End of Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
China was forced into a series of unequal treaties because they were militarily inferior.
These treaties undermined Chinese sovereignty and carved China into spheres of influence.
This lead to economic exploitation, and a handicap in ability to deal with domestic disorder.
The elites were caught between aggressive foreigners and insurgent rebels, and tried to make reforms to preserve the dynasty, but these reforms had little impact.
Guangzhou
1759 – Was the only waterfront in China where foreign influence was allowed. At this time, it was the Chinese that had control over the merchants and terms.
Cohongs
Foreign merchants could only deal with specially licensed Chinese firms called cohongs. Cohongs operated under strict regulation set by the govt. and had set prices.
European products did not do much for the Chinese, and therefore most trade for Chinese silk, porcelain, tea, etc, was done with silver bullion (money).
Opium Trade
Officials of the BEIC (British East India Company) sought increased profits and an alternative to bullions in exchange for Chinese goods.
Turned to opium, which was grown in India, and shipped to China.
The opium trade expanded rapidly. (early 19th century4500 chests, 183940,000) Britain easily could afford what they needed, thanks to this new trade.
Trade in opium was illegal, but many officials did not stop it as there were often personal benefits from the trade.
Lin Zexu
As the govt. saw a huge social problem in the southern parts, and a huge drainage of bullion, Commissioner Lim was given the task of destroying the opium trade.
His uncompromising policy ignited a war ending in a humiliating defeat for China.
Opium War (1839-1842)
Outraged by Chinese action, British commercial agents pressed their govt. into military action to reopen the opium trade. (This conflict became known as the Opium War) Britain enjoyed success against coastal cities, but China did not sue for peace. Britain decided to take the Grand Canal, which linked the Yangzi and Yellow River
Valleys.
70 fast and armed shallow-draft speeders faced little resistance and by the time the British reached the intersection, China sued for peace.
Unequal Treaties
The series of unequal pacts that China had to sign became known as Unequal Treaties. (continued below)
In general, these treaties legalized the opium trade, permitted the establishment of Christian missionaries, opened treaty ports, prevented levying tariffs on imports.
Treaty of Nanjing (1942)
Signed at the end of the Opium War.
Ceded Hong Kong to Britain, opened five Chinese ports to commerce and residence, granted British exemption from Chinese law.
Paved way for similar unequal treaties with FR, GER, DEN, NED, ESP, BEL, AUT-HUN, US, JP.
Other treaties released Korea, Vietnam, and Burma/Myanmar from Chinese authority. By 1900, Chinese ports and economy were “under control” of foreign powers and
merchants.
Taiping Reform Program
Taiping = “great peace”
Inspired and led by Hong Xiuquan.
Called for radical transformation, appealing to millions.
Reforms included: abolition of private property, creation of communal wealth to be shared, prohibition of foot-binding and concubines, free public education, simplified writing, and increased literacy.
Taiping Revolution
Hong and followers swept throughout SE China, and made Nanjing its capital in 1853. Many villages joined voluntarily, while others were forced to join.
1855 – Taiping had 1 million ready to attack Beijing, but lost to Qing. 1860 – Taiping forces threaten Shanghai from the Yangzi River. Qing uses foreign weapons to slowly weaken Taiping forces. Hong Xiuquan suicides in 1864 and the Nanjing fall.
Up to 30 million died, and massive declines in agricultural products. (massive effect)
Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895)
“Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for use”
Flourished in the 60s and 70s, but the attempt at industrialization failed because it did not introduce enough industry to bring real military and economic strength to China. Also encountered opposition from the empress dowager Cixi.
Cixi (Empress Dowager)
Former concubine who became an empress during the last fifty years of the Qing Dynasty.
Diverted navy funds for her own use (ie; build a magnificent boat) Ended the Hundred Days Reform and imprisoned the Emperor. Threw her support behind anti-foreign uprising.
Concessions to foreigners
China was powerless to foreign forces and gave exclusive railway rights. (GER in Shandong, FRA in the south, ENG in Yangzi, and RUS in Manchuria)
Boxer Rebellion (1898)
Cixi believed that foreign powers were pushing for her retirement, and through her support behind an anti-foreign uprising spearheaded by violent military units. People who fought were called “boxers” or “righteous and harmonious fists”. 1899 – Organized to get rid of “foreign devils”.
1900 – Sieged foreign embassies in Beijing, but was quickly crushed by foreign troops. Chinese govt. was considered bankrupt at the loss, and revolutionary uprisings gained
China’s Search for Order – Part 1 (Sun Yatsen’s rise to fame)
P.1008-12 (notes), Notebook, Notes 1 (one note), Notes 2 (wiki word), RevChart (word) 1
Warlords
After the fall of the Qing in the revolution of 1911, China fell into a state of anarchy. Warlords (former generals from Qing) established themselves as regional leaders. The govt. in Beijing only ran the post office and few other services, while warlords
were responsible for irrigation projects, opium trade, etc.
Warlords were one of the many symbols of disintegration of the political order.
May Fourth Movement
After the result of the Paris Peace Conference, China expected the US to restore the full sovereignty of China, but instead approved of Japanese interference in China. Students/intellectuals from urban areas of all classes protested against foreign
interference.
The movement’s leaders pledged to rid of imperialism in China and re-establish unity.
CCP (Chinese Communist Party)
Some Chinese were drawn by Marxism-Leninism and CCP was founded in Shanghai. (1921)
Mao Zedong, a former teacher and librarian, was one of the early members and his radicalism extended to the issue of women’s equality.
Sun Yatsen
Most prominent nationalist leader in China at the time, but did not share communist views.
His three principles were: Nationalism, Democracy, and Livelihood of the People. Wanted to unify China and win equal rights with foreigners.
Was determined to bring the entire country under the control of his GMD. Died in 1925.
KMT/GMD (Guomindang/Nationalist People’s Party)
Soviets helped recognize the GMT and CCP as effective political organizations. Soviets bestowed upon China the basis of a new political system.
China’s Search for Order – Part 2 (Chiang Kaishek and GMD take over)
Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi)
Young general who took over after Sun Yatsen’s death in 1925.
He was trained in Japan and the Soviet Union, but did not share the communist view either.
Northern Expedition (1926-27)
Chiang, along with the CCP, launched a military offensive aiming to unify and defeating 34 warlords. (GMD: use CCP for now! CCP: work with GMD says Soviets)
Towards the end of his successful campaign, he unexpectedly turned against his former communist allies and brought the alliance between the GMD and CCP to an end.
White Terror (1927-37)
After turning against the CCP, Chiang occupied Beijing in 1928, set up a central govt. in Nanjing, and declared the GMD the official government of China. (“generalissimo”) Zhou Enlai, the leader of CCP, escaped along with leaders like Mao Zedong, while
Chiang purged the CCP.
Meanwhile, the CCP were forced to retreat to a remote area of SE China, where Otto Braun (Li De) changed tactics from guerilla to regular warfare, which backfired. (Mao disagreed)
Long March (1934-35)
An epic 10,000km journey for the communists to a remote area in NW China.
Broke through a military blockade and travelled across difficult terrain fighting disease, hunger, and GMD forces.
Mao emerged as a leader here, and used a wave strategy, which was a strategy to add as you go rather than abandon peasants.
China’s Search for Order – Part 3 (Mao Zedong)
Xian Incident (1936)
Chiang was captured by one of his own generals, Chang, because Chiang continued to fight the communists rather than the Japanese in Manchuria.
The CCP and Chiang made their second alliance and launched a campaign against the Japanese.
The CCP gained reputation as true nationalists, and the GMD was weakened.
Yanan (1936-45)
Mao detached himself from comintern and developed their own strategy. This was the beginning of the fallout between Mao and Stalin.
Sinofication of Marxism (sino = china)
Mao formed the Chinese version of Communism, with the revolution coming from the peasants, not the urban proletariats.
The Red Army was given a Code of Conduct which would leave a positive impression on the people. (included: rolling up mats, being sanitary, replacing damaged articles, etc.)
Landowners were driven out and shot, and land was reallocated to the peasants.
Self Rectification Campaign (1942)
A campaign to bring out public self-criticism as to avoid errors and possible internal betrayal to the revolution.
Civil War (1945-1949)
Chiang became the hero of WW2, and both Chiang and Mao rushed to get surrender of Japan.
Truman helped make an agreement, but this agreement was broken, and civil war began.
The peasants went overboard with excitement. (“if you were not poor, you were guilty”)
Mao tried to restore moderate times again.
Meanwhile, cities were still in poor conditions, and Chiang began to lose support. (1947 flood made it worse)
US continued to support the GMD, but Chiang made a crucial mistake in the North as the CCP attacked with conventional methods and succeeded.
PR China (1949~)
Chiang lost support and had no one to turn to for help.
Communist China
Economic Changes
Improved infrastructure and collectivized agriculture. (collective farming introduced) Wealthy peasants’/landlords’ land redistributed so everyone had at least a small piece
of land.
Health care and schooling anchored to collectives and reached larger parts of populations.
Social/Religious Changes
Equal rights for women (outlawed foot binding, child marriage, forced marriage; equal divorce and abortion rights)
Churches closed and religion was denounced.
Foreign Relations Changes (with Russia)
USSR and PRC grew closer as both nations felt threatened by the US who were conducting American-sponsored rehabilitation of Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Early 1950s – Beijing recognized Moscow’s undisputed authority in world Communism in
exchange for military and economic aid, and a campaign to the UN to transfer Chinese seat from Taiwan to the mainland.
Mid 1950s – USSR became China’s principal trading partner. (purchased 50% of exports) Late 50s/Early 60s – Rifts became public. (USSR “revisionists” China “left-wing
adventurists”)
Mid 60s – Both nations openly competed for influence in Asia and Africa, leading to an unanticipated outcome where many countries gained an opportunity to become independent.
Reunification Campaigns
Tried to reunify and rebuild some sort of a reunified China. Tried to reunify parts of China, Taiwan, and Tibet.
1951 Three Antis-Movements
Tried to rally the people by attacking the “old beliefs”. Attacked waste, corruption, and inefficiency.
Hundred Flowers Campaign (1957)
Mao wanted a suggestion and got out of hand, leading to arrests and losses of some elites/intellectuals. (or did he want a purge?...)
Great Leap Forward (1958-62)
Mao envisioned this as a way to overtake industrial production of more developed nations.
Collectivized all land, businesses, and industries, and private ownership abolished. “Lysenkoism” was not really applicable to China, and the outdated USSR technology
eventually led to famines.
Failed miserably and was dubbed “giant step backwards”.
Agricultural production dropped and 20 million might have died of starvation/malnutrition.
Mao blamed this on the sparrows for being counterrevolutionary, and began the Anti Sparrow Campaign, leading to the biggest famine in history as insects became free to feed on crops.
Backyard furnaces, designed to industrialize, failed completely as people had to put in farm implements & utensils and melt them.
Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution (1966-76)
An attempt to reinstall revolutionary spirit by purging elites who associated with foreign values.
Tried to get the youth excited and attacked anything that’s “old”. Led to death of millions and destroyed years of stable development. Did not die down until after Mao’s death in 1976.
Deng Xiaoping
Had to recant criticism of Mao during the Cultural Revolution, and after Mao’s death, led China out of turmoil it what became known as Deng’s Revolution. (1980s)
Moderated Mao’s commitment to Chinese self-sufficiency, and began entry into int’l financial and trading systems. (in order to save communism politically, have a capitalist economy!)
This move was helped by the normalization of relations with the US in the 1970s. (cold war connection: Nixon visits China)
Tiananmen Square (1989)
Pro-democracy demonstration by students who were exposed to foreign ideas. Crushed by Deng but his actions were met with opposition.
The Chinese dilemma was how to maintain communism while becoming a world force and reaping economical benefits.
