(1) Problems of Syntax (1) Problems of Syntax Syntax is the branch of linguistics which studies the Syntax is the branch of linguistics which studies the structure of sentence. It is concerned with the ways structure of sentence. It is concerned with the ways words are combined to form sentences. words are combined to form sentences. Ilyish recognizes two levels within the domain of Ilyish recognizes two levels within the domain of syntax: that of phrases and that of sentence. syntax: that of phrases and that of sentence. The phrase narrowly, and more usually, is said to be The phrase narrowly, and more usually, is said to be a particular kind of syntactic unit. Only 5 types of a particular kind of syntactic unit. Only 5 types of phrases are widely recognized – Noun phrase, Verb phrases are widely recognized – Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Adjective phrase, Adverb phrase, phrase, Adjective phrase, Adverb phrase,
Prepositional phrase.
Prepositional phrase. Ex. The old man was staringEx. The old man was staring gloomily out of the window. It contains two NP ‘the gloomily out of the window. It contains two NP ‘the old man’, ‘the window’; one prepositional phrase old man’, ‘the window’; one prepositional phrase ‘out of the window’; and so on.
‘out of the window’; and so on.
A consideration should be done between two other A consideration should be done between two other notions ‘sentence’ and ‘clause’. It is with specimens notions ‘sentence’ and ‘clause’. It is with specimens of simple sentences that we study such categories as of simple sentences that we study such categories as parts of the sentence, main and secondary; word parts of the sentence, main and secondary; word order, and other different notions. As long as we order, and other different notions. As long as we come to ‘composite’ (a term found in Ilyish, standing come to ‘composite’ (a term found in Ilyish, standing for both – complex and compound) sentences, we for both – complex and compound) sentences, we have to deal with the notions of main clause, head have to deal with the notions of main clause, head clause, and subordinate clause. Whatever is said clause, and subordinate clause. Whatever is said about a simple sentence also applies to an about a simple sentence also applies to an independent clause within a composite sentence. independent clause within a composite sentence. 1 a) Syntactic patterns.
1 a) Syntactic patterns.
Ilyish speaks of phrase patterns and sentence Ilyish speaks of phrase patterns and sentence patterns. Phrase patterns can be as follows: A + N, patterns. Phrase patterns can be as follows: A + N, Nm + N, V + Adv, V + N (words belonging to Nm + N, V + Adv, V + N (words belonging to
different class)
different class); N + N, ; N + N, V + V, Adj. + Adj., V + V, Adj. + Adj., Adv. +Adv. + Adv. (words belonging to the same class). English Adv. (words belonging to the same class). English simple sentence/clause structure is made up of the simple sentence/clause structure is made up of the following 5 constituents: S – subject, V – verb, O – following 5 constituents: S – subject, V – verb, O – object, C – complement, A – adverbial modifier. The object, C – complement, A – adverbial modifier. The S usually stands in initial position and is followed by S usually stands in initial position and is followed by the V. The types of verbs are essential for the types the V. The types of verbs are essential for the types of sentence patterns. Each clause pattern has a of sentence patterns. Each clause pattern has a nucleus (which is obligatory part) and may attach nucleus (which is obligatory part) and may attach optional extensions. (Cs – Complement to the optional extensions. (Cs – Complement to the Subject, Subject Complement; Co – Complement to Subject, Subject Complement; Co – Complement to the Object, Object Complement; Cp – Predicator the Object, Object Complement; Cp – Predicator complement)
complement) S
S – – V V ‘The ‘The train train arrived.’arrived.’ S – V –
S – V – CC ‘S‘Shehe’s a ’s a teteacacheher.r.’; ‘’; ‘ShShe bee becacame me aa teacher.’
teacher.’ S –
S – V – V – C sC s ‘ H‘ He ie is a s a s ts tu du de ne nt st s. ’. ’ S
S – – V V – – Cp Cp ‘The ‘The boy boy resembles resembles his his father.’father.’ S
S – – V V – – A A ‘She ‘She is is in in London.’London.’ S
S – – V V – – O O ‘He ‘He broke broke the the window.’window.’ S –
S – V – V – O – O – C C ‘‘ S – V –
S – V – O – Cs O – Cs ‘Mary will make John (IO) a good‘Mary will make John (IO) a good wife (CS).’
wife (CS).’ S – V – O – C
S – V – O – Coo ‘Mary ma‘Mary made John (Dde John (DO) a foolO) a fool (Co).’
(Co).’ S – V – O – C
S – V – O – Cpp ‘He turned ‘He turned him (DO) into him (DO) into a slavea slave (Cp).’
(Cp).’ S – V
S – V – O – O – A – A ‘He put the ‘He put the vase (DO) on the vase (DO) on the tabletable (Adverbi
(Adverbial al modifier).’modifier).’ S – V
S – V – O – O – O – O ‘He gave his ‘He gave his sister (IO) a book sister (IO) a book (DO).’
(DO).’
1 b) Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which 1 b) Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics which studies those aspects of meaning which derive from studies those aspects of meaning which derive from the context of an utterance, rather than being intrinsic the context of an utterance, rather than being intrinsic to the linguistic material itself.
to the linguistic material itself. According to Leech,According to Leech, Grammar is what is expressed on the surface level Grammar is what is expressed on the surface level and pragmatics is what is expressed on the deep and pragmatics is what is expressed on the deep level. According to Cook pragmatic meaning level. According to Cook pragmatic meaning illustrates what a word or utterance means and does, illustrates what a word or utterance means and does, according to the context. It is not usually perceived according to the context. It is not usually perceived as an authority to semantic meaning but as dependent as an authority to semantic meaning but as dependent upon it. Pragmatic meaning is derived from the upon it. Pragmatic meaning is derived from the interaction of semantic meaning with the context. interaction of semantic meaning with the context.
(2) Types of Syntactic Relations (2) Types of Syntactic Relations 2 a) Coordination is a grammatical means of 2 a) Coordination is a grammatical means of connecting clauses with equal rank. It is a joining connecting clauses with equal rank. It is a joining syntactica
syntactical relationship. It l relationship. It is a is a typical syntactictypical syntactic relation by which a sentence can be extended – it relation by which a sentence can be extended – it may involve more than two members. may involve more than two members. ‘The dog frightened the child.’; ‘The dog frightened ‘The dog frightened the child.’; ‘The dog frightened the child and chased his brother.’ etc. the child and chased his brother.’ etc. Coordination in a sentence can be syndetic when it Coordination in a sentence can be syndetic when it uses coordinators like conjunctions or adverbs or it uses coordinators like conjunctions or adverbs or it can be asyndetic – without coordinators. Ex. ‘I went can be asyndetic – without coordinators. Ex. ‘I went to the market and there I bought fruit.’ (syndetic); to the market and there I bought fruit.’ (syndetic); ‘People appeared, cars disappeared, the situation got ‘People appeared, cars disappeared, the situation got worse.’ (asyndetic)
worse.’ (asyndetic)
Coordination is the typical means of joining clauses Coordination is the typical means of joining clauses in Compound Sentences. There are several types of in Compound Sentences. There are several types of coordination in the compound sentence: coordination in the compound sentence: Copulative
Copulativecoordination with its typical coordinator coordination with its typical coordinator ‘and’. ‘And’ denotes simple addition if there is ‘and’. ‘And’ denotes simple addition if there is logical connection. By ‘and’ can be implied: a) logical connection. By ‘and’ can be implied: a) chronological consequence/successive action ‘She chronological consequence/successive action ‘She did her homework and she went for a walk.’; ‘He did her homework and she went for a walk.’; ‘He kissed her and sat down.’; b) result ‘He saw the crash kissed her and sat down.’; b) result ‘He saw the crash and called the police.’; c) parallelism ‘She loves and and called the police.’; c) parallelism ‘She loves and admires him.’; d) contrast ‘John is nice and his sister admires him.’; d) contrast ‘John is nice and his sister is nasty.’; e) condition ‘Give me some money and is nasty.’; e) condition ‘Give me some money and I’m going to help you.’; f) simple addition ‘He has I’m going to help you.’; f) simple addition ‘He has long hair and he wears blue jeans.’ long hair and he wears blue jeans.’
‘Nor … and… neither’ indicates that both clauses are ‘Nor … and… neither’ indicates that both clauses are negative. ‘Neither Peter wanted that job, nor did his negative. ‘Neither Peter wanted that job, nor did his wife.’
wife.’ Disjunctive
Disjunctivecoordination – central coordinator ‘or’.coordination – central coordinator ‘or’. This type of coordination suggests choice – the This type of coordination suggests choice – the meaning of one clause excludes the other clause (one meaning of one clause excludes the other clause (one or the other of the clauses is true but not both of or the other of the clauses is true but not both of them). ‘He is at work or he is at home.’ ‘Or’ them). ‘He is at work or he is at home.’ ‘Or’ indicates alternative: ‘You can cook a meal or you indicates alternative: ‘You can cook a meal or you can go to a restaurant.’
can go to a restaurant.’ Adversative
Adversative coordination – the central coordinator iscoordination – the central coordinator is ‘but’; other are ‘whereas’, ‘while’, ‘nevertheless’, ‘but’; other are ‘whereas’, ‘while’, ‘nevertheless’, ‘however’ – all of them denote contrast. ‘The room ‘however’ – all of them denote contrast. ‘The room was small but the corridor was wide.’ was small but the corridor was wide.’ 2 b) Subordination is a syntactic relation where the 2 b) Subordination is a syntactic relation where the joined members are not of equal rank. In the sentence joined members are not of equal rank. In the sentence ‘The dog frightened the child.’ the verb ‘frighten’ ‘The dog frightened the child.’ the verb ‘frighten’ demands something to complete its meaning – ‘the demands something to complete its meaning – ‘the child’ (in this case). ‘The child’ is subordinate to the child’ (in this case). ‘The child’ is subordinate to the verb. Some verbs demand a phrase, others a whole verb. Some verbs demand a phrase, others a whole sentence. Some word class needs something to sentence. Some word class needs something to complete their meaning semantically. complete their meaning semantically. Subordination is binary and involves only two Subordination is binary and involves only two members in most cases. It is non-symmetrical members in most cases. It is non-symmetrical relationship: ‘Ann loves John because he has a big relationship: ‘Ann loves John because he has a big house.’ When it is not binary, there is a hierarchical house.’ When it is not binary, there is a hierarchical organization.
organization.
Subordination appears within the complex sentence Subordination appears within the complex sentence in which one or more parts are represented by in which one or more parts are represented by clauses.
clauses. 2 c) There are two
2 c) There are two types of subordinationtypes of subordination – concord – concord and contact.
and contact. ConcordConcord means the agreement of a verbmeans the agreement of a verb with its subject as in ‘He does’, ‘They do’. There are with its subject as in ‘He does’, ‘They do’. There are several types of concord:
several types of concord: I)
I) GrammaticGrammatical concord al concord refers to:refers to: -- Common countable nouns: a clause in theCommon countable nouns: a clause in the position of S ‘How they got there doesn’t interest position of S ‘How they got there doesn’t interest
me.’ me.’
--
Nexus construction – non-finite verb forms ‘To Nexus construction – non-finite verb forms ‘To say this in public was stupid.’say this in public was stupid.’
-- Prepositional phrase – ‘After the exam is thePrepositional phrase – ‘After the exam is the time.’
time.’
-- ‘There’ may be not in concord with the following‘There’ may be not in concord with the following noun phrase: ‘There is hundreds of people on the noun phrase: ‘There is hundreds of people on the waiting list.’
waiting list.’
(part of Q 2) (part of Q 2) II)
II) ConConcord ocord of persf person – as on – as with ‘with ‘to beto be’ – ‘I am’ – ‘I am’,’, ‘You are’ and Present Simple ‘She plays’ ‘You are’ and Present Simple ‘She plays’ III)
III) NotiNotional coonal conconcord – agrerd – agreemenement to the idea of t to the idea of member ‘The police have difficult job.’ member ‘The police have difficult job.’
IV)
IV)
Proximity – agreement with the word thatProximity – agreement with the word that precedes the verb ‘Nobody, not even teachers were precedes the verb ‘Nobody, not even teachers werelistening.’ listening.’ V)
V) SubjSubject-ect-ObjObject coect concorncord – in md – in membeember andr and gender – ‘He injured himself in the leg.’ gender – ‘He injured himself in the leg.’ VI)
VI) SubjSubject-ect-ComComplemplement conent concord – in numbecord – in number r ‘The child was an angel.’
‘The child was an angel.’ VII)
VII) Pronoun cPronoun concord – oncord – refers to persorefers to personal prononal pronounun which agrees with their antecedents in number. which agrees with their antecedents in number. Contact
Contactis another relation. It means that the verbis another relation. It means that the verb agrees in number with the word that precedes the agrees in number with the word that precedes the verb ‘One of ten agree to go home.’ verb ‘One of ten agree to go home.’ 2 d) Interdependence – it concerns two syntactic 2 d) Interdependence – it concerns two syntactic units which are independent (comperatively) and at units which are independent (comperatively) and at the same time dependent on each other. ‘The dog’ – the same time dependent on each other. ‘The dog’ – independent but at the same time dependent on ‘the independent but at the same time dependent on ‘the child’.
child’.
2 e) Accumulative relations are
2 e) Accumulative relations are another type of another type of relations, ex. ‘my own children’ ‘my’ and ‘own’ are relations, ex. ‘my own children’ ‘my’ and ‘own’ are not similar in grammatical terms. They form a kind not similar in grammatical terms. They form a kind of collocation.
of collocation.In the phrase ‘my own house’ – ‘myIn the phrase ‘my own house’ – ‘my own’ refers to ‘house’, ‘house’ is the head word own’ refers to ‘house’, ‘house’ is the head word (antecedent), and ‘my’ doesn’t refer to ‘own’. (antecedent), and ‘my’ doesn’t refer to ‘own’. WeWe cannot use ‘my’ without ‘own’. ‘very big houses’ – cannot use ‘my’ without ‘own’. ‘very big houses’ – the adj ‘big’ is subordinate to houses, ‘very’ is the adj ‘big’ is subordinate to houses, ‘very’ is subordinate to ‘big’; ‘houses’ is independent. The subordinate to ‘big’; ‘houses’ is independent. The position of the words also determines whether the position of the words also determines whether the item is in position of coordination or subordination. item is in position of coordination or subordination. Ex. ‘garden flowers’; ‘flower garden’. Ex. ‘garden flowers’; ‘flower garden’.
(14) The complex sentence (Types) (14) The complex sentence (Types) In complex sentences the clauses are not on an equal In complex sentences the clauses are not on an equal footing. In the simplest case, a complex sentence footing. In the simplest case, a complex sentence consisting of two clauses only, one of these is the consisting of two clauses only, one of these is the main/independent clause, and the other a subordinate main/independent clause, and the other a subordinate clause. The independent clause can function as a clause. The independent clause can function as a complete sentence. The subordinate clause also complete sentence. The subordinate clause also contains a subject and a verb but cannot function as contains a subject and a verb but cannot function as an independent sentence. Ex. We surveyed the an independent sentence. Ex. We surveyed the damage as the
damage as the wind subsided. wind subsided. The semantic relationsThe semantic relations that can be expressed by subordination are much that can be expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied that with more numerous and more varied that with co-ordination: such as relation of time, place, ordination: such as relation of time, place, concession, purpose, etc. are expressly stated in concession, purpose, etc. are expressly stated in complex sentences only. Then again, the means of complex sentences only. Then again, the means of expressing subordination are much more numerous – expressing subordination are much more numerous – there is a great variety of conjunctions [when, after, there is a great variety of conjunctions [when, after, before, while, till, until, though, that, as, because, before, while, till, until, though, that, as, because,
since, etc.], a number of phrases performing the same since, etc.], a number of phrases performing the same function [as soon as, as long as, notwithstanding that, function [as soon as, as long as, notwithstanding that, in order that, according as, etc,], besides a certain in order that, according as, etc,], besides a certain number of conjunctive words: relative pronouns number of conjunctive words: relative pronouns [who, which, that, whoever, whatever, whichever] [who, which, that, whoever, whatever, whichever] and the relative adverbs [where, how, whenever, and the relative adverbs [where, how, whenever, wherever, however, why].
wherever, however, why].
The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, The notions of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to and exclamatory sentence appear to be applicable to some types of complex sentences as well. For some types of complex sentences as well. For instance, if the main clause of a complex sentence is instance, if the main clause of a complex sentence is interrogative or imperative, this implies that the interrogative or imperative, this implies that the complex sentence as a whole is also interrogative or complex sentence as a whole is also interrogative or imperative respectively. Ex. Never you mind imperative respectively. Ex. Never you mind (imperative) how old she is., so the whole sentence is (imperative) how old she is., so the whole sentence is imperative.
imperative.
(3) Principle of Combination of Word Classes (3) Principle of Combination of Word Classes Grammar has to study the aspects of phrases which Grammar has to study the aspects of phrases which spring from the grammatical peculiarities of the spring from the grammatical peculiarities of the worlds making up the phrase, and of the syntactical worlds making up the phrase, and of the syntactical functions of the phrase as a whole.
functions of the phrase as a whole. A)
A) CombinaCombinations of tions of words words belonginbelonging to thg to the samee same class
class 1)
1) NouNoun + Noun + Noun – Noun Pn – Noun Phrashrase ‘Johe ‘John’s ban’s bag’;g’; ‘science fiction’ This is a most usual type of phrase ‘science fiction’ This is a most usual type of phrase in Modern English. It must be divided into two in Modern English. It must be divided into two subtypes, depending on the form of the first subtypes, depending on the form of the first component, which may be in the common or in the component, which may be in the common or in the genitive case.
genitive case.
The type ‘noun in the common case + noun’ may be The type ‘noun in the common case + noun’ may be used to denote one idea as modified by another in the used to denote one idea as modified by another in the widest sense. We find here a most varied choice of widest sense. We find here a most varied choice of semantic spheres, such as speech sound, silver watch, semantic spheres, such as speech sound, silver watch, army unit. The first component may be a proper army unit. The first component may be a proper name as well, as in phrases a Beethoven symphony name as well, as in phrases a Beethoven symphony or London Bridge. The type ‘noun in the genitive or London Bridge. The type ‘noun in the genitive case + noun’ has a more restricted meaning and use. case + noun’ has a more restricted meaning and use. 2)
2) Verb Verb + Ver+ Verb – Veb – Verb phrb phraserase -- ‘to be + inf’ ‘She is to come late’‘to be + inf’ ‘She is to come late’ -- ‘to be + pres. Part.’ – continuous tense‘to be + pres. Part.’ – continuous tense -- ‘modal verb + inf’ – ‘She can write’‘modal verb + inf’ – ‘She can write’ 3)
3) Adj + AAdj + Adj ‘yedj ‘yellowllowish brish brownown’’ 4)
4) Adv + Adv + Adv ‘Adv ‘fairlfairly quiy quicklyckly’’ B)
B) Some Some comcombinabination tion of wof words ords belobelong ng toto different clauses
different clauses 1)
1) AdAdj + Nj + Nououn – Nn – Nououn Phn Phrasrase ‘be ‘bluelue shirt’ Another very common type, shirt’ Another very common type, which is used to express all possible which is used to express all possible kinds of things with their properties. kinds of things with their properties. 2)
2) NuNum. + m. + NoNoun – un – NoNoun Pun Phrahrase ‘se ‘thrthreeee birds’
birds’ 3)
3) V + V + AdAdv – v – VerVerb Pb Phrahrase se ‘sp‘speakeakss loudly’
loudly’
4)
4)
V + Noun – Verb Phrase It mayV + Noun – Verb Phrase It may correspond to two different types of correspond to two different types of relation between an action and a thing. relation between an action and a thing. In the vast majority of cases the noun In the vast majority of cases the noun denotes an object of the action denotes an object of the action expressed by the verb, but in a certain expressed by the verb, but in a certain number of phrases it denotes a number of phrases it denotes a measure rather than the object, of the measure rather than the object, of the action. This may be seen in such action. This may be seen in such phrases as, walk a mile, sleep an hour, phrases as, walk a mile, sleep an hour,wait a minute, etc. It is only the wait a minute, etc. It is only the meaning of the verb and that of the meaning of the verb and that of the noun which enable the hearer or noun which enable the hearer or reader to understand the relation reader to understand the relation correctly.
correctly.
V + Noun – Predicative (сказуемно определение) V + Noun – Predicative (сказуемно определение) ‘She is a
‘She is a student.’student.’
V + Noun – Object ‘I’m reading a book.’ V + Noun – Object ‘I’m reading a book.’
5)
5)
V + Pronoun – Verb Phrase ‘I sawV + Pronoun – Verb Phrase ‘I saw her’her’
(4) The Simple Sentence (types) (4) The Simple Sentence (types)– includes– includes
clause/simple sentence patterns. clause/simple sentence patterns. The Sentence is a group of words capable of The Sentence is a group of words capable of expressing a complete thought or meaning (according expressing a complete thought or meaning (according to traditional definition). The sentence is a main unit to traditional definition). The sentence is a main unit of analysis in Syntax. It is unique among other of analysis in Syntax. It is unique among other linguistic units because there is no an inventory (list linguistic units because there is no an inventory (list of all possible sentences). The sentence is a chunk of of all possible sentences). The sentence is a chunk of text made up of units which are known as immediate text made up of units which are known as immediate constituents.
constituents.
According to type of communication there are 4 According to type of communication there are 4 types of sentences:
types of sentences: I)
I) DeclDeclaratiarative typeve type, which co, which containtains statns statemenement,t, which gives information about events, grammatically which gives information about events, grammatically they are characterized by Subject-Predicate structure they are characterized by Subject-Predicate structure with the direct word order. The statement can be with the direct word order. The statement can be positive or negative. Ex. ‘They work in a factory.’ positive or negative. Ex. ‘They work in a factory.’
II)
II) InterrogativInterrogative sene sentences tences contain contain questionquestions ands and have communicative function – to ask for have communicative function – to ask for information
information 1.
1. GeneGeneral qural questioestions – thens – they open wy open with a veith a verbrb operator – auxiliary, link verb or modal. The tone is operator – auxiliary, link verb or modal. The tone is rising and the word order is Verb-Subject rising and the word order is Verb-Subject ‘Has (operator) she (S) been (V) there?’ ‘Do ‘Has (operator) she (S) been (V) there?’ ‘Do (operator) you (S) agree (V)? (operator) you (S) agree (V)? 2.
2. Tag quTag questiestions coons consisnsist only ot only of an opef an operatorator,r, which is prompted by the verb in the statement and a which is prompted by the verb in the statement and a pronoun prompted by the Subject. When the pronoun prompted by the Subject. When the
statement is positive, the tag is negative. statement is positive, the tag is negative. -- Negative statement – positive tag – negative Negative statement – positive tag – negative answer ‘You didn’t go to school, did you? answer ‘You didn’t go to school, did you? -- Negative statement – negative tag/Positive Negative statement – negative tag/Positive statement – positive tag – conclusion of the speaker; statement – positive tag – conclusion of the speaker; these are used to make a guess, to express interest, these are used to make a guess, to express interest, surprise ‘Your mother’s at home, is she?’ ‘You don’t surprise ‘Your mother’s at home, is she?’ ‘You don’t like my cooking, don’t you?’
like my cooking, don’t you?’ 3.
3. AlterAlternatinative quesve questiontions imply chos imply choice betwice betweeneen two or more answers. They open with an operator two or more answers. They open with an operator but the suggestion is expressed by ‘or’. ‘Is she but the suggestion is expressed by ‘or’. ‘Is she
coming or not?’ ‘Is’ - operator coming or not?’ ‘Is’ - operator 4.
4. RhetRhetoricorical quesal questiontion, don’t ex, don’t expect an anpect an answer swer ‘Didn’t I tell you it would rain?’
‘Didn’t I tell you it would rain?’ 5.
5. Wh-qWh-questiuestions opons open with an ien with an interrnterrogaogativetive pronoun which aims to get detailed information pronoun which aims to get detailed information
‘Where did you last night?’ ‘Where did you last night?’ III)
III) Imperative Imperative sentences sentences express express commandcommands,s, request or warning. They aim to make someone request or warning. They aim to make someone perform an action ‘Don’t do that!’ perform an action ‘Don’t do that!’
IV)
IV) Exclamative Exclamative sentences sentences express stroexpress strong feelinng feeling.g. The question words are intensifiers expressing a high The question words are intensifiers expressing a high degree of emotion ‘Strawberries! How nice!’ degree of emotion ‘Strawberries! How nice!’ Similarly, Huddleson distinguishes four main types: Similarly, Huddleson distinguishes four main types: 1) declarative ‘You made a good job of it.’; 2) 1) declarative ‘You made a good job of it.’; 2) interrogative ‘Did you make a good job of it?’; 3) interrogative ‘Did you make a good job of it?’; 3) exclamative ‘What a good job you made of it!’; 4) exclamative ‘What a good job you made of it!’; 4) imperative ‘Make a good job of it!’. Huddleson imperative ‘Make a good job of it!’. Huddleson though prefers the term ‘clause type’ to the term though prefers the term ‘clause type’ to the term ‘sentence type’ because in the following case ‘Come ‘sentence type’ because in the following case ‘Come with us by all means, but you may find it hard with us by all means, but you may find it hard work.’, the ‘composite’ sentence consists of a work.’, the ‘composite’ sentence consists of a sequence of clauses. It is the separate clauses that are sequence of clauses. It is the separate clauses that are classified by type (‘Come with us by all means’ is classified by type (‘Come with us by all means’ is imperative and the second is decl.). The sentence as imperative and the second is decl.). The sentence as a whole cannot be assigned to any of the four types, a whole cannot be assigned to any of the four types, but when a sentence has the form of a clause we can but when a sentence has the form of a clause we can talk of the sentence as being declarative or whatever. talk of the sentence as being declarative or whatever. Declarative
Declarative, , interrogainterrogative, tive, imperative andimperative and exclamative are syntactic categories. They are terms exclamative are syntactic categories. They are terms in a system of clause/simple sentence classes in a system of clause/simple sentence classes distinguished form each other by certain features of distinguished form each other by certain features of syntactic structure. Statement, question, exclamation syntactic structure. Statement, question, exclamation and directive (last one is Huddleson’s term for and directive (last one is Huddleson’s term for command) are the corresponding semantic command) are the corresponding semantic
(part of Q 4) (part of Q 4)
categories. Stating, questioning, and directing are to categories. Stating, questioning, and directing are to be different kinds of illocutionary act.. H. be different kinds of illocutionary act.. H.
distinguishes exclamation as somewhat different distinguishes exclamation as somewhat different from the other three types in that it involves an from the other three types in that it involves an emotive element of mean that can be overlaid on a emotive element of mean that can be overlaid on a statement, a question, or a directive. (What a rough statement, a question, or a directive. (What a rough he was!; How, on earth, did you do it so quickly?; he was!; How, on earth, did you do it so quickly?; Take that bloody grin off your face!) Take that bloody grin off your face!) Syntactically only the first one is exclamation, the Syntactically only the first one is exclamation, the second is interrogative and the 3
second is interrogative and the 3rdrdimperative butimperative but
they all function as exclamative. they all function as exclamative.
The types of Sentences according to structure are (1) The types of Sentences according to structure are (1) Simple and (2) Composite – term found in Ilyish, it Simple and (2) Composite – term found in Ilyish, it refers to both complex and compound sentences. refers to both complex and compound sentences. Simple Sentence contains one clause or only one Simple Sentence contains one clause or only one Subject-Predicate unit. According to the members of Subject-Predicate unit. According to the members of the simple sentence we can distinguish two types: the simple sentence we can distinguish two types: one-member sentences and two-member sentences. one-member sentences and two-member sentences. This distinction is based on the difference in the This distinction is based on the difference in the main parts of a sentence.
main parts of a sentence.
One-member sentences have only one principal part One-member sentences have only one principal part but it is
but it is not a subject or predicate:not a subject or predicate: ‘Night.’ ‘An old park.’ ‘Night.’ ‘An old park.’ 1.
1. TheThere are tre are two suwo subtypbtypes of oes of one-mne-membember er sentence:
sentence: a)
a) NomNominalinal, when th, when the prine principacipal part is el part is exprexpressedssed by noun: ‘Silence!’
by noun: ‘Silence!’ b)
b) VerbVerbal, in wal, in which thich the prhe princiincipal papal part isrt is expressed by the non-finite forms: infinitive, expressed by the non-finite forms: infinitive, gerund… ‘To think of what?’ gerund… ‘To think of what?’ 2.
2. Two-Two-membmember sener sentenctences – thees – they have sy have subjeubjectct and predicate. They can be complete and incomplete and predicate. They can be complete and incomplete (or elliptical).
(or elliptical). a)
a) ComComplete splete senteentence – ‘I cnce – ‘I came stame straigraight hereht here.’.’ b)
b) IncIncomplomplete/ete/ellipellipticaltical, i.e. a two-me, i.e. a two-membember r sentence with either the subject or the predicate sentence with either the subject or the predicate omitted (different than the one-member sentence) – omitted (different than the one-member sentence) – ‘Ready?’
‘Ready?’
English simple sentence/clause structure is made up English simple sentence/clause structure is made up of the following 5 constituents: S – subject, V – of the following 5 constituents: S – subject, V – verb, O – object, C – complement, A – adverbial verb, O – object, C – complement, A – adverbial modifier. The S usually stands in initial position and modifier. The S usually stands in initial position and is followed by the V. The types of verbs are is followed by the V. The types of verbs are essential for the types of sentence patterns. Each essential for the types of sentence patterns. Each clause pattern has a nucleus (which is obligatory clause pattern has a nucleus (which is obligatory part) and may attach optional extensions. (Cs – part) and may attach optional extensions. (Cs – Complement to the Subject, Subject Complement; Complement to the Subject, Subject Complement; Co – Complement to the Object, Object Co – Complement to the Object, Object Complement; Cp – Predicator complement) Complement; Cp – Predicator complement) S
S – – V V ‘The ‘The train train arrived.’arrived.’ S – V –
S – V – CC ‘S‘Shehe’s a ’s a teteacacheher.r.’; ‘’; ‘ShShe bee becacame me aa teacher.’
teacher.’ S –
S – V – V – C sC s ‘ H‘ He ie is a s a s ts tu du de ne nt st s. ’. ’ S
S – – V V – – Cp Cp ‘The ‘The boy boy resembles resembles his his father.’father.’ S
S – – V V – – A A ‘She ‘She is is in in London.’London.’ S
S – – V V – – O O ‘He ‘He broke broke the the window.’window.’ S –
S – V – V – O – O – C C ‘‘ S – V –
S – V – O – Cs O – Cs ‘Mary will make John (IO) a good‘Mary will make John (IO) a good wife (CS).’
wife (CS).’ S – V – O – Co
S – V – O – Co ‘Mary ma‘Mary made John (Dde John (DO) a foolO) a fool (Co).’
(Co).’ S – V – O – Cp
S – V – O – Cp ‘He turned ‘He turned him (DO) into him (DO) into a slavea slave (Cp).’
(Cp).’ S – V
S – V – O – O – A – A ‘He put the ‘He put the vase (DO) on the vase (DO) on the tabletable (Adverbia
(Adverbial l modifier).’modifier).’ S – V
S – V – O – O – O – O ‘He gave his ‘He gave his sister (IO) a book sister (IO) a book (DO).’
(DO).’
(5) The phrase, Nexus Constructions (5) The phrase, Nexus Constructions [Phrase]
[Phrase]Ilyish recognizes two levels within theIlyish recognizes two levels within the domain of Syntax, that of phrases and that of domain of Syntax, that of phrases and that of sentences. He term ‘phrase’ as every combination of sentences. He term ‘phrase’ as every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word (for instance the not an analytical form of some word (for instance the perfect forms of verbs). The constituent elements of a perfect forms of verbs). The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of speech. For phrase may belong to any part of speech. For
instance they may both be nouns, or one of them man instance they may both be nouns, or one of them man be an adjective and the other noun, or again one of be an adjective and the other noun, or again one of them maby and a verb and the other a noun, or one them maby and a verb and the other a noun, or one may be preposition and the other noun; or there may may be preposition and the other noun; or there may be three of them. A phrase is a means of naming be three of them. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. A some phenomena or processes, just as a word is. A phrase as such has no intonation, just as a word has phrase as such has no intonation, just as a word has
none. none.
The phrase narrowly, and more usually, is said to be The phrase narrowly, and more usually, is said to be a particular kind of syntactic unit. Only 5 types of a particular kind of syntactic unit. Only 5 types of phrases are widely recognized – Noun phrase, Verb phrases are widely recognized – Noun phrase, Verb phrase, Adjective phrase, Adverb phrase, phrase, Adjective phrase, Adverb phrase,
Prepositional phrase.
Prepositional phrase. Ex. The old man was staringEx. The old man was staring gloomily out of the window. It contains two NP ‘the gloomily out of the window. It contains two NP ‘the old man’, ‘the window’; one prepositional phrase old man’, ‘the window’; one prepositional phrase ‘out of the window’; and so on.
‘out of the window’; and so on. NP is an important syntactic category. Its most NP is an important syntactic category. Its most
obvious characteristic is that it can perform certain obvious characteristic is that it can perform certain functions in a sentence, such as S, DO, or PrO. VP is functions in a sentence, such as S, DO, or PrO. VP is another important syntactic category. In a sentence another important syntactic category. In a sentence consists of a verb together with its obligatory objects consists of a verb together with its obligatory objects and complements and its optional modifiers, but and complements and its optional modifiers, but excludes the S of the sentences. Most typically, a VP excludes the S of the sentences. Most typically, a VP functions as the predicate of a sentence. Ex. Susie functions as the predicate of a sentence. Ex. Susie [spread the peanut butter carefully over the bread]; [spread the peanut butter carefully over the bread]; Susie [wants to {go home}]; Susie [has decided that Susie [wants to {go home}]; Susie [has decided that she {needs a new car}]. A VP may also function as a she {needs a new car}]. A VP may also function as a complement of a verb, which means that it is complement of a verb, which means that it is contained within a larger VP, ex. {go home}, and contained within a larger VP, ex. {go home}, and {needs a new car}. Adj.P is an entire phrase which {needs a new car}. Adj.P is an entire phrase which behaves just like an Adjective: it takes the position of behaves just like an Adjective: it takes the position of
an adjective and modifies a noun like an adjective. an adjective and modifies a noun like an adjective. Ex. very big, proud of her achievements, more Ex. very big, proud of her achievements, more expensive than that one. An AP normally contains an expensive than that one. An AP normally contains an adjective as its head (big, proud, expensive). Adv.P adjective as its head (big, proud, expensive). Adv.P is a complete phrase which behaves just like a simple is a complete phrase which behaves just like a simple adverb, such as ‘very carefully’ or ‘more slowly than adverb, such as ‘very carefully’ or ‘more slowly than Lisa’. PrP is
Lisa’. PrP is a syntactic unit consisting of aa syntactic unit consisting of a preposition followed by a noun phrase, ex. in the preposition followed by a noun phrase, ex. in the box, under the bed, to London, without a hope, in box, under the bed, to London, without a hope, in front of the house, in spite of her protestations. front of the house, in spite of her protestations. [Ilyish] The syntactic relations between the [Ilyish] The syntactic relations between the components of a phrase fall under two categories (1) components of a phrase fall under two categories (1) agreement or concord, (2) government. agreement or concord, (2) government. [Nexus constructions]
[Nexus constructions]There are many differentThere are many different kinds of nexuses according to Mincoff although the kinds of nexuses according to Mincoff although the nexus contains no verb, it contains some form of the nexus contains no verb, it contains some form of the non-finite verb – infinitive, participle, gerund. Ex. non-finite verb – infinitive, participle, gerund. Ex. Seeing (pres. part.) the books on the table; I enjoy Seeing (pres. part.) the books on the table; I enjoy seeing a nice film. Nexus constructions are widely seeing a nice film. Nexus constructions are widely used in English because they are more universal than used in English because they are more universal than finite verb forms.
finite verb forms.
Nexus construction may functions as: Nexus construction may functions as:
--
Subject ‘To live in Sofia (NC = S) was her Subject ‘To live in Sofia (NC = S) was her ambition.’ambition.’
--
Object ‘I’ve seen this play performed (NC = O)Object ‘I’ve seen this play performed (NC = O) in many towns.’in many towns.’
--
PredicativPredicative ‘She e ‘She appeared to like it.’appeared to like it.’--
Attribute ‘His desire to meet her is not weaker.’Attribute ‘His desire to meet her is not weaker.’ Nexus construction with the infinitive. We can Nexus construction with the infinitive. We can(part of Q 5) (part of Q 5) distinguish the following cases: distinguish the following cases:
1.
1. Objective Objective case + Infinitive case + Infinitive ‘I saw ‘I saw himhim (Objectiv
(Objective e case) run (infinitive).’case) run (infinitive).’ This construction is used after the verbs of: This construction is used after the verbs of: -- Sense perception – see, smell, feel, hear,Sense perception – see, smell, feel, hear, notice… ‘I noticed her arrive.’ notice… ‘I noticed her arrive.’ -- Command, desire – ask, want, wish…Command, desire – ask, want, wish… -- Causation – cause, make, get, force… ‘SheCausation – cause, make, get, force… ‘She forced him to go.’
forced him to go.’ 2.
2. NominativNominative case + ‘to ie case + ‘to infinitive’ – it usnfinitive’ – it usuallyually goes with passive voice verbs: ‘She was noticed to goes with passive voice verbs: ‘She was noticed to come.’
come.’ 3.
3. The consThe construction ‘for… truction ‘for… to’ Ex. ‘For Joto’ Ex. ‘For John tohn to marry her will be a
marry her will be a disaster.’ This structure maydisaster.’ This structure may function as subject, predicate, attribute, object and function as subject, predicate, attribute, object and adverbial modifier.
adverbial modifier.
Nexus construction with the ‘-ing’ form. It refers to Nexus construction with the ‘-ing’ form. It refers to
the following: the following: 1.
1. The absoluThe absolute constructite construction – which on – which has a subjhas a subjectect of its own: ‘Nobody saying a word (abs. of its own: ‘Nobody saying a word (abs. construction), the meeting was closed.’ construction), the meeting was closed.’ 2.
2. The extraThe extrapositional positional attribute – attribute – it does it does not havenot have subject of its own and refers to the main subject of subject of its own and refers to the main subject of the sentence ‘Talking loudly (-ing NC), she prepared the sentence ‘Talking loudly (-ing NC), she prepared the dinner.’
the dinner.’ 3.
3. The unatThe unattached patached participle is a rticiple is a structure wstructure whichhich has no subject of its own ‘Looking up the hill (NC – has no subject of its own ‘Looking up the hill (NC – impersonal), a cottage can be seen.’
impersonal), a cottage can be seen.’ Nexus construction with the Past Participle. These Nexus construction with the Past Participle. These structures are the same types as those with the ‘-ing’ structures are the same types as those with the ‘-ing’ form.
form. 1.
1. The abThe absolute csolute construction onstruction ‘The jo‘The job donb done (abs.e (abs. construction), they went home.’
construction), they went home.’ 2.
2. The eThe extrapositioxtrapositional attnal attribute ‘Bribute ‘Broke iroke in spin spiritrit (NC), he retired.’
(NC), he retired.’ 3.
3. The unThe unattached attached participle participle in very in very rare carare cases.ses. Nexus object ‘I heard that matter discussed (NO) Nexus object ‘I heard that matter discussed (NO)
last night. last night.
(part of Q 14) (part of Q 14)
Above we defined a complex sentence as a sentence Above we defined a complex sentence as a sentence containing at least one subordinate clause. Any containing at least one subordinate clause. Any classification of complex sentences is therefore classification of complex sentences is therefore bound to be based on a classification of subordinate bound to be based on a classification of subordinate
clauses. clauses.
The main clause is a clause which does not form part The main clause is a clause which does not form part of a larger clause. Every sentence necessarily of a larger clause. Every sentence necessarily contains at least one main clause. A complex contains at least one main clause. A complex sentence contains in addition at least one subordinate sentence contains in addition at least one subordinate clause. The subordinate clause cannot stand alone to clause. The subordinate clause cannot stand alone to make a complete sentence by itself, but which must make a complete sentence by itself, but which must be attached to another clause in a complete sentence. be attached to another clause in a complete sentence. There are several types: (1) an adverbial clause ‘We There are several types: (1) an adverbial clause ‘We left [before we arrived]’; (2) a relative clause ‘The left [before we arrived]’; (2) a relative clause ‘The runner [who dropped the baton] was draught’; (3) a runner [who dropped the baton] was draught’; (3) a complement clause ‘She says [that she will come]’; complement clause ‘She says [that she will come]’; (4) an embedded question ‘I don’t know [where she (4) an embedded question ‘I don’t know [where she is]’; (5) a sentential subject ‘[That she smokes] is]’; (5) a sentential subject ‘[That she smokes] surprised me’.
surprised me’.
Ilyish classifies the subordinate clauses in the Ilyish classifies the subordinate clauses in the complex sentence based on the similarity of their complex sentence based on the similarity of their functions with those of parts of simple sentence. He functions with those of parts of simple sentence. He talks about subject, predicative, object, talks about subject, predicative, object, attributive,attributive, adverbial [clauses of place, of time, of result, of adverbial [clauses of place, of time, of result, of purpose, of concession, of manner and comparison, purpose, of concession, of manner and comparison,
causal and conditional cl.], appositional and causal and conditional cl.], appositional and parentheti
parenthetical clauses. It cal clauses. It seems that he seems that he rejects therejects the existence of relative clauses in the complex sentence existence of relative clauses in the complex sentence basically stating that each subordinate clause can be basically stating that each subordinate clause can be
viewed as relative clause. viewed as relative clause.
Similarly to the case with the compound sentences Similarly to the case with the compound sentences here we can also talk about syndetic (with here we can also talk about syndetic (with coordinators) and asyndetic (without coordinators) coordinators) and asyndetic (without coordinators)
(6) Word order (FSP, Pragmatics) (6) Word order (FSP, Pragmatics) Word order in English is very rigid. There are several Word order in English is very rigid. There are several reasons for that. The personal endings of the verb reasons for that. The personal endings of the verb have disappeared except for the 3 p.sg.pres.simple have disappeared except for the 3 p.sg.pres.simple tense. The adjective appears in one single form and tense. The adjective appears in one single form and sometimes the adj. are homonymous with the sometimes the adj. are homonymous with the adverbs. The SVO (subject-verb-object) word order adverbs. The SVO (subject-verb-object) word order is typical for English and any change of it is strictly is typical for English and any change of it is strictly formalized and follows specific rules. The word formalized and follows specific rules. The word order is functional – it carries meaning. The words order is functional – it carries meaning. The words are fixed in a sentence and there are strict rules for are fixed in a sentence and there are strict rules for their position. The basic word order of a declarative their position. The basic word order of a declarative clause is Subject – Verb – Object. This pattern clause is Subject – Verb – Object. This pattern expresses the relation in the real world: Actor=S + expresses the relation in the real world: Actor=S + Action=V + Goal=O
Action=V + Goal=O
There are two deviations for this basic word order There are two deviations for this basic word order pattern – inversion and dislocation. pattern – inversion and dislocation.
Inversion concerns the SV order transformed into Inversion concerns the SV order transformed into V-S order: ‘V-S’ and ‘V’ change their position. Inversion S order: ‘S’ and ‘V’ change their position. Inversion can be:
can be:
-- Partial – when only the auxiliary comes beforePartial – when only the auxiliary comes before the Subject ‘Have you seen him?’ = Vaux. – S – the Subject ‘Have you seen him?’ = Vaux. – S – Vfull
Vfull
-- Full inversion – When a full verb comes beforeFull inversion – When a full verb comes before the subject ‘Here comes the sun.’
the subject ‘Here comes the sun.’ Inversion can also be: Inversion can also be: I)
I) GramGrammatimatical (funcal (functioctional) whenal) when is caused byn is caused by some grammatical process like interrogation ‘Have some grammatical process like interrogation ‘Have you seen him?’ Functional inversion (FI) indicates you seen him?’ Functional inversion (FI) indicates that a sentence is not declarative. Inversion is a that a sentence is not declarative. Inversion is a means structuring the sentence so as to indicate some means structuring the sentence so as to indicate some grammatical process.
grammatical process. 1.
1. FI in queFI in questiostions: ‘Do yns: ‘Do you knou know thiow this?’s?’ 2.
2. FI in FI in imperative imperative sentences sentences ‘Don’t ‘Don’t (Vaux.) (Vaux.) youyou (S) come (Vfull) here!’
(S) come (Vfull) here!’ 3.
3. FI in exclaFI in exclamatomatory sentery sentences – very rences – very restricstrictedted ‘How boring is this man’ (full inversion) ‘How boring is this man’ (full inversion) 4.
4. ConConditioditional sennal sentenctences withes without ‘if’ – ‘Weout ‘if’ – ‘Were I are I a king I would do many things.’
king I would do many things.’ II)
II) DislocationDislocational inversioal inversion –when –when is causn is caused by thed by thee dislocation of some sentence constituent to initial dislocation of some sentence constituent to initial position.
position.
Dislocation means shifting some sentences Dislocation means shifting some sentences constituents form their normal position. Spassov calls constituents form their normal position. Spassov calls it ‘emphasis through dislocation’. The speaker is it ‘emphasis through dislocation’. The speaker is producing sentences and direct his and listener’s producing sentences and direct his and listener’s attention to a certain word in a sentence. Ex. Never attention to a certain word in a sentence. Ex. Never had he seen such a beautiful vase. The whole had he seen such a beautiful vase. The whole perspective is changed and the attention is drawn to perspective is changed and the attention is drawn to never. It is a means of emphasis. ‘I visited him often never. It is a means of emphasis. ‘I visited him often (AM).’ – ‘Often (dislocated AM) did (Vaux) I (S) (AM).’ – ‘Often (dislocated AM) did (Vaux) I (S) visit (V full) him.’
visit (V full) him.’ 1.
1. DislocatioDislocation of the n of the S (subjecS (subject) – becat) – because the use the S isS is in initial position there will be a
in initial position there will be a contradicticontradiction. That’son. That’s why we may consider as subject dislocation the case why we may consider as subject dislocation the case with ‘complex subjec
with ‘complex subject’ with anticipatory it: ‘It t’ with anticipatory it: ‘It isis obvious that he is not going to come.’ – ‘That he is obvious that he is not going to come.’ – ‘That he is not going to come (S = subordinate clause), is not going to come (S = subordinate clause), is obvious.’
obvious.’ 2.
2. DislocatioDislocation of n of the V the V (verb) ((verb) (predicate). predicate). If weIf we place the V before S it will be mean ‘inversion’ but place the V before S it will be mean ‘inversion’ but there is a structure in English with ‘there’ which is there is a structure in English with ‘there’ which is not inverted pattern.
not inverted pattern.
‘There arrived (V) a stranger (S) in town.’; ‘There arrived (V) a stranger (S) in town.’; ‘Away ran the cat.’ – in a fairy tales. ‘Away ran the cat.’ – in a fairy tales. After direct speech ‘That’s enough’, said Human. After direct speech ‘That’s enough’, said Human. 3.
3. DislDislocatocation of ion of the O (the O (objeobject)ct)
•
• With inversion ‘Not a word did she say.’With inversion ‘Not a word did she say.’ •
• Without inversion ‘That book (O) I knowWithout inversion ‘That book (O) I know
•
• Dislocation of the O for contrast ‘Some thingsDislocation of the O for contrast ‘Some things (O) I (S) can do (V) and some things
(O) I (S) can do (V) and some things (O) I (S) cannot(O) I (S) cannot
(part of Q 6) (part of Q 6) 4.
4. DislDislocatocation ion of of advadverberb
•
• With meaning of frequency ‘Often have I seenWith meaning of frequency ‘Often have I seen
such things.’ such things.’
•
• With negative meaning ‘Hardly (AM) hadWith negative meaning ‘Hardly (AM) had
(Vaux.) she (S) done (Vfull) anything wrong.’ (Vaux.) she (S) done (Vfull) anything wrong.’
•
• When the adverbial is ‘thus’ to indicate manner When the adverbial is ‘thus’ to indicate manner
5.
5. Dislocation Dislocation of predof predicative (icative (Cs) ‘No Cs) ‘No full (Csfull (Cs) was) was he.’
he.’
Other cases of inversion: Other cases of inversion:
1. When a statement is repeated ‘I and ready.’ – ‘So, 1. When a statement is repeated ‘I and ready.’ – ‘So, am I.’;
am I.’;
2. Full inversion with phrasal verbs: ‘Out went the 2. Full inversion with phrasal verbs: ‘Out went the lights, in rushed the guests.’
lights, in rushed the guests.’
[FSP] The Prague school introduced the idea of the [FSP] The Prague school introduced the idea of the functional sentence perspective. Most sentences functional sentence perspective. Most sentences consists of two sections, one of them containing that consists of two sections, one of them containing that which is the starting point of the statement (or the old which is the starting point of the statement (or the old information), and the other the new information for information), and the other the new information for whose sake the sentence has been uttered or written. whose sake the sentence has been uttered or written. The pair of terms used to express these two sections The pair of terms used to express these two sections is ‘theme’ and ‘rheme’. The theme need not is ‘theme’ and ‘rheme’. The theme need not necessarily be something known in advance. It is the necessarily be something known in advance. It is the starting point of the sentence, not its conclusion. starting point of the sentence, not its conclusion. InIn Modern English there are several ways of showing Modern English there are several ways of showing that a word or phrase corresponds wither to the that a word or phrase corresponds wither to the rheme or to the theme.
rheme or to the theme.Ways of showing that a wordWays of showing that a word or phrase corresponds with the rheme: (1) The or phrase corresponds with the rheme: (1) The construction ‘it is … that [who, which]’ with the construction ‘it is … that [who, which]’ with the word or phrase representing the rheme enclosed word or phrase representing the rheme enclosed between the word ‘it is’ and the word ‘that [who, between the word ‘it is’ and the word ‘that [who,
which]’. Ex. For it is
which]’. Ex. For it is the emotion that matters. (2)the emotion that matters. (2) Another means of pointing out the rheme is a particle Another means of pointing out the rheme is a particle (only, even, etc.) accompanying the word or phrase (only, even, etc.) accompanying the word or phrase in question. Ex. Only the children, of whom there in question. Ex. Only the children, of whom there were not many, appeared aware and truly to belong to were not many, appeared aware and truly to belong to their surroundings, for the over-excited games they their surroundings, for the over-excited games they played… (3) Another means of indicating the rheme played… (3) Another means of indicating the rheme
may sometimes be the indefinite article. Ex. may sometimes be the indefinite article. Ex. Suddenly the door opened and a little birdlike elderly Suddenly the door opened and a little birdlike elderly woman in a neat grey skirt and coat seemed almost to woman in a neat grey skirt and coat seemed almost to hop into the room. [change ‘a’ with ‘the’]. Means of hop into the room. [change ‘a’ with ‘the’]. Means of representing that a word or phrase corresponds with representing that a word or phrase corresponds with the theme: (1) It may be achieved by using the the theme: (1) It may be achieved by using the definite article. (2) Another means is a loose definite article. (2) Another means is a loose parenthesis introduced by the prepositional phrase ‘as parenthesis introduced by the prepositional phrase ‘as for [as to]’. Ex. ‘As for the others, great numbers of for [as to]’. Ex. ‘As for the others, great numbers of them moved past slowly or rapidly, singly or groups, them moved past slowly or rapidly, singly or groups, carrying bags or parcels, asking for directions… carrying bags or parcels, asking for directions…
