UNIT 11 - MOTIVATION & WORK PPT 12.15.12.pptx

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Motivation & Work

• _{Motivation – a need or}

desire that energizes and directs behavior

– _{Asking “What motivated you to} do that?” is the same as asking “What caused your behavior?” – _{Aron Ralston – mountain}

climber who was motivated to cut off half his arm in order to free himself from being

trapped

Motivational Concepts • _{Instinct theory}

– now replaced by evolutionary perspective

• _{Drive-Reduction theory}

• _{Arousal theory}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology

• _{Early 20}th_{century more than}

5,759 “instincts” were identified

– Ineffective as it only named

but did not explain behavior

• _{Instinct – a complex}

behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology

• _{Instinct Example:}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Drives & Incentives

• _{Drive-reduction theory –}

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

– When a physiological need increases, so does a

psychological drive (an aroused, motivated state)

• _{Homeostasis – a tendency}

to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Homeostasis example: the}

body’s temperature regulation system.

– If our body temp cools, blood vessels constrict to conserve warmth, and we also feel

driven to put on more clothes or seek a warmer

environment

Drives & Incentives EXAMPLE:

• _{Need = food or water} • _{Drive = hunger or thirst}

• _{Drive-reducing behavior = eating}

or drinking

• _{Incentive – a positive or}

negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior (ex.

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{When there is both a}_need

(food) and an incentive (food smells good), we feel strongly

driven (hunger).

Optimum Arousal

• _{Some drives don’t satisfy}

any physiological need; Ex: curiosity of the unfamiliar

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Optimum Arousal

• _{Human behavior seeks}

optimum levels of arousal – Too little arousal results in

boredom and seeking stimulation

– Too much arousal results in stress and seeking less

stimulation

A Hierarchy of Motives • _{Hierarchy of Needs –}

Maslow’s (1970) pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be

satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

A Hierarchy of Motives • _{Maslow’s Hierarchy of}

Needs (from bottom up): – 1. Physiological – hunger &

thirst

– 2. Safety – feel world as organized and

predictable

– 3. Belongingness & Love – to love and be loved;

belong and be accepted; avoid lonliness

A Hierarchy of Motives

– _{4. Esteem – self-esteem,}

achievement,

competence, independence; respect

from others

– 5. Self-actualization – to live up to one’s fullest and unique potential

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Hunger

• _{“Hunger does something to}

you that’s hard to describe.”

– _{Nazi concentration camp}

survivor

• _{The power of activated}

motives can hijack our consciousness (most

attention directed there)

– _{Hunger, sexual arousal, fatigue}

• _{“Motives matter mightily.”}

Physiology of Hunger

• _{Ancel Keys (1950) – creator}

of WWII Army K rations

• _{A.L. Washburn and Walter}

Cannon (1912)

– _{Intentionally swallowed} balloon to monitor stomach – _{Found that stomach}

contractions accompany the feeling of hunger

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Body Chemistry & The Brain

• _{Glucose – the form of sugar} that circulates in the blood and provides the major

source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

– _{Insulin (hormone) secreted by} the pancreas diminishes blood glucose, triggering hunger

• Also involves stomach, intestines, and liver

Body Chemistry & The Brain • _{Hypothalamus – small but}

complex neural traffic intersection within brain

– Lateral (sides) Hypothalamus activity brings on hunger

• _{Here exists hunger-triggering}

hormone Orexin

– _{Ventromedial (lower-mid)}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Body Chemistry & The Brain • _{Some patients with tumors}

on brain near hypothalamus experience excessive eating

Appetite Hormones

• _{Insulin – secreted by pancreas;} controls blood glucose

• Leptin – secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger • _{Orexin – hunger-triggering hormone}

secreted by the hypothalamus

• _{Ghrelin – secreted by empty stomach;} sends “I’m hungry” signal to brain

• Obestatin – secreted by stomach; sends “I’m full” signals to brain

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Body Chemistry & The Brain

• _{Set Point – the point at which}

an individual’s “weight

thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered

metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

• _{Basal Metabolic Rate – the}

body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Body Chemistry & The Brain • _{Heredity influences body}

type and set point

• _{Today experts prefer to use}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Psychology of Hunger

• _{Part of knowing when to eat is}

our memory of our last meal

• _{Feeling tense or depressed –}

people in any culture crave starchy, carbohydrate-laden foods

• Carbohydrates boost

neurotransmitter serotonin, which has calming effects

– _{Sweet & salty tastes are genetic}

and universal

• _{Some food preferences are}

conditioned

– Eating highly salted foods creates a liking for more salt

– We develop food aversions to tastes we have experienced while sick

– Various cultures consider very different foods tasty

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Neophobia – dislike of}

things unfamiliar

– Adaptive quality of our ancestors, protecting them from toxic things

• _{Pregnancy-related nausea}

serves to protect the

developing embryo when it is most vulnerable to toxins

Ecology of Eating

• _{People eat}_more_when

eating with others

• _{Social Facilitation – when}

the presence of others

tends to amplify our natural behavior tendencies

• _{Unit Bias – EX: the French}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Ecology of Eating

• _{Unit Bias (continued)}

– When offered a supersized standard portion, people consume more calories

– Control: reduce standard portion sizes and serve food using smaller bowls, plates, and utensils (helps combat obesity)

Eating Disorders

• Our bodies are naturally predisposed to maintain a normal weight

– This includes stored energy

reserves for times when food is in shortage

• Anorexia Nervosa – an eating disorder in which a person

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Anorexia Nervosa}

– _{Typically begins as weight-loss}

diet

– _{3 of 4 cases are female}

– _{Binge-purge-depression cycle}

• _{Bulimia Nervosa – an eating}

disorder characterized by

episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use,

fasting, or excessive exercise.

Eating Disorders • _{Bulimia Nervosa}

– Triggered by weight-loss diet

– Gorging on forbidden foods

– Eat in spurts, like an alcoholic consumes alcohol

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Binge-eating disorder –}

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the

compensatory purging, fasting, or excessive

exercise that marks bulimia nervosa.

• Family Environment may facilitate eating disorders:

– _{Mothers of girls with eating disorders}

tend to focus on own weight and daughter’s too

– Families of bulimia:

• Higher childhood obesity & negative self-evaluation

– Families of anorexia:

• Competitive, high-achieving, protective

• Sufferers have low

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Genetic link: identical twins}

are more likely than

fraternal twins to share an eating disorder

• _{Cultural link: in Africa,}

thinness may signal poverty, AIDS, and hunger, so bigger seems better (opposite

appears to be true in U.S.)

• 9 in 10 women said they would rather have a perfect body than have a mate with a perfect

body

– _{6 in 10 men said same thing}

about themselves

• _{Vulnerability to Eating}

Disorders: most vulnerable are those who idealize thinness and have greatest body

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Prevention programs DO}

help individuals accept their own body

– Holds true especially if the programs are interactive and focused on girls over age 15

Hunger Motivation

• _{Biological Influences}

– Hypothalamic centers in the brain monitoring appetite

– Appetite hormones

– Stomach pangs

– Weight set / settling point

– Attraction to sweet and salty tastes

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Psychological Influences} – Sight and smell of food

– Variety of foods available

– Memory of time elapsed since last meal

– Stress and mood

– Food unit size

• _{Social-Cultural Influences} – Culturally learned taste

preferences

– Responses to cultural

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Obesity & Weight Control • _{According to CDC, 66% of}

Americans are overweight

• _{Fat is ideal form of stored}

energy

• _{In countries where people}

face famine, obesity signals wealth and social status

• _{Cultures without thin-ideal}

for women experience no eating disorders

Obesity & Weight Control

• _{Energy-rich fat or sugar that}

helped our ancestors survive has become dysfunctional today.

• _{1 billion + of world’s people}

are overweight

– 34% American adults obese

• _{World obesity rates may}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Significant Obesity triggers:}

– Diabetes

– High blood pressure

– Heart disease

– Gallstones

– Arthritis

– Cancer

– Shortened life expectancy

• _{BMI – Body Mass Index} • _{Calculated by taking:}

Weight in Kg (pounds x .45)

Squared height in meters (inches/39.4)Squared

• _{1984 the U.S. Medicare}

system began recognized obesity as an illness

• _{Obesity can affect how you}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Obesity & Weight Control • _{Obese stereotype:}

– Slow, lazy, sloppy

– Less sincere, less friendly, meaner, more obnoxious

• _{Compared with women of}

equal intelligence, obese women:

– _{Make less money}

– _{Are less likely to be married}

Obesity & Weight Control • _{Weight discrimination in}

hiring for jobs is greater than race or gender

discrimination.

– _{All parts of employment}

cycle: hiring, placement, promotion, compensation, discipline, and discharge

– _{Also more likely to affect}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Obesity & Weight Control • _{Prejudice appears early:}

– Children are disdainful of fat children

– Children tend to avoid other children who hang around fat children (social influence)

• _{Obesity = lower}

psychological well-being

– _{Increased rates of depression}

and anxiety

Physiology of Obesity

• _{Energy equivalent of 1 pound of fat} = 3500 calories

• _{Determinant of body fat is twofold:} size and number of fat cells

– _{Typically have 30-40 billion}

– _{Cells can vary from being “empty” to} “overly full”

– _{May swell to 2x or 3x normal}

– _{May divide and increase total number} of fat cells

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Fat has lower metabolic rate}

than other tissue

– Once we become fat, we require less food to maintain that weight

– When obese people starve their bodies of food, in an attempt to lose weight, their metabolism drops

significantly

• Lean people tend to fidget and move about more

– Obese people tend to sit still longer and conserve energy

• _{Studies do reveal a genetic}

influence on body weight

– _{People’s weight resemble}

biological parents

– _{Identical twins reared apart have}

similar weights

– _{With an obese parent, a boy is 3x}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Physiology of Obesity • _{Genes and Obesity}

– FTO is a variant gene which nearly doubles the risk of becoming obese

• _{Food & Activity Factors}

– Individuals who are sleep

deprived are more vulnerable to obesity

– With sleep deprivation, levels of leptin fall and ghrelin rise

– _{People are most likely to}

become obese when a friend becomes obese (social factor)

• _{Mexico reported:}

– _{1 in 10 people were obese in} 1989; 7 in 10 today

– _{Changing food consumption} and activity levels

• Soft drinks

• _{Activity levels (TV viewing)} • _{Energy-rich foods along with}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Physiology of Obesity • _{In one study, after}

controlling for exercise, smoking, age, and diet – each two-hour increase in daily TV watching predicted a 23% obesity increase and a 7% diabetes increase

• _{People living in}

walking-dependent communities weigh less than those

dependent on automobiles

• _{We are less active today and}

eating a higher calorie diet than our ancestors

• _{Since 1960, the average}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Stadiums, theaters, and}

subway cars are widening their seats

• _{Governments are now}

promoting cycling and walking with increased numbers of pathways

• _{New school nutrition}

programs in many states

• _{Additional reform ideas:}

– Reduce advertising of fatty, sugary food to children

– Establish fast-food-free zone around schools

– Extra tax on junk food and soft drinks

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Losing Weight

• _{Both men and women}

prefer losing weight versus being 5 years younger

• _{An obese person’s body}

when back to normal

weight is a “semi-starved” body

• _{Most people who}

successfully lose weight gain it back + more

Losing Weight

• _{Successful plans include}

realistic and moderate goals – Reasonable timeline for 10%

weight loss is 6 months

– Better to be a bit overweight than extremely thin

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Losing Weight

• _{Other option is to accept}

one’s weight:

– _{Relentless pursuit of thinness}

puts person at risk for binge eating and food obsession

– _{National Association to Advance}

Fat Acceptance

• Discounts health risks of being obese

• Better to accept oneself as heavy as opposed to doing unhealthy things to become thin

Waist Management Tips

• _{Begin only if you feel}

motivated and self-disciplined

• _{Minimize exposure to}

tempting food cues

• _{Take steps to boost your}

metabolism

• _{Eat healthy foods}

• _{Don’t starve all day only to}

eat one big meal at night

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Sexual Motivation

• _{Sexual Response Cycle – the}

four stages of sexual

responding described by Masters and Johnson –

excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

– Excitement

• _{Increased blood flow to genital}

areas

• Vagina expands and secretes lubricant

• _{Breasts and nipples enlarge}

Sexual Motivation – _Plateau

• Excitement peaks; breathing, pulse, blood pressure all rise

• _{Penis fully engorged} – _Orgasm

• Muscle contractions ALL over the body

• Further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure

rates

– _Resolution

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{In men and women, same}

subcortical (brain) regions are active during orgasm

• _{Refractory Period – a resting}

period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

– Extremely short for women

• _{Sexual Disorder – a problem}

that consistently impairs sexual arousal or

functioning

– _{Premature ejaculation (men)} – _{Erectile dysfunction (men)} – _{Orgasmic dysfunction}

(women)

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Along with physical}

attraction, emotional closeness, security, and intimacy also matter

• _{Therapy used to treat}

disorders:

– Behavior therapy

– Viagra (1998)

Hormones & Sexual Behavior

• _{Sex hormones}

– _{Direct physical development} of male/female sex

characteristics

– _{Activate sexual behavior}

• _{“In heat” = when female}

becomes sexually receptive as estrogen peaks during ovulation

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Hormones & Sexual Behavior • _{Castration – when testes}

are removed in males (usually animals; cows)

– Leads to loss of production of testosterone; loss of interest in receptive females

• _{Females during ovulation}

– Sexual desire rises

– Intercourse more frequent – Fantasize about desirable

partners

– Wear more sexually attractive clothing

• _{With humans, females are}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Hormones & Sexual Behavior • _{Testosterone-Replacement Therapy}

– Sometimes restores diminished sexual appetite

– Usually administered through use of a

patch

• _{In men, fluctuations in testosterone} have little effect on sex drive

– Married fathers tend to have lower testosterone levels

– _{Sexual arousal may be a cause AND} consequence of increased

testosterone levels

• _{Castration in Humans}

– _{In prepubescent boys in 1600s}

and 1700s to preserve soprano voices for Italian opera

– _{Normal sexual characteristics}

and sexual desire doesn’t occur

• _{Adult male sex offenders –}

often take Depo-Provera (drug used to reduce

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Hormones & Sexual Behavior • _{Not only hormones (like fuel}

in gas tank), but also psychological stimuli

motivates sexual behavior

• _{Hunger is a need; sex is not}

a need

• _{Both hunger and sex are}

dependent upon external and imagined stimuli, as

well as cultural expectations

Psychology of Sex

• _{Both men and women}

report being aroused when they see, hear, or read

erotic material

– _{Most such material is}

marketed to males

– _{Men show a more active}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Habituation – with repeated}

exposure to erotic stimuli, one’s emotional response lessens

• _{Sexually explicit material may}

have adverse effects:

– _{Depictions of women being}

sexually coerced (and enjoying it) tend to increase viewers false idea that women enjoy rape, therefore increasing willingness to hurt women

– _{Viewing images of sexually}

attractive women and men may lead one to devalue own partner and relationship

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Brain = most significant sex}

organ

– People with spinal cord

injuries that have no genital sensation still feel sexual desire

– Although most dreams have NO sexual content, genital arousal accompanies all types of dreams

• _{95% of men and women}

have sexual fantasies

– Men fantasize about sex more often, more physically, and less romantically

– Fantasizing about sex DOES NOT indicate a sexual

problem or dissatisfaction

• _{Sexually active people tend}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Adolescent Sexuality

• _{In 1900, 3% of those under}

age 18 experienced

premarital sex; in 2005, that number rose to 47%

• _{Teen intercourse rates in}

U.S. are similar to Latin America and Western Europe

– _{Lower rates in Arab and Asian}

countries

Adolescent Sexuality

• _{75% of individual variation}

in age of sexual initiation is due to environment

– Family and cultural values

• _{Sex during teen years is}

often unprotected – Risk of pregnancy

– Sexually Transmitted

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Teen Pregnancy

• _{American teens have lower}

rates of contraceptive use and higher rates of

pregnancy and abortion than do European teens

• _{Although most teens claim}

to be knowledgeable about sex, many are ignorant of the risks

Teen Pregnancy

• _{Most teens overestimate}

their peers sexual activity

• _{Contraceptive sex education}

DOES NOT increase

adolescent sexual activity (Surgeon General, 2001)

– Increases intention to practice safer sex

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Teen Pregnancy

• _{There is minimal}

communication about birth control

– _{Those who communicate freely}

with parents and are in an

exclusive relationship are more likely to use contraceptives

• _{Guilt related to sexual activity}

– _{72% of 12-to 17-year old girls}

said they regretted having sex

Teen Pregnancy

• Alcohol Use

– Sexually active teens usually use alcohol too

– _{Depresses brain centers}

controlling judgment, inhibition, and self-awareness

• _{Mass media norms}

– _{Average hour of prime-time TV on}

major networks includes 15

sexual acts, words, and innuendos

– _{Teens tend to then believe this is}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Sexually Transmitted Infections

• _{CDC study of sexually active}

14- to 19-year olds in U.S. found 39.5% had STIs

• _Example:

– _{Pat has sex with 9 people,}

who each have sex with 9 others, who in turn have sex with 9 others; the total

number of sexual partners is

511

• _Example:

– Using a prevention method that is 98% effective, there is a 2% chance it fails the first time

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Condoms offer little}

protection against skin-to-skin STIs

– Condoms HAVE been 80% effective in preventing the spread of HIV

• _{In U.S., facts about STIs}

have led to a greater emphasis on teen abstinence

• _{Predictors of Sexual Restraint:} – High Intelligence

– Religious Engagement

– Father Presence

– Participation in Service Learning

• Volunteering as tutors or teachers’ aides

• Participating in

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Declining teen birth rates}

since 1991

– Increased condom use

– Decreased sexual intercourse

Sexual Orientation

• _{Sexual Orientation – an}

enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

– All cultures in all times have been predominantly

heterosexual

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Sexual Orientation • _{Opinion that}

“homosexuality is never justified” is shared by:

– 32% of Chileans

– 50% of Americans

– 98% of Kenyans/Nigerians

• _{Gay men and lesbians often}

recall childhood play

preferences like those of the other sex

• _{Most homosexuals only}

become aware of same-sex attraction during or shortly after puberty; also don’t identify with being

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Exclusively homosexual}

population:

– 3-4% of males

– 1-2% of females

*2000 U.S. Census reported 2.5% of population is gay/lesbian

– Fewer than 1% report being actively bisexual (attracted to both sexes)

Sexual Orientation • _{Homosexuals in a}

heterosexual culture: – Ostracized or fired for

admitting sexuality

– Crude jokes

– See heterosexuality dominate TV shows/movies

– Hear family members plead with them to change

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Homosexuality is NOT}

associated with mental disorders, emotional or social problems (APA 2007)

• _{Same-sex civil unions}

provide emotional, social, and health benefits similar to heterosexual unions

• _{Most psychologists today}

view homosexuality as

neither willfully chosen nor willfully changed

– _{May be compared to}

handedness; many are right handed, some are left handed

• _{Women’s sexual orientation}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Women prefer periods of}

high sexual activity

alternating with periods of no sexual activity

– _{Women have higher tendency}

of bisexual attractions

• _{Erotic plasticity –}

Baumeister’s term for women’s nonspecific

responses to male or female sexual activity

Origins of Sexual Orientation

• _{Sexual orientation does NOT}

appear to be due to:

– _{Problems in child’s relationship}

with parents

– _{Fear or hatred of people of}

other gender

– _{Levels of sex hormones in}

blood

– _{Childhood molestation,}

seduction, or sexual

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Origins of Sexual Orientation • _{Homosexuals in specific}

populations:

– Poets (24% are homosexual)

– Fiction Writers (21%)

– Artists/Musicians (15%)

– Occupations such as

decorators, florists, flight attendants

• _{Since most (96%) men are}

not gay, MOST men in these occupations are straight

• _{Men with older brothers are}

somewhat more likely to be gay (about 1/3 more likely for each additional older brother)

– Called the “fraternal birth-order effect”

• Reasons are unclear why • Possibly due to maternal

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

– _{Fraternal birth-order effect}

(continued):

• Occurs only in males from same mother (not adopted), and only among

right-handed men

• This effect is NOT found among women with older sisters

– _{Gay men recall going through}

puberty somewhat earlier, when peers are more likely to be all males

(50)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Same-Sex Attraction in Animals

• _{Some degree of}

homosexuality seems to be a natural part of the animal world

– _{Grizzlies, gorillas, monkeys,}

flamingos, owls, swans, penguins all show some homosexuality within their species

Brain & Sexual Orientation • _{Brains differ with sexual}

orientation

– Gay men and straight women have brain hemispheres of similar sizes

– In straight men and lesbian women, the right hemisphere is larger

• _{The hypothalamic center is}

(51)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Brain & Sexual Orientation • _{Brain structures vary with}

experience…but it is more likely that brain anatomy influences sexual

orientation

• _{Brain structures in}

homosexual males

differentiate very early

postnatally, if not prenatally

Brain & Sexual Orientation

• _{Males and females respond}

differently to hormone-derived sexual scents

– _{Straight women and}

homosexual men show activity in the area of the

hypothalamus governing sexual arousal

– _{Straight men respond only to}

female scent

– _{Also works with responses to}

(52)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Genes & Sexual Orientation • _{Evidence does indicate a}

genetic influence on sexual orientation.

– Homosexuality does appear to run in families

– Twins studies show that

genes play a substantial role in explaining individual

differences in sexual orientation

Genes & Sexual Orientation – _{A single gene in fruit flies is}

sufficient to determine sexual orientation and behavior

• _{With humans it probably}

involves multiple genes

– _{“Gay genes might exist”}

– _{Homosexual men have more}

homosexual relatives on their mother’s side than on their father’s

• Maternal relatives of

(53)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Prenatal Hormones & Sexual Orientation

• _{Shared prenatal environment}

may be factor in homosexuality

– _{Abnormal prenatal hormone} conditions has proven to alter a fetus’ sexual orientation in some animals and humans – _{Critical period may exist from}

middle of 2nd_-5th_{months of}

fetal development, for brain’s neural-hormonal control

system

– _{Exposure to hormone levels}

typically experienced by

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{For many traits, gays and lesbians}

appear to fall midway between straight females and straight males

– _{Cochlea and hearing systems}

develop in this manner

• Attributable to prenatal hormonal environment

– _{Fingerprint ridges}

• Greater right-left difference in heterosexual males than in females and gay males

• Fingerprint ridges complete by 16th

week of prenatal dev.

– _Handedness

• _{Homosexuals have 39%}

greater odds of being non-right-handed

– Hair Whorls

• _{20% of gay men have a}

counterclockwise hair whorl

– _{Spatial Abilities}

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UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Straight women and gay}

men do better at

remembering objects’ spatial locations as in memory games

• _{Skeptics say biological}

factors may predispose a temperament that

influences sexuality

• _{Temperaments may lead}

children to prefer gender-typical or gender-agender-typical activities and friends.

• _{Pendulum has swung}

(56)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Those who believe that sexual}

orientation is biologically disposed also express more accepting attitudes

– 41% of Americans believe this biological explanation

– _{May help ease concern of}

children being “influenced” by gay adults

– _{May lead to parents aborting a}

fetus of an unwanted orientation

Sex & Human Values

• _{See Table 11.1 on p. 476 –}

Biological Correlates of Sexual Orientation

• _{Values tend to be}_personal

but also cultural

• _{Labels describe, but also}

evaluate

(57)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Sex & Human Values

• _{“Promiscuous recreational}

sex poses certain

psychological, social, health, and moral problems that

must be faced realistically.” – _{Diana Baumrind}

(University of California child-rearing expert)

• _{Sex is a socially significant}

act (not simply recreational)

The Need to Belong

• _{“We are a social animal”}

– Aristotle

• _{We have a need to affiliate}

with others

– An urge to community

– _{To be involved in something}

(58)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Aiding Survival}

– Social bonds boosted our ancestors survival rate

– “Wretched” = literally means without kin nearby

– Survival enhanced by cooperation

– People who feel supported are

happier, healthier, and at

lower risks of psychological disorders and premature death

The Need to Belong • _{Wanting to Belong}

– “What makes life meaningful?”

• _{Most people respond with}

“close, satisfying

relationships with family, friends, and or romantic partners.”

• _{Money means less than rich}

(59)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{To enjoy a “good life”, most}

people want to experience:

– _{Relatedness = Connected} – _{Autonomy = Free}

– _{Competence = Capable}

• _{Our self-esteem rises when}

we feel:

– _Included – _Accepted – _Loved

The Need to Belong • _Positives:

– Loving families

– Faithful friendships

– Team spirit

• _Negatives:

– _{Teen gangs} – _{Ethnic rivalries}

(60)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Sustaining Relationships}

– _{Familiarity breeds liking, not}

contempt

– _{Fear of being alone may seem}

worse than the pain of an abusive relationship

– _{Children who move through a}

series of foster homes

experience repeated disruptions in forming attachments, and later have difficulty forming deep attachments

– _{Children who are reared in}

institutions without a sense of belonging to anyone

become withdrawn,

frightened, and speechless

– Chain migration is

(61)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

The Pain of Ostracism • _{Ostracism – to feel}

excluded, ignored, shunned, or receive “the silent

treatment”

• _{Political Examples:}

– Exile

– Imprisonment

– Solitary Confinement

The Pain of Ostracism

• _{“To experience ostracism is}

to experience real pain.”

• _{Cyber-ostracism}_{– to be}

ignored via email, chat

room, or other social media – Elicits brain activity in the

(62)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

The Pain of Ostracism • _{Social rejection:}

– Leads to a lack of empathy for others

– Leads one to act in more disparaging/aggressive ways

– Leads one to seek new friends

– Ostracism weaves through case after case of school violence

Motivation at Work

• _{“The healthy life is filled by}

love and by work.” – Sigmund Freud

• _{Work defines us}

• _{Colleges & Universities:}

(63)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Motivation at Work • _{View work as a}_job

– Way to make money

• _{View work as a}_career

– Opportunity to advance

• _{View work as a}_calling

– _{Fulfilling and socially useful}

activity (*highest satisfaction)

• _{People’s quality of life}

increases when they are purposefully engaged

• _{Flow – a completely}

involved, focused state of consciousness, with

diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of

(64)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Internet-related distractions}

can disrupt flow, adding time to refocus on a task

• _{Flow experiences boost our}

self-esteem, competence, and well-being

• _{People reported lower}

well-being when unemployed, idle, having nothing to do

• _{Work in America has}

changed from agriculture to manufacturing to

knowledge work

– _{As the type of work we do}

(65)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Industrial-organizational (I/}

O) psychology – the

application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

– Human Factors Psychology

• _{Explores how machines and}

environments can be optimally designed to fit human abilities

– _{Subfields of Human Factors}

Psychology

• Personnel Psychology – subfield of I/O psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

• Organizational Psychology – subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational

influences on worker

(66)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Personnel Psychology

• _{AT&T hired psychologist}

who created a test to

identify likely-to-succeed customer representatives

• _{When the “right people”}

are matched with the “right jobs”, both workers and the company flourishes

• Sample Employee Strengths:

– Curious

– _Persuasive – _Charming – _Persistent – Competitive

– Analytical

– _Empathetic – _Organized – _Neat

– Articulate

(67)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{The first step to a stronger}

organization (company) is instituting a

strengths-based selection system

• _{Interviews seeking to assess}

a “gut feeling” about a

potential candidate are very error-prone

– _{Handwriting analysis tests are}

worthless

• _{Better predictors of future}

long-term job performance: – General mental ability tests

– Aptitude tests

– Work samples

– Job Knowledge Tests

(68)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

The Interviewer Illusion

• _{Interviewer Illusion – when}

interviewers often overrate their discernment, or ability to read people

– Interviews reveal good intentions, not habitual behaviors

– Interviewers often focus on the successful careers of those they have hired, NOT those they

have rejected in the past, and their reasons for rejection

The Interviewer Illusion

– _{Interviewers presume that}

people are what they seem to be in the interview situation

– _{Interviewers’ preconceptions}

and moods color how they perceive interviewee’s

responses

• _{If interviewer sees an}

applicant as being “like

(69)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Interviews

• _{Unstructured Interviews –}

provide a sense of someone’s personality, expressiveness, warmth, and verbal ability

• _{Structured Interviews –}

interview process that asks the same job-relevant

questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scaled

Interviews

• _{Structured interviews have}

double the predictive accuracy of unstructured interviews

– This statement based on over 150 different studies

– Structured interviews also help to reduce bias

– Be careful to not replace the “old boy” network with

(70)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Appraising Performance • _{Helps companies decide:}

– Who to retain

– How to reward/pay people

– How to harness employee strengths

– How to handle job shifts and promotions

• _{Helps individual workers:}

– _{Affirm strengths} – _{Motivate needed}

improvements

Appraising Performance

• _{Performance Appraisal}

Methods:

– Checklists – supervisors check specific behaviors

– Graphic Rating Scales – use 5-point scale to rate how often an employee is dependable, productive, etc.

(71)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Appraising Performance • _{360-degree feedback –}

where you will rate yourself, your manager, and your

other colleagues, and the same system is used to rate you

– Allows for more open

communication and more complete appraisal

Appraising Performance • _{Vulnerability to Bias:}

– Halo errors – when overall evaluation gets in way of specifics

– Leniency errors – being too easy on everyone

– Severity errors – being too harsh on everyone

– Recency errors – when raters only focus on easily

(72)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

Organizational Psychology: Motivating Achievement

• _{Achievement Motivation – a}

desire for significant accomplishment; for

mastery of things, people, or ideas; for rapidly

attaining a high standard – People with high

achievement motivation DO achieve more

• _{Motivated people are}

generally more successful. They are:

– Ambitious

– Energetic

– Persistent

• _{Gifted children are}_able

(73)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{In some studies,}

self-discipline has been a better predictor of school

performance, attendance, and graduation honors than intelligence scores have

been

• _{“Discipline outdoes talent”}

• _{10-year rule: that}

world-class experts in a field typically have invested at

least 10 years of hard work – 40 hours a week, 50 weeks a year

• _{Top achievers are}

distinguished by their

extraordinary daily discipline

– _{grit = passionate dedication to}

(74)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Satisfaction with work feeds}

satisfaction with life

• _{Decreased job stress feeds}

improved health

• _{Employee Engagement –}

the extent of workers’

involvement, enthusiasm, and identification with their organizations

• _{Disengaged workers = just}

putting in their time

• _{Companies with engaged}

workers have:

– _{More loyal customers}

– _{Less turnover (employees)} – _{Higher productivity}

(75)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{3-Types of Employees:}

– Engaged – working with

passion and feeling a profound connection to their company or organization

– Not-Engaged – putting in the time, but investing little

passion or energy into their work

– Actively Disengaged – unhappy workers undermining what their colleagues accomplish

• _{Gallup organization’s path}

to organizational success:

1. Identify strengths 2. Match to work 3. Positive managing 4. Engaged employees

(76)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{It is best to build upon}

strengths, and to not focus as much on negative things such as weaknesses

– _{Don’t try to change an}

employee into someone they are not

– _{Operant conditioning: to}

teach a behavior, catch a person doing something RIGHT and reinforce it

• _{65% of Americans received}

NO praise in the workplace last year

• _{Setting specific, challenging}

goals helps to motivate achievement

– Setting subgoals and

(77)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Task Leadership –}

goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

• _{Social Leadership –}

group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

• _{Social leadership}

– Democratic style that delegates authority

• _{Effective leaders:}

– Not all leaders share the same traits

– Are not extremely assertive or unassertive

(78)

UNIT 11: MOTIVATION & WORK

• _{Transformational leadership –}

inspires colleagues to transcend their own self-interests for the sake of the collective group

• _{Voice Effect – if given a}

chance to voice their opinion during a decision-making

process, people will respond more positively to the

decision

• _{Employee participation in}

making decisions has helped many businesses

– Harley Davidson

– Common in Sweden and Japan