s

development” (ACA, 2003), such as RA victimization. Student advocacy may include referrals

to outside counseling, consulting with other professionals, collaborating with teachers or parents,

and using a student’s data profile (e.g., grades and attendance records) to help the student

(ASCA, 2012c). Competencies for student advocacy include helping students gain access to

resources, the abilities to identify institutional barriers and establish and carry out a plan of

action, and the ability to identify allies to help overcome the barriers (ACA, 2003).

Collaboration

PSCs collaborate with students, parents, teachers, administrators, and other school

stakeholders towards “the common goal of equity, access and academic success for every

student” (ASCA, 2012c, p. 6). PSCs experience four types of collaborations that directly relate

to RA: youth-centered collaborations, parent-centered collaborations, intra-organizational

collaborations, and community collaborations (Lawson, 2003). Youth-centered collaborations

involve PSCs viewing their students as partners in counseling (ASCA, 2012c). Parent-centered

collaboration involves PSCs viewing parents as experts, important parts of student support

systems, and partners in the counseling process (ASCA, 2012c). Intra-organizational

collaboration takes place between the PSC and individuals in the school organization including

teachers, school professionals, cafeteria workers, and school custodians (ASCA, 2012c). Finally,

community collaboration takes place between the community stakeholders and the PSC who

“secures the engagement, mutual accountability and coproduction capacities of all the legitimate

stakeholders in a workable geographic area” (ASCA, 2012c, p. 7). The PSC should know who

stakeholders are in the geographic area around the school and find ways to connect them with

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Systemic Change

The final theme of the ASCA National Model is systemic change; wherein PSCs are

encouraged to view the school as a system (ASCA, 2012c). However, sometimes the barriers to

academic, social, and career success exist on different levels ranging from the school classroom

procedures to national and state legislatures (ASCA, 2012c). The PSC is “uniquely positioned to

identify systemic barriers to student achievement” (ASCA, 2012c, p. 8) due to access to student

data. The PSC must use data such as grades, attendance, and behavioral issues to understand the

needs of the students and tailor the school counseling program in the direction of those needs

(ASCA, 2012c).

According to the ACA Advocacy Competency Domains (2003), the process for changing

the systemic status quo requires “vision, persistence, leadership, collaboration, systems analysis,

and strong data” (p. 2). The PSC must be able to identify environmental factors that cause

impediments to growth before addressing systemic change (ACA, 2003). The PSC should

“awaken the general public to macro-systemic issues regarding human dignity” (ACA, 2003, p.

3). The PSC can provide ethical and developmentally appropriate psychoeducation regarding

RA to students and stakeholders (ACA, 2003). The ACA (2003) recommends the PSC

“disseminate information through a variety of media,” (p.3) for example, through newsletters, the

school website, general assemblies, and RA related podcasts. Beyond psychoeducation, the PSC

may find it necessary to advocate for students on a political level through lobbying legislators

and policy makers (ACA, 2003). Ratts et al. (2007) suggested that the moral and ethical duty of

a PSC is to advocate for political and systemic change in schools.

School Counselor Perceptions of Relational Aggression

Jacobsen and Bauman (2007) addressed PSC perceptions of RA severity by surveying