Seminar report
Seminar report
Submitt
Submitted
ed in partial
in partial fulfil
fulfillment of
lment of the requirements
the requirements
for
for the
the award
award of
of B.tech
B.tech Degree
Degree in
in
COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
COMPUTER SCIENCE & ENGINEERING
of
of Maharish
Maharishi
i Markande
Markandeshwar
shwar Enginee
Engineering College
ring College
By
By
Bharat Kumar
Bharat Kumar
Under the guidance of
Under the guidance of
March 2017
March 2017
Depart
Maharishi Markandeshwar
Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana-133207
University, Mullana-133207
This is to certify that the content of the seminar report entitled
This is to certify that the content of the seminar report entitled
Hyperloop
Hyperloop Submitted by
Submitted by
Bharat Kumar
Bharat Kumar
for the award of
for the award of
degree of Bachelor of Technology in
degree of Bachelor of Technology in
Compute
Computer
r Scien
Science
ce &
& Technol
Technology
ogy
Of the Maharishi Markandehswar Engineering College, is a
Of the Maharishi Markandehswar Engineering College, is a
bonafide account of the work carried out by him in this
bonafide account of the work carried out by him in this
department during the academic year 2017-18 under our
department during the academic year 2017-18 under our
supervision.
I have immense pleasure to present this seminar on
I have immense pleasure to present this seminar on Hyperloop, Hyperloop, a topic of a topic of my personal interest. Firstly, I thank ‘God’, the almighty for giving me such a great my personal interest. Firstly, I thank ‘God’, the almighty for giving me such a great opportunit
opportunity to y to present this seminar.present this seminar.
I express my sincere gratitude to
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr. Neeraj Raheja Mr. Neeraj Raheja (Seminar Coordinator (Seminar Coordinator for Computer Science & Technology) for his support.
for Computer Science & Technology) for his support.
I sincerely express my gratitude to all other teachers and my dear friends for I sincerely express my gratitude to all other teachers and my dear friends for their valuable co-operation and
their valuable co-operation and help.help.
Bharat Kumar Bharat Kumar
1
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1. Abstract
1. Abstract
Existing conventional modes of transportation of people consists of four unique types: rail, Existing conventional modes of transportation of people consists of four unique types: rail, road, water, and air. These modes of transport tend to be either relatively slow (e.g., road road, water, and air. These modes of transport tend to be either relatively slow (e.g., road and water), expensive (e.g., air), or a combination of relatively slow and expensive (i.e., and water), expensive (e.g., air), or a combination of relatively slow and expensive (i.e., rail). Hyperloop is a new mode of transport that seeks to change this paradigm by being rail). Hyperloop is a new mode of transport that seeks to change this paradigm by being both
both fast fast and and inexpensive inexpensive for for people people and and goods. goods. Hyperloop Hyperloop is is also also unique unique in in that that it it is is anan open design concept, similar to Linux. Feedback is desired from the community that can open design concept, similar to Linux. Feedback is desired from the community that can help advance the Hyperloop design and bring it from concept to reality.
help advance the Hyperloop design and bring it from concept to reality.
Hyperloop consists of a low pressure tube with capsules that are transported at both low Hyperloop consists of a low pressure tube with capsules that are transported at both low and high speeds throughout the length of the tube. The capsules are supported on a and high speeds throughout the length of the tube. The capsules are supported on a cushion of air, featuring pressurized air and aerodynamic lift. The capsules are cushion of air, featuring pressurized air and aerodynamic lift. The capsules are accelerated via a magnetic linear accelerator affixed at various stations on the low accelerated via a magnetic linear accelerator affixed at various stations on the low pressure tube
pressure tube with rotwith rotors contained ors contained in in each capsule. each capsule. Passengers may Passengers may enter and enter and exitexit Hyperloop at stations located either at the ends of the tube, or branches along the tube Hyperloop at stations located either at the ends of the tube, or branches along the tube length.
In this report, the initial route, preliminary design, and logistics of the Hyperloop In this report, the initial route, preliminary design, and logistics of the Hyperloop transportation system have been derived. The system consists of capsules that travel transportation system have been derived. The system consists of capsules that travel between Los
between Los Angeles, California Angeles, California and San and San Francisco, California. Francisco, California. The total The total one-way tripone-way trip time is 35 minutes from county line to county line. The capsules leave on average every 2 time is 35 minutes from county line to county line. The capsules leave on average every 2 minutes from each terminal carrying 28 people each (as often as every 30 seconds during minutes from each terminal carrying 28 people each (as often as every 30 seconds during rush hour and less frequently at night). This gives a total of 7.4 million people per tube rush hour and less frequently at night). This gives a total of 7.4 million people per tube that can be transported each year on Hyperloop.
that can be transported each year on Hyperloop.
The total cost of Hyperloop is under $6 billion USD for two one-way tubes and 40 The total cost of Hyperloop is under $6 billion USD for two one-way tubes and 40 capsules. Amortizing this capital cost over 20 years and adding daily operational costs capsules. Amortizing this capital cost over 20 years and adding daily operational costs gives a total of $20 USD plus operating costs per one-way ticket on the passenger gives a total of $20 USD plus operating costs per one-way ticket on the passenger Hyperloop.
Hyperloop.
2. Hyperloop Transportation System
2. Hyperloop Transportation System
Hyperloop (Figure 2 and Figure 3) is a proposed transportation system for traveling Hyperloop (Figure 2 and Figure 3) is a proposed transportation system for traveling between Los
between Los Angeles, California, Angeles, California, and San and San Francisco, California Francisco, California in in 35 minutes. 35 minutes. TheThe Hyperloop consists of several distinct components, including:
1. Capsule: 1. Capsule:
a.
a. Sealed capsules carrySealed capsules carrying 28 passengers each thaing 28 passengers each that travel along the interior of the t travel along the interior of the tubetube depart on average every 2 minutes from Los Angeles or San Francisco (up to every 30 depart on average every 2 minutes from Los Angeles or San Francisco (up to every 30 seconds during peak usage hours).
seconds during peak usage hours). b.
b. A lA larger system arger system has has also been also been sized that sized that allows tallows transport of ransport of 3 full 3 full size asize automobiles withutomobiles with passengers to
passengers to travel itravel in the n the capsule.capsule.
c. The capsules are separated within the tube by approximately 37 km on average during c. The capsules are separated within the tube by approximately 37 km on average during operation.
operation.
d. The capsules are supported via air bearings that operate using a compressed air d. The capsules are supported via air bearings that operate using a compressed air reservoir and aerodynamic lift.
reservoir and aerodynamic lift. 2. Tube:
2. Tube:
a. The tube is made of steel. Two tubes will be welded together in a side-by-side a. The tube is made of steel. Two tubes will be welded together in a side-by-side configuration to allow the capsules to travel both directions.
configuration to allow the capsules to travel both directions. b.
b. Pylons are Pylons are placed every placed every 30 m 30 m to to support the support the tube.tube. c. Solar arrays will cover the top
c. Solar arrays will cover the top of the tubes in of the tubes in order to provide power to the order to provide power to the systemsystem.. 3. Propulsion:
3. Propulsion:
a. Linear accelerators are constructed along the length of the tube at various locations to a. Linear accelerators are constructed along the length of the tube at various locations to accelerate the capsules.
accelerate the capsules. b.
b. Rotors are Rotors are located on located on the capsules the capsules to to transfer momentum transfer momentum to tto the capsules he capsules via the via the linear linear accelerators.
accelerators. 4. Route: 4. Route:
a. There will be a station at Los Angeles and San Francisco. Several stations along the a. There will be a station at Los Angeles and San Francisco. Several stations along the way will be
way will be posspossible with splits in ible with splits in the tube.the tube. b.
Figure 3. Hyperloop tube stretching from Los Angeles to San Francisco. Figure 3. Hyperloop tube stretching from Los Angeles to San Francisco.
The Hyperloop is sized to allow expansion as the network becomes increasingly popular. The Hyperloop is sized to allow expansion as the network becomes increasingly popular. The capacity would be on average 840 passengers per hour which is more than sufficient The capacity would be on average 840 passengers per hour which is more than sufficient to transport all of the 6 million passengers traveling between Los Angeles and San
to transport all of the 6 million passengers traveling between Los Angeles and San Francisco areas per year. In addition, this accounts for 70% of those travelers to use the Francisco areas per year. In addition, this accounts for 70% of those travelers to use the Hyperloop during rush hour. The lower cost of traveling on Hyperloop is likely to result Hyperloop during rush hour. The lower cost of traveling on Hyperloop is likely to result in increased demand, in which case the time between capsule departures could be
in increased demand, in which case the time between capsule departures could be significantly shortened.
significantly shortened.
2.1.1 Capsule
2.1.1 Capsule
Two versions of the Hyperloop capsules are being considered: a passenger only version Two versions of the Hyperloop capsules are being considered: a passenger only version and a passenger plus vehicle version.
Hyperloop Passenger
Hyperloop Passenger Capsule
Capsule
Assuming an average departure time of 2 minutes between capsules, a minimum of 28 Assuming an average departure time of 2 minutes between capsules, a minimum of 28 passengers per
passengers per capsule are capsule are required to required to meet meet 840 passengers 840 passengers per hour. per hour. It It is is possible topossible to further increase the Hyperloop capacity by reducing the time between departures. further increase the Hyperloop capacity by reducing the time between departures. The current baseline requires up to 40 capsules in activity during rush hour, 6 of which The current baseline requires up to 40 capsules in activity during rush hour, 6 of which are at the terminals for loading and unloading of the passengers in approximately 5 are at the terminals for loading and unloading of the passengers in approximately 5 minutes.
minutes.
2.1.2 Geometry 2.1.2 Geometry
In order to optimize the capsule speed and performance, the frontal area has been In order to optimize the capsule speed and performance, the frontal area has been minimized for size while maintaining passenger comfort (Figure 5 and Figure 6). minimized for size while maintaining passenger comfort (Figure 5 and Figure 6).
Figure 5. Hyperloop passenger transport capsule conceptual design sketch. Figure 5. Hyperloop passenger transport capsule conceptual design sketch.
Figure 6. Hyperloop passenger transport capsule conceptual design rendering. Figure 6. Hyperloop passenger transport capsule conceptual design rendering.
The vehicle is streamlined to reduce drag and features a compressor at the leading face to The vehicle is streamlined to reduce drag and features a compressor at the leading face to ing
ingesest t ononcocomiming ng air air fofor r lelevivitatatiotion n anand d to to a a leslesseser r exextetent nt prpropopululsisionon. . AeAerorodydynanamicmic simulations have demonstrated the validity of this ‘compressor within a tube’ concept simulations have demonstrated the validity of this ‘compressor within a tube’ concept (Figure 7).
(Figure 7).
Figure 7. Streamlines for capsule traveling at high subsonic velocities inside Hyperloop Figure 7. Streamlines for capsule traveling at high subsonic velocities inside Hyperloop
Hyperloop Passenger
Hyperloop Passenger CapsuleCapsule
The maximum width is 1.35 m and maximum height is 1.10 m. With rounded corners, The maximum width is 1.35 m and maximum height is 1.10 m. With rounded corners, this is equivalent to a 1.4 m
this is equivalent to a 1.4 m22 frontal area, not including any propulsion or suspension frontal area, not including any propulsion or suspension components.
components.
The aerodynamic power requirements at 700 mph (1,130 kph) is around only 100 k with a The aerodynamic power requirements at 700 mph (1,130 kph) is around only 100 k with a drag force of only 320 N, or about the same force as the weight of one oversized checked drag force of only 320 N, or about the same force as the weight of one oversized checked bag
bag at at the the airport. airport. The The doors doors on on each each side side will will open open in in a a gullwing gullwing (or (or possibly possibly sliding)sliding) manner to allow easy access during loading and unloading. The luggage compartment manner to allow easy access during loading and unloading. The luggage compartment will be at the front or rear of the capsule.
will be at the front or rear of the capsule. The overa
The overall ll strstructucture ure weiweight is ght is expexpectected ed to to be be neanear r 3,13,100 00 kg kg incincludluding ing the luggathe luggagege co
compmparartmtmenents ts anand d dodoor or memechchananisism. m. ThThe e ovovererall all cocost st of of the the ststruructcturure e ininclclududiningg manufacturing is targeted to be no more than $245,000.
manufacturing is targeted to be no more than $245,000.
2.1.3 Compressor 2.1.3 Compressor
One impor
One importantant t feafeaturture e of of the the capcapsulsule e is is the onboathe onboard rd comcomprepressossor, r, whiwhich ch serserves ves twotwo purposes.
purposes. This This system system allows allows the the capsule capsule to to traverse traverse the the relatively relatively narrow narrow tube tube withoutwithout choking flow that travels between the capsule and the tube walls (resulting in a build-up choking flow that travels between the capsule and the tube walls (resulting in a build-up of air mass in front of the capsule and increasing the drag) by compressing air that is of air mass in front of the capsule and increasing the drag) by compressing air that is bypassed through
bypassed through the the capsule. It capsule. It also also supplies supplies air air to to air air bearings bearings that that support support the the weight weight of of the capsule throughout the journey.
the capsule throughout the journey.
The air processing occurs as follows (Figure 10 and Figure 11) (note mass counting is The air processing occurs as follows (Figure 10 and Figure 11) (note mass counting is tracked in Section 4.1.4):
tracked in Section 4.1.4):
Hyperloop Passenger
Hyperloop Passenger CapsuleCapsule
1. Tube air is compressed with a compression ratio of 20:1 via an axial compressor. 1. Tube air is compressed with a compression ratio of 20:1 via an axial compressor. 2. Up to 60% of this air is bypassed:
2. Up to 60% of this air is bypassed:
a. The air travels via a narrow tube near bottom of the capsule to the tail. a. The air travels via a narrow tube near bottom of the capsule to the tail. b.
b. A A nozzle nozzle at at the the tail tail expands expands the the flow flow generating generating thrust thrust to to mitigate mitigate some some of of thethe small amounts of aerodynamic and bearing drag.
small amounts of aerodynamic and bearing drag.
7. 7.
3. Up to 0.2 kg/s of air is cooled and compressed an additional 5.2:1 for the passenger 3. Up to 0.2 kg/s of air is cooled and compressed an additional 5.2:1 for the passenger version with additional cooling afterward.
version with additional cooling afterward.
a. This air is stored in onboard composite overwrap pressure vessels. a. This air is stored in onboard composite overwrap pressure vessels. b.
b. The stored The stored air iair is eventually s eventually consumed by consumed by the the air bearings air bearings to maintain to maintain distancedistance between the
between the capsule and capsule and tube tube walls.walls.
4. An onboard water tank is used for cooling of the air. 4. An onboard water tank is used for cooling of the air.
a. Water is pumped at 0.14 kg/s through two intercoolers (290 kg total mass of a. Water is pumped at 0.14 kg/s through two intercoolers (290 kg total mass of coolant).
coolant). b.
b. The steam The steam is is stored onboard stored onboard until until reaching the reaching the station.station.
c. Water and steam tanks are changed automatically at each stop. c. Water and steam tanks are changed automatically at each stop. 5. The compressor is powered by a 325 kW onboard electric motor: 5. The compressor is powered by a 325 kW onboard electric motor:
a. The motor has an estimated mass of 169 kg, which includes power electronics. An a. The motor has an estimated mass of 169 kg, which includes power electronics. An estimated 1,500 kg of batteries provides 45 minutes of onboard compressor power, estimated 1,500 kg of batteries provides 45 minutes of onboard compressor power, which is more than sufficient for the travel time with added reserve backup power. which is more than sufficient for the travel time with added reserve backup power. b.
2.1.4 Suspension 2.1.4 Suspension
Suspending the capsule within the tube presents a substantial technical challenge due to Suspending the capsule within the tube presents a substantial technical challenge due to transonic cruising velocities. Conventional wheel and axle systems become impractical at transonic cruising velocities. Conventional wheel and axle systems become impractical at high speed due frictional losses and dynamic instability. A viable technical solution is high speed due frictional losses and dynamic instability. A viable technical solution is mag
magnetinetic c levlevitatitationion; ; howhowevever er the the coscost t assassociociateated d with with matmaterierial al and and conconstrstructuction ion isis prohibitive.
prohibitive. An An alternative alternative to to these these conventional conventional options options is is an an air air bearing bearing suspension. suspension. Air Air bearings
bearings offer offer stability stability and and extremely extremely low low drag drag at at a a feasible feasible cost cost by by exploiting exploiting thethe ambient atmosphere in the tube.
ambient atmosphere in the tube.
Figure 12: Schematic of air bearing skis that support the capsule. Figure 12: Schematic of air bearing skis that support the capsule.
Externally pressurized and aerodynamic air bearings are well suited for the Hyperloop Externally pressurized and aerodynamic air bearings are well suited for the Hyperloop due to exceptionally high stiffness, which is required to maintain stability at high speeds. due to exceptionally high stiffness, which is required to maintain stability at high speeds. When the gap height between a ski and the tube wall is reduced, the flow field in the gap When the gap height between a ski and the tube wall is reduced, the flow field in the gap exhibits a highly non-linear reaction resulting in large restoring pressures. The increased exhibits a highly non-linear reaction resulting in large restoring pressures. The increased pressure
pressure pushes pushes the the ski ski away away from from the the wall, wall, allowing allowing it it to to return return to to its its nominal nominal ride ride height.height. While a stiff air bearing suspension is superb for reliability and safety, it could create While a stiff air bearing suspension is superb for reliability and safety, it could create co
consnsideiderarablble e didiscscomomfofort rt fofor r papassssenengegers rs ononboboarard. d. To To acaccocoununt t fofor r thithis, s, eaeach ch skski i isis inte
integragrated ted into into an an indindepependendent ent mecmechanhanicaical l sussuspenpensiosion, n, ensensuriuring ng a a smosmooth oth ridride e for for passengers.
passengers. The The capsule capsule may may also also include include traditional traditional deployable wheels deployable wheels similar similar to to aircraftaircraft landing gear for ease of movement at speeds under 160 kph and as a component of the landing gear for ease of movement at speeds under 160 kph and as a component of the overall safety system.
overall safety system.
2.1.5 Onboard Power 2.1.5 Onboard Power
The passeng
The passenger er capscapsule power system includes an ule power system includes an estimaestimated 2,500 kg ted 2,500 kg of batteries to of batteries to power power the capsule systems in addition to the compressor motor (using 1,500 kg of the batteries) the capsule systems in addition to the compressor motor (using 1,500 kg of the batteries) and coolant. The battery, motor, and electronic components cost is estimated to be near and coolant. The battery, motor, and electronic components cost is estimated to be near $150,000 per capsule in addition to the cost of the suspension system.
The
The paspassensenger ger pluplus s vevehiclhicle e capcapsulsule e powpower er sysystem stem incincludludes es an an estiestimatmated ed 5,55,500 00 kg kg of of batteries
batteries to to power power capsule capsule systems systems in in addition addition to to the the compressor motor compressor motor (using (using 4,000 kg 4,000 kg of of the batteries) and coolant. The battery, motor and electronic components cost is estimated the batteries) and coolant. The battery, motor and electronic components cost is estimated to be near $200,000 per capsule in addition to the cost of the suspension system.
to be near $200,000 per capsule in addition to the cost of the suspension system.
2.1.6 Propulsion 2.1.6 Propulsion
In order to propel the vehicle at the required travel speed, an advanced linear motor In order to propel the vehicle at the required travel speed, an advanced linear motor system is being developed to accelerate the capsule above 1,220 kph at a maximum of 1g system is being developed to accelerate the capsule above 1,220 kph at a maximum of 1g for comfort. The moving motor element (rotor) will be located on the vehicle for weight for comfort. The moving motor element (rotor) will be located on the vehicle for weight sav
savingings s and and powpower er reqrequiruiremeements nts whiwhile le the the tubtube e will will incincorporporaorate te the the stastatiotionarnary y motmotor or element (stator) which powers the vehicle. More details can be found in the section 4.3. element (stator) which powers the vehicle. More details can be found in the section 4.3.
Hyperloop Passenger
Hyperloop Passenger CapsuleCapsule
The overall propulsion system weight attached to the capsule is expected to be near 1,300 The overall propulsion system weight attached to the capsule is expected to be near 1,300 kg including the support and
kg including the support and emergemergency brakinency braking g systesystem. The m. The overoverall cost all cost of the of the system issystem is targeted to be no more than $125,000. This brings the total capsule weight near 33,000 lb targeted to be no more than $125,000. This brings the total capsule weight near 33,000 lb (15,000 kg) including passenger and luggage weight.
(15,000 kg) including passenger and luggage weight.
2.1.7 Cost 2.1.7 Cost
The overall cost of the Hyperloop passenger capsule version (Table 1) is expected to be The overall cost of the Hyperloop passenger capsule version (Table 1) is expected to be under $1.35 million USD including manufacturing and assembly cost. With 40 capsules under $1.35 million USD including manufacturing and assembly cost. With 40 capsules required for the expected demand, the total cost of capsules for the Hyperloop system required for the expected demand, the total cost of capsules for the Hyperloop system should be no more than $54 million USD or approximately 1% of the total budget.
should be no more than $54 million USD or approximately 1% of the total budget. Alth
Althougough h the overathe overall ll coscost t of of the projethe project ct wouwould ld be be highigherher, , we we havhave e also detaalso detaileiled d thethe expected cost of a larger capsule (Table 2) which could carry not only passengers but expected cost of a larger capsule (Table 2) which could carry not only passengers but cargo and cars/SUVs as well. The frontal area of the capsule would have to be increased cargo and cars/SUVs as well. The frontal area of the capsule would have to be increased to 4 m
Table 2. Cargo and crew capsule weight and cost breakdown Table 2. Cargo and crew capsule weight and cost breakdown V
Veehhiicclle e CCoommppoonneennt t CoCosst t (($$) ) WWeeiigghht t ((kkgg))
C
Caappssuulle e SSttrruuccttuurre e & & DDoooorrss: : $ $ 224455,,00000 0 33110000 IInntteerriioor r & & SSeeaattss: : $ $ 225555,,00000 0 22550000 P
Prrooppuullssiioon n SSyysstteemm: : $ $ 7755,,00000 0 770000 S
Suussppeennssiioon n & & AAiir r BBeeaarriinnggss: : $ $ 220000,,00000 0 11000000 B
Baatttteerriieess, , MMoottoor r & & CCoooollaanntt: : $ $ 115500,,00000 0 22550000 A
Aiir r CCoommpprreessssoorr: : $ $ 227755,,00000 0 11880000 E
Emmeerrggeennccy y BBrraakkiinngg: : $ $ 5500,,00000 0 660000 G
Geenneerraal l AAsssseemmbbllyy: : $ 1$ 10000,,00000 0 NN//AA P
Paasssseennggeerrs s & & LLuuggggaaggee: : NN//A A 22880000 T
Toottaall//CCaappssuullee: : $ $ 11,,335500,,00000 0 1155000000 Total for Hyperloop:
Total for Hyperloop: $ $ 5544,,000000,,000000
V
Veehhiicclle e CCoommppoonneennt t CoCosst t (($$) ) WWeeiigghht t ((kkgg))
C
Caappssuulle e SSttrruuccttuurre e & & DDoooorrss: : $ $ 227755,,00000 0 33550000 IInntteerriioor r & & SSeeaattss: : $ $ 118855,,00000 0 22770000 P
Prrooppuullssiioon n SSyysstteemm: : $ $ 8800,,00000 0 880000 S
Suussppeennssiioon n & & AAiir r BBeeaarriinnggss: : $ $ 226655,,00000 0 11330000 B
Baatttteerriieess, , MMoottoor r & & CCoooollaanntt: : $ $ 220000,,00000 0 55550000 A
Aiir r CCoommpprreessssoorr: : $ $ 330000,,00000 0 22550000 E
Emmeerrggeennccy y BBrraakkiinngg: : $ $ 7700,,00000 0 880000 G
Geenneerraal l AAsssseemmbbllyy: : $ 1$ 15500,,00000 0 NN//AA P
Paasssseennggeerrs s & & LLuuggggaaggee: : NN//A A 11440000 C
Caar r & & CCaarrggoo: : NN//A A 77550000 T
Toottaall//CCaappssuullee: : $ $ 11,,552255,,00000 0 2266000000 Total for Hyperloop:
2.2 Tube
2.2 Tube
The main Hyperloop route consists of a partially evacuated cylindrical tube that connects The main Hyperloop route consists of a partially evacuated cylindrical tube that connects the Los Angeles and San Francisco stations in a closed loop system (Figure 2). The tube the Los Angeles and San Francisco stations in a closed loop system (Figure 2). The tube is specifically sized for optimal air flow around the capsule improving performance and is specifically sized for optimal air flow around the capsule improving performance and energy consumption at the expected travel speed. The expected pressure inside the tube energy consumption at the expected travel speed. The expected pressure inside the tube will be maintained around 100 Pa, which is about 1/6 the pressure on Mars or 1/1000 the will be maintained around 100 Pa, which is about 1/6 the pressure on Mars or 1/1000 the pressure on
pressure on Earth. This Earth. This low low pressure minimizes pressure minimizes the the drag force drag force on the on the capsule whilecapsule while maintaining the relative ease of pumping out the air from the tube. The efficiency of maintaining the relative ease of pumping out the air from the tube. The efficiency of industrial vacuum pumps decreases exponentially as the pressure is reduced (Figure 13), industrial vacuum pumps decreases exponentially as the pressure is reduced (Figure 13), so further benefits from reducing tube pressure would be offset by increased pumping so further benefits from reducing tube pressure would be offset by increased pumping complexity.
complexity.
Figure 13. Typical vacuum pump speed for functional pressure range. Figure 13. Typical vacuum pump speed for functional pressure range.
In order to minimize cost of the Hyperloop tube, it will be elevated on pillars which In order to minimize cost of the Hyperloop tube, it will be elevated on pillars which greatly reduce the footprint required on the ground and the size of the construction area greatly reduce the footprint required on the ground and the size of the construction area required. Thanks to the small pillar footprint and by maintaining the route as close as required. Thanks to the small pillar footprint and by maintaining the route as close as possible
possible to to currently currently operated operated highways, highways, the the amount amount of of land land required required for for the the Hyperloop Hyperloop isis minimized. More details are available for the route in section 3.4.
The Hyperloop travel journey will feel very smooth since the capsule will be guided The Hyperloop travel journey will feel very smooth since the capsule will be guided directly on the inner surface of the tube via the use of air bearings and suspension; this directly on the inner surface of the tube via the use of air bearings and suspension; this also prevents the need for costly tracks. The capsule will bank off the walls and include a also prevents the need for costly tracks. The capsule will bank off the walls and include a con
controtrol l sysystem stem fofor r smosmooth oth retreturnurns s to to nomnominainal l capcapsulsule e loclocatiation on frofrom m banbankinking g as as welwell.l. Some specific sections of the tube will incorporate the stationary motor element (stator) Some specific sections of the tube will incorporate the stationary motor element (stator) whi
which ch will locallwill locally y guguide ide and and accacceleeleratrate e (or (or decdeceleeleratrate) e) the the capcapsulsule. e. MorMore e detadetails ils areare available for the propulsion system in section 3.3. Between linear motor stations, the available for the propulsion system in section 3.3. Between linear motor stations, the capsule will glide with little drag via air bearings.
capsule will glide with little drag via air bearings.
2.2.1 Geometry 2.2.1 Geometry
Th
The e gegeomometretry y of of ththe e tutube be dedepependnds s on on ththe e chchoioice ce of of eiteitheher r ththe e papassssenengeger r veversrsioion n of of Hyperloop or the passenger plus vehicles version of Hyperloop.
Hyperloop or the passenger plus vehicles version of Hyperloop.
In either case, if the speed of the air passing through the gaps accelerates to supersonic In either case, if the speed of the air passing through the gaps accelerates to supersonic velocities, then shock waves form. These waves limit how much air can actually get out velocities, then shock waves form. These waves limit how much air can actually get out of the way of the capsule, building up a column of air in front of its nose and increasing of the way of the capsule, building up a column of air in front of its nose and increasing dr
drag ag ununtil til ththe e aiair r prpresessusure re bubuildilds s up up sisigngnifificaicantntly ly in in frfronont t of of the the cacapspsulule. e. WiWith th ththee increased drag and additional mass of air to push, the power requirements for the capsule increased drag and additional mass of air to push, the power requirements for the capsule incr
increasease e sigsignifnificaicantlyntly. . It It is is thetherefrefore ore vevery ry impimportortant ant to to avoavoid id shoshock ck wavwave e forformatimationon aro
around und the the capcapsulsule e by by carcarefueful l selselectection ion of of the the capcapsulsule/te/tube ube arearea a ratratio. io. ThiThis s ensensureuress sufficient mass air flow around and through the capsule at all operating speeds. Any air sufficient mass air flow around and through the capsule at all operating speeds. Any air that cannot pass around the annulus between the capsule and tube is bypassed using the that cannot pass around the annulus between the capsule and tube is bypassed using the onboard compressor in each capsule.
onboard compressor in each capsule.
Passenger Hyperloop Tube Passenger Hyperloop Tube
The inner diameter of the tube is optimized to be 2.23 m which is small enough to keep The inner diameter of the tube is optimized to be 2.23 m which is small enough to keep material cost low while large enough to provide some alleviation of choked air flow material cost low while large enough to provide some alleviation of choked air flow around the capsule. The tube cross-sectional area is 3.91 m
around the capsule. The tube cross-sectional area is 3.91 m22 giving a capsule/tube area giving a capsule/tube area ratio of 36% or a diameter ratio of 60%.
Figure 14. Hyperloop capsule in tube cutaway with attached solar arrays. Figure 14. Hyperloop capsule in tube cutaway with attached solar arrays.
It is critical to the aerodynamics of the capsule to keep this ratio as large as possible, even It is critical to the aerodynamics of the capsule to keep this ratio as large as possible, even though the pressure in the tube is extremely low.
though the pressure in the tube is extremely low.
As the capsule moves through the tube, it must displace its own volume of air, in a As the capsule moves through the tube, it must displace its own volume of air, in a loosely similar way to a boat in water. The displacement of the air is constricted by the loosely similar way to a boat in water. The displacement of the air is constricted by the walls of the tube, which makes it accelerate to squeeze through the gaps. Any flow not walls of the tube, which makes it accelerate to squeeze through the gaps. Any flow not displaced must be ingested by the onboard compressor of each capsule, which increases displaced must be ingested by the onboard compressor of each capsule, which increases power requirements.
power requirements.
The closed loop tube will be mounted side-by-side on elevated pillars. The surface above The closed loop tube will be mounted side-by-side on elevated pillars. The surface above the tubes will be lined with solar panels to provide the required system energy. This the tubes will be lined with solar panels to provide the required system energy. This represents a possible area of 14 ft (4.25 m) wide for more than 563 km of tube length. represents a possible area of 14 ft (4.25 m) wide for more than 563 km of tube length. With an expected solar panel energy production 120 W/m
With an expected solar panel energy production 120 W/m22, we can expect the system to, we can expect the system to produce a
2.2.2 Tube Construction 2.2.2 Tube Construction
In
In orordeder r to to kekeep ep cocost st to to a a mimininimumum, m, a a ununififororm m ththicicknknesess s ststeeeel l tubtube e rereininfoforcerced d wiwithth stringers was selected as the material of choice for the inner diameter tube. Tube sections stringers was selected as the material of choice for the inner diameter tube. Tube sections would be pre-fabricated and installed between pillar supports spaced 30 m on average, would be pre-fabricated and installed between pillar supports spaced 30 m on average, varying slightly depending on location. This relatively short span allows keeping tube varying slightly depending on location. This relatively short span allows keeping tube material cost and deflection to a minimum.
material cost and deflection to a minimum.
The steel construction allows simple welding processes to join different tube sections The steel construction allows simple welding processes to join different tube sections together. A specifically designed cleaning and boring machine will make it possible to together. A specifically designed cleaning and boring machine will make it possible to surface finish the inside of the tube and welded joints for a better gliding surface. In surface finish the inside of the tube and welded joints for a better gliding surface. In addition, safety emergency exits and pressurization ports will be added in key locations addition, safety emergency exits and pressurization ports will be added in key locations along the length of the tube.
along the length of the tube.
Passenger Hyperloop Passenger Hyperloop TubeTube
A tube wall thickness between 20 to 23 mm is necessary to provide sufficient strength for A tube wall thickness between 20 to 23 mm is necessary to provide sufficient strength for the load cases considered in this study. These cases included, but were not limited to, the load cases considered in this study. These cases included, but were not limited to, pressure
pressure differential, differential, bending bending and and buckling buckling between between pillars, pillars, loading loading due due to to the the capsulecapsule weight and acceleration, as well as seismic considerations.
weight and acceleration, as well as seismic considerations. Th
The e cocosst t of of ththe e tutube be is is exexpepectcteed d to to bbe e leless ss ththaan n $6$650 50 mimilllilioon n USUSD, D, ininclcluudidingng pre-fabricated
pre-fabricated tube tube sections sections with with stringer stringer reinforcements reinforcements and and emergency emergency exits. exits. TheThe support pillars and joints which will be detailed in section 3.2.3.
support pillars and joints which will be detailed in section 3.2.3.
Passenger Plus
Passenger Plus Vehicle Hyperloop Vehicle Hyperloop TubeTube
The tube wall thickness for the larger tube would be between 23 to 25 mm. Tube cost The tube wall thickness for the larger tube would be between 23 to 25 mm. Tube cost calculations were also made for the larger diameter tube which would allow usage of the calculations were also made for the larger diameter tube which would allow usage of the cargo and vehicle capsule in addition to the passenger capsule. In this case, the cost of the cargo and vehicle capsule in addition to the passenger capsule. In this case, the cost of the tube is expected to be less than $1.2 billion USD. Since the spacing between pillars would tube is expected to be less than $1.2 billion USD. Since the spacing between pillars would not change and the pillars are more expensive than the tube, the overall cost increase is not change and the pillars are more expensive than the tube, the overall cost increase is kept to a
2.2.3 Pylons and Tunnels 2.2.3 Pylons and Tunnels
The tube will be supported by pillars which constrain the tube in the vertical direction but The tube will be supported by pillars which constrain the tube in the vertical direction but allow longitudinal slip for thermal expansion as well as dampened lateral slip to reduce allow longitudinal slip for thermal expansion as well as dampened lateral slip to reduce the risk posed by earthquakes. In addition, the pillar to tube connection nominal position the risk posed by earthquakes. In addition, the pillar to tube connection nominal position will
will be be adjadjusustabtable le ververticatically lly and and latlateraerally lly to to ensensure ure proproper per alialigngnmenment t desdespitpite e pospossibsiblele gro
ground und settsettlinling. g. TheThese se minminimaimally lly conconstrstrainained ed pillpillars ars to to tubtube e joijoints nts wilwill l alsalso o allallow ow aa smoother ride. Specially designed slip joints at stations will be able to take any tube smoother ride. Specially designed slip joints at stations will be able to take any tube len
lengtgth h vavariariancnce e dudue e to to ththerermamal l exexpapansnsioion. n. ThThis is is is an an idideaeal l lolocacatition on fofor r the the ththerermamall expansion joints as the speed is much lower nearby the stations. It thus allows the tube to expansion joints as the speed is much lower nearby the stations. It thus allows the tube to be smooth
be smooth and welded and welded along the along the high speed high speed gliding middle gliding middle section.section.
The spacing of the Hyperloop pillars retaining the tube is critical to achieve the design The spacing of the Hyperloop pillars retaining the tube is critical to achieve the design objective of the tube structure. The average spacing is 30 m, which means there will be objective of the tube structure. The average spacing is 30 m, which means there will be roughly 25,000 pillars supporting both Hyperloop tubes and overhead solar panels. The roughly 25,000 pillars supporting both Hyperloop tubes and overhead solar panels. The pillars
pillars will will be be 6 6 m m tall tall whenever whenever possible possible but but may may vary vary in in height height in in hilly hilly areas areas or or wherewhere obstacles are in the way. Also, in some key areas, the spacing will have to vary in order to obstacles are in the way. Also, in some key areas, the spacing will have to vary in order to pass
pass over over roads roads or or other other obstacles. obstacles. Small Small spacing spacing between between each each support support reduces reduces thethe deflection of the tube keeping the capsule steadier and the journey more enjoyable. In deflection of the tube keeping the capsule steadier and the journey more enjoyable. In additi
addition, reduced spacing has increased resistanon, reduced spacing has increased resistance ce to seismic to seismic loadiloading as ng as well as well as the lateralthe lateral acceleration of the capsule.
acceleration of the capsule.
Due to the sheer quantity of pillars required, reinforced concrete was selected as the Due to the sheer quantity of pillars required, reinforced concrete was selected as the construction material due to its very low cost per volume. In some short areas, tunneling construction material due to its very low cost per volume. In some short areas, tunneling may be required to avoid going over mountains and to keep the route as straight as may be required to avoid going over mountains and to keep the route as straight as possible.
possible.
The cost for the pillar construction and tube joints is anticipated to be no more than $2.55 The cost for the pillar construction and tube joints is anticipated to be no more than $2.55 billion
billion USD USD for for the the passenger passenger version version tube tube and and $3.15 $3.15 billion billion USD USD for for the the passenger passenger plusplus vehicle version tube.
vehicle version tube.
The expected cost for the tunneling is expected to be no more than $600 million USD for The expected cost for the tunneling is expected to be no more than $600 million USD for the smaller diameter tube and near $700 million USD for the larger diameter tube.
Structural simulations (Figure 15 through Figure 20) have demonstrated the capability of Structural simulations (Figure 15 through Figure 20) have demonstrated the capability of the Hyperloop to withstand atmospheric pressure, tube weight, earthquakes, winds, etc. the Hyperloop to withstand atmospheric pressure, tube weight, earthquakes, winds, etc. Dampers will be incorporated between the pylons and tubes to isolate movements in the Dampers will be incorporated between the pylons and tubes to isolate movements in the ground from the tubes.
ground from the tubes.
Figure 15. First mode shape of Hyperloop at 2.71Hz (magnified x1500). Figure 15. First mode shape of Hyperloop at 2.71Hz (magnified x1500).
Figure 17. Deformation at 1g Inertia in X (in.) (magnified x10) Figure 17. Deformation at 1g Inertia in X (in.) (magnified x10)
Figure 18. Maximum principal stress at 1g Inertia in X (psi) (magnified x10). Figure 18. Maximum principal stress at 1g Inertia in X (psi) (magnified x10).
2.2.4 Station Construction 2.2.4 Station Construction
Hyperloop stations are intended to be minimalist but practical with a boarding process Hyperloop stations are intended to be minimalist but practical with a boarding process and layout much simpler than airports.
and layout much simpler than airports.
Due to the short travel time and frequent departures, it is envisaged that there will be a Due to the short travel time and frequent departures, it is envisaged that there will be a continual flow of passengers through each Hyperloop station, in contrast to the pulsed continual flow of passengers through each Hyperloop station, in contrast to the pulsed situation at airports which leads to lines and delays. Safety and security are paramount, situation at airports which leads to lines and delays. Safety and security are paramount, and so security checks will still be made in a similar fashion as TSA does for the airport. and so security checks will still be made in a similar fashion as TSA does for the airport. Th
The e prprococesess s cocoululd d be be grgreaeatly tly ststrereamamlilinened d to to rereduduce ce wawait it timtime e anand d mamainintatain in a a momorere continuous passenger flow.
continuous passenger flow.
2.2.5 Cost 2.2.5 Cost
The overall cost of the tube, pillars, vacuum pumps and stations is thus expected to be The overall cost of the tube, pillars, vacuum pumps and stations is thus expected to be around $4.06 billion USD for the passenger version of the Hyperloop. This does not around $4.06 billion USD for the passenger version of the Hyperloop. This does not incl
include the ude the coscost t of of the the propropulpulsiosion n linelinear ar motmotors or ors or solsolar ar panpanelsels. . The tube The tube reprepresresententss approximately 70% of the total budget.
approximately 70% of the total budget.
The larger 3.3 m tube would allow the cargo and vehicle capsules to fit at a total cost The larger 3.3 m tube would allow the cargo and vehicle capsules to fit at a total cost including the tube, pillars, vacuum pumps, and stations around $5.31 billion USD. This including the tube, pillars, vacuum pumps, and stations around $5.31 billion USD. This minimal cost increase would allow a much more versatile Hyperloop system.
minimal cost increase would allow a much more versatile Hyperloop system.
2.3
2.3 Propulsio
Propulsion
n
The propulsion system has the following basic requirements: The propulsion system has the following basic requirements:
1. Accelerate the capsule from 0 to 480 kph for relatively low speed travel in urban areas. 1. Accelerate the capsule from 0 to 480 kph for relatively low speed travel in urban areas. 2.
2. MaMainintatain in the the capcapsusule le at at 48480 0 kpkph h as as nenececessssaryary, , ininclclududining g duduriring ng asascecentnts s ovover er ththee mountains surrounding Los Angeles and San Francisco.
mountains surrounding Los Angeles and San Francisco.
3. To accelerate the capsule from 480 to 1,220 kph at 1G at the beginning of the long 3. To accelerate the capsule from 480 to 1,220 kph at 1G at the beginning of the long coasting section along the I-5 corridor.
coasting section along the I-5 corridor.
4. To decelerate the capsule back to 480 kph at the end of the I-5 corridor. 4. To decelerate the capsule back to 480 kph at the end of the I-5 corridor.
The Hyperloop as a whole is projected to consume an average of 21 MW. This includes The Hyperloop as a whole is projected to consume an average of 21 MW. This includes the
the powpower er neeneeded ded to to makmake e up up for for propropulpulsiosion n motmotor or effefficieiciency ncy (inc(includluding ing eleelevavationtion changes), aerodynamic drag, charging the batteries to power on-board compressors, and changes), aerodynamic drag, charging the batteries to power on-board compressors, and vacuu
vacuum pumps m pumps to keep to keep the tube evacuatedthe tube evacuated. . A A solar array coverinsolar array covering g the entire Hyperloothe entire Hyperloop p isis lar
large ge enenouough gh to to prprovovidide e an an anannunual al avavereragage e of of 57 57 MWMW, , sisigngnifificaicantntly ly momore re ththan an ththee Hyperloop requires.
Since the peak powers of accelerating and decelerating capsules are up to 3 times the Since the peak powers of accelerating and decelerating capsules are up to 3 times the average power, the power architecture includes a battery array at each accelerator. These average power, the power architecture includes a battery array at each accelerator. These arrays provide storage of excess power during non-peak periods that can be used during arrays provide storage of excess power during non-peak periods that can be used during periods
periods of of peak peak usage. usage. Power Power from from the the grid grid is is needed needed only only when when solar solar power power is is notnot available.
available.
This section details a large linear accelerator, capable of the 480 to 1,220 kph acceleration This section details a large linear accelerator, capable of the 480 to 1,220 kph acceleration at 1G. Smaller accelerators appropriate for urban areas and ascending mountain ranges at 1G. Smaller accelerators appropriate for urban areas and ascending mountain ranges can be scaled down from this system.
can be scaled down from this system.
The Hyperloop uses a linear induction motor to accelerate and decelerate the capsule. The Hyperloop uses a linear induction motor to accelerate and decelerate the capsule. This provides several important benefits over a permanent magnet motor:
This provides several important benefits over a permanent magnet motor:
Lower
Lower material material cost cost – – the the rotor rotor can can be be a a simple simple aluminum aluminum shape, shape, and and does does not not require rare-earth elements.
require rare-earth elements. Lighter capsule.
Lighter capsule.
Smaller capsule dimensions. Smaller capsule dimensions.
The lateral forces exerted by the stator on the rotor though low at 13 N/m are inherently The lateral forces exerted by the stator on the rotor though low at 13 N/m are inherently stabilizing. This simplifies the problem of keeping the rotor aligned in the air gap.
one to capture the energy from the incoming capsule. Inverters in the 10+ MVA power one to capture the energy from the incoming capsule. Inverters in the 10+ MVA power ran
range ge are not are not unuunusuasual l in in minmininging, , dridrives for ves for larglarge e carcargo go shiships, and ps, and rairailwalway y tratractiction.on. Mo
Morereovoverer, , 10100+ 0+ MVMVA A drdrivives es arare e cocommmmererciacialllly y avavailailabablele. . ReRelalatitivevely ly ineinexpxpenensisiveve semiconductor switches allow the central inverters to energize only the section of track semiconductor switches allow the central inverters to energize only the section of track occupied by a capsule, improving the power factor seen by the inverters.
occupied by a capsule, improving the power factor seen by the inverters.
The inverters are physically located at the highest speed end of the track to minimize The inverters are physically located at the highest speed end of the track to minimize conductor cost.
conductor cost.
2.3.1 Energy Storage Components 2.3.1 Energy Storage Components
Energy storage allows this linear accelerator to only draw its average power of 6 MW Energy storage allows this linear accelerator to only draw its average power of 6 MW (rather than the peak power of 55 MW) from its solar array.
(rather than the peak power of 55 MW) from its solar array.
Building the energy storage element out of the same lithium ion cells available in the Building the energy storage element out of the same lithium ion cells available in the Tesla Model S is economical. A battery array with enough power capability to provide Tesla Model S is economical. A battery array with enough power capability to provide the worst-ca
the worst-case smoothing power has a se smoothing power has a lot of lot of energenergy – y – launclaunching 1 hing 1 capscapsule only uses ule only uses 0.5%0.5% of
of ththe e tototatal l enenerergy gy – – so so dedegrgradadatatioion n dudue e to to cycyclclining g is is nonot t an an isissusue. e. WiWith th prpropoper er con
constrstructuction ion and and concontrotrols, ls, the the batbattertery y coucould ld be be diredirectlctly y conconnecnected ted to to the the HVDHVDC C busbus,, eliminating the need for an additional DC/DC converter to connect it to the propulsion eliminating the need for an additional DC/DC converter to connect it to the propulsion system.
system.
2.3.2 Cost 2.3.2 Cost
As described above, the propulsion elements on the capsule are limited to the rotor and As described above, the propulsion elements on the capsule are limited to the rotor and not expected to cost any more than $3 million USD for the overall system. The bulk of not expected to cost any more than $3 million USD for the overall system. The bulk of the propulsion cost is for the stator elements connected to the track and for the inverters to the propulsion cost is for the stator elements connected to the track and for the inverters to drive the stator. All tube-side propulsion costs together for all linear accelerators add up drive the stator. All tube-side propulsion costs together for all linear accelerators add up to $140 million USD.
to $140 million USD.
This cost is roughly divided as followed: This cost is roughly divided as followed: - Stator and structure materials = 54% - Stator and structure materials = 54%
- Power electronics (traction inverters, grid tie inverters) = 33% - Power electronics (traction inverters, grid tie inverters) = 33% - Energy storage = 13%
- Energy storage = 13%
The solar array and associated electronics provide the required average power of 21 MW The solar array and associated electronics provide the required average power of 21 MW and are expected to cost approximately $210 million USD.
and are expected to cost approximately $210 million USD.
22. 22.
Dept. Of
2.4 Route
2.4 Route
The Hyperloop will be capable of traveling between Los Angeles and San Francisco in The Hyperloop will be capable of traveling between Los Angeles and San Francisco in approximately 35 minutes. This requirement tends to size other portions of the system. approximately 35 minutes. This requirement tends to size other portions of the system. Given the performance specification of the Hyperloop, a route has been devised to satisfy Given the performance specification of the Hyperloop, a route has been devised to satisfy this design requirement. The Hyperloop route should be based on several considerations, this design requirement. The Hyperloop route should be based on several considerations, including:
including:
1. Maintaining the tube as closely as possible to existing rights of way (e.g., following the 1. Maintaining the tube as closely as possible to existing rights of way (e.g., following the I-5).
I-5).
2. Limiting the maximum capsule speed to 1,220 kph for aerodynamic considerations. 2. Limiting the maximum capsule speed to 1,220 kph for aerodynamic considerations. 3. Limiting accelerations on the passengers to 0.5g.
3. Limiting accelerations on the passengers to 0.5g.
4. Optimizing locations of the linear motor tube sections driving the capsules. 4. Optimizing locations of the linear motor tube sections driving the capsules.
5. Local geographical constraints, including location of urban areas, mountain ranges, 5. Local geographical constraints, including location of urban areas, mountain ranges, reservoirs, national parks, roads, railroads, airports, etc. The route must respect existing reservoirs, national parks, roads, railroads, airports, etc. The route must respect existing structures.
structures.
For aerodynamic efficiency, the speed of a capsule in the Hyperloop is typically: For aerodynamic efficiency, the speed of a capsule in the Hyperloop is typically:
480 kph where local geography necessitates a tube bend radii < 1.6 km 480 kph where local geography necessitates a tube bend radii < 1.6 km
1,220 kph where local geography allows a tube bend > 4.8 km or where local 1,220 kph where local geography allows a tube bend > 4.8 km or where local geography permits
geography permits a straight a straight tube.tube.
These bend radii have been calculated so that the passenger does not experience inertial These bend radii have been calculated so that the passenger does not experience inertial accel
acceleratioerations that ns that exceeexceed d 0.5g0.5g. . This is This is deemedeemed d the maximum inertial accelerathe maximum inertial acceleration that tion that cancan be
be comfortably comfortably sustained sustained by by humans humans for for short short periods. periods. To To further further reduce reduce the the inertialinertial acc
acceleeleratration ion expexperieriencenced ed by by paspassensengergers, s, the the capcapsulsule e andand/or /or tubtube e will will incincorporporaorate te aa mechanism that will allow a degree of ‘banking’.
mechanism that will allow a degree of ‘banking’.
23. 23.
The Hyperloop route was created using Google Earth. The Hyperloop route was created using Google Earth.
2.4.1 Route Optimization 2.4.1 Route Optimization
In
In orordeder r to to avavoioid d bebend nd raradidii i ththat at wowoululd d lelead ad to to ununcocomfmforortatablble e papassssenengeger r ineinertrtiaiall accelerations and hence limit speed, it is necessary to optimize the route. This can be accelerations and hence limit speed, it is necessary to optimize the route. This can be ach
achievieved ed by by devdeviatiiating ng frofrom m the the curcurrenrent t highighwahway y syssystemtem, , earearth th remremovaoval, l, conconstrustructictingng pylons to
pylons to achieve elevation achieve elevation change or change or tunneling.tunneling. The propo
The proposed route sed route conconsidsiders a ers a comcombinbinatiation on of of 6, 6, 15, and 15, and 30 30 m, m, resrespecpectivtively ely pypylonlon heights to raise and lower the Hyperloop tube over geographical obstacles. A total tunnel heights to raise and lower the Hyperloop tube over geographical obstacles. A total tunnel length of 24.5 km has been
length of 24.5 km has been
included in this optimization where extreme local gradients (>6%) would preclude the use included in this optimization where extreme local gradients (>6%) would preclude the use of pylons. Tunneling cost estimations are estimated at $50 million per mile ($31 million of pylons. Tunneling cost estimations are estimated at $50 million per mile ($31 million per
per km). km). The The small small diameter diameter of of the the Hyperloop Hyperloop tube tube should should keep keep tunneling tunneling costs costs to to a a far far more reasonable level than traditional automotive and rail tunnels.
more reasonable level than traditional automotive and rail tunnels. The route has been divided into the following sections:
The route has been divided into the following sections:
Los Angeles/Grapevine
Los Angeles/Grapevine – South – South and Northand North I-5
I-5
I-580/San Francisco I-580/San Francisco BayBay
Summary Summary
• 480 kph for the Los Angeles Grapevine South section at 0.5g. Total time of 167 seconds • 480 kph for the Los Angeles Grapevine South section at 0.5g. Total time of 167 seconds • 890 kph for the Los Angeles Grapevine North section at 0.5g. Total travel time of 435 • 890 kph for the Los Angeles Grapevine North section at 0.5g. Total travel time of 435 seconds
seconds
• 1,220 kph along I-5 at 0.5g. Total travel time of 1,518 seconds • 1,220 kph along I-5 at 0.5g. Total travel time of 1,518 seconds
• 890 kph along I-580 slowing to 480 kph into San Francisco. • 890 kph along I-580 slowing to 480 kph into San Francisco. Total travel time of 2,134 seconds (35 minutes)
Total travel time of 2,134 seconds (35 minutes)
2.4.2 Station Locations 2.4.2 Station Locations
The major stations for Hyperloop are suggested based on high traffic regions between The major stations for Hyperloop are suggested based on high traffic regions between major cities. The largest cities by metro population in California according to 2010 to major cities. The largest cities by metro population in California according to 2010 to 2012 estimates from various sources (Table 7) are considered for station locations.
Table 7. Largest cities in California by 2013 population. Table 7. Largest cities in California by 2013 population.
Stations at these major population centers are considered for Hyperloop. One additional Stations at these major population centers are considered for Hyperloop. One additional traffic corridor to consider is between Los Angeles, California and Las Vegas, Nevada traffic corridor to consider is between Los Angeles, California and Las Vegas, Nevada with a metro population of 2.1 million. Significant traffic is present through this corridor with a metro population of 2.1 million. Significant traffic is present through this corridor on a
on a weekly basisweekly basis..
Figure 32. Suggested Hyperloop route map (map courtesy of Google Maps). Figure 32. Suggested Hyperloop route map (map courtesy of Google Maps).
C
Ciitty y PPooppuullaattiioonn (millions) (millions) L Loos s AAnnggeellees s 1188..11 San San F
Frraanncicissccoo//SSaan n 88..44 Jose
Jose S
Saan n DDiieeggo o 3..131 S
Saaccrraammeenntto o 22..66 F
The traffic between Los Angeles, California and San Francisco/San Jose, California is The traffic between Los Angeles, California and San Francisco/San Jose, California is estimated to be at least 6 million travelers per year. This possibly represents the busiest estimated to be at least 6 million travelers per year. This possibly represents the busiest corridor of travel in California. Travel along this corridor is anticipated to increase with corridor of travel in California. Travel along this corridor is anticipated to increase with completion of the Hyperloop due to both decreased travel time and decreased travel cost. completion of the Hyperloop due to both decreased travel time and decreased travel cost. Additional Hyperloop stations are suggested at the following major population centers: Additional Hyperloop stations are suggested at the following major population centers: 1. San Diego, California:
1. San Diego, California:
a. Connects to Los Angeles, California main station. a. Connects to Los Angeles, California main station. b.
b. Capsule departures Capsule departures every 5 every 5 minutes.minutes.
c. Transports around 3 million people per year. c. Transports around 3 million people per year. 2. Las Vegas, Nevada:
2. Las Vegas, Nevada:
a. Connects to Los Angeles, California main station. a. Connects to Los Angeles, California main station. b.
b. Uses Uses a a portion portion of of the the San San Diego Diego branch branch route route near near Los Los Angeles Angeles and and tube tube branchesbranches near San Bernardino, California.
near San Bernardino, California. c. San Francisco bound travelers: c. San Francisco bound travelers: d. Capsule departures every 8 minutes. d. Capsule departures every 8 minutes.
e. Transports around 1.8 million people per year. e. Transports around 1.8 million people per year. 3. Sacramento, California:
3. Sacramento, California:
a. Connects to San Francisco, California main station. a. Connects to San Francisco, California main station. b.
b. Uses Uses a a portion portion of of the the main main route route near near San San Francisco Francisco and and tube tube branches branches near near Stockton, California.
Stockton, California.
c. Capsule departures every 15 minutes. c. Capsule departures every 15 minutes.
d. Transports around 1 million people per year. d. Transports around 1 million people per year. 4. Fresno, California:
4. Fresno, California: a.
a. ConConnecnects ts to to botboth h San San FraFrancinciscosco, , CalCalififornornia ia and and LoLos s AngAngeleeles, s, CalCalifoifornirnia a maimainn stations.
stations. b.
b. Los Angeles Los Angeles bound travelers:bound travelers:
i. Uses the main route closer to San Francisco plus a small branch along State i. Uses the main route closer to San Francisco plus a small branch along State Route 41 near Fresno.
Route 41 near Fresno.
ii. Capsule departures every 15 minutes. ii. Capsule departures every 15 minutes.
iii. Transports around 1 million people per year. iii. Transports around 1 million people per year.
