School Sport Psychology:
Perspectives, Programs,
and Procedures
School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures has been co-published simultaneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology, Volume 21, Number 2 2005.
School Sport Psychology:
Perspectives, Programs,
and Procedures
Charles A. Maher, PsyD
Editor
School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures has been co-published simultaneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology, Volume 21, Number 2 2005.
School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures has been co-published simultaneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology™, Volume 21, Number 2 2005.
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School sport psychology: perspectives, programs, and procedures/Charles A. Maher, editor p. cm.
“School sport psychology: perspectives, programs, and procedures has been co-published simul-taneously as Journal of Applied School Psychology, Volume 21, Number 2, 2005.”
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-0-7890-1948-6 (hard cover: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7890-1948-5 (hard cover: alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-0-7890-1949-3 (soft cover: alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-7890-1949-3 (soft cover: alk. paper)
1. School sports–United States. 2. Sports–United States–Psychological aspects. I. Journal of applied school psychology. II. Maher, Charles A.,
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CONTENTS
About the Contributors xv
Framework for School Sport Psychology 1
Charles A. Maher
Sport Psychology Foundations, Organizations,
and Related Resources 9
Leonard Zaichkowsky Adam Naylor
The School Psychologist and Sport: A Natural Interface to Promote Optimal Functioning Between Student-Athlete,
Family, and School Personnel 25
Marshall L. Mintz, PsyD
Sport-Based Life Skills Programming in the Schools 41
Steven J. Danish Tanya Forneris Ian Wallace
Preventing Substance Use Among High School Athletes:
The ATLAS and ATHENA Programs 63
Linn Goldberg Diane L. Elliot
Development and Implementation of a Sport Psychology
Program in an Urban High School 89
Michael Weissman
School Sport Psychology:
Perspectives, Programs,
for Prevention Interventions 115 Robert J. Pandina
Valerie L. Johnson Leah M. Lagos Helene R. White
A Review of Eating Disorders in Athletes: Recommendations
for Secondary School Prevention and Intervention Programs 145 Thomas B. Hildebrandt
A School Psychologist’s Self-Study Guide to Sport Psychology 169 Jack J. Lesyk
ABOUT THE EDITOR
Charles A. Maher, PsyD, is Professor of Psychology at the Graduate
School of Applied and Professional Psychology at Rutgers University’s New Brunswick/Piscataway campus, where he is also Director of the Sport Psychology Concentration and where he has developed a sport psychology program for student-athletes through the Division of Inter-collegiate Athletics. He has worked for nearly 20 years as a sport psy-chologist for several professional sports teams and athletes, including the Cleveland Indians, Cleveland Cavaliers, and New York Jets, and for the IMG Academies, among other athletic organizations.
Dr. Maher is Editor of the Journal of Applied School Psychology (Haworth) and Executive Editor of Haworth’s Sport and Sport Psychol-ogy Book Series. He has authored and/or edited numerous books on the applications of psychology to schools and related organizations, includ-ing program planninclud-ing and evaluation, organization and systems analy-sis, and the enhancement of human performance and achievement.
Steven J. Danish is Director of the Life Skills Center and Professor of
Psy-chology, Preventive Medicine and Community Health at Virginia Com-monwealth University.
Diane L. Elliot is Professor of Medicine at the Oregon Health & Science
University, and a Fellow of the American College of Physicians and the American College of Sports Medicine.
Tanya Forneris is a doctoral student in Counseling Psychology at
Vir-ginia Commonwealth University.
Linn Goldberg is Professor of Medicine and Head of the Division of
Health Promotion & Sports Medicine at the Oregon Health & Science Uni-versity, and a Fellow of the American College of Sports Medicine.
Thomas B. Hildebrandt is a doctoral student in Clinical Psychology with
a Sport Psychology concentration at the Graduate School of Applied Pro-fessional Psychology at Rutgers University.
Valerie L. Johnson is Associate Professor at the Rutgers Center of
Alco-hol Studies.
Leah M. Lagos is a doctoral student in Clinical Psychology, with a sport
psychology concentration, at the Rutgers University Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychology.
Jack J. Lesyk is Director of the Ohio Center for Sport Psychology and
Ad-junct Assistant Professor of Psychology at Cleveland State University.
Marshall L. Mintz is a Licensed Psychologist, Certified School
Psychol-ogist, and Managing Partner of Springfield Associates, LLP, a multi-spe-cialty psychological services group.
Adam Naylor is the Coordinator and Sport Psychology Coach at the Boston
University Athletic Enhancement Center and conducts a private practice out of SPORT-Rx Athletic Performance Systems facilities.
Robert J. Pandina is Professor of Psychology and Director of the Rutgers
Center of Alcohol Studies.
Ian Wallace is a doctoral student in Counseling Psychology at Virginia
Commonwealth University.
Michael Weissman is School Administrator/School Psychologist in the
Matawan Aberdeen, New Jersey, Regional School District. He holds a doctoral degree in professional psychology with a sport psychology con-centration from the Graduate School of Applied and Professional Psychol-ogy, Rutgers University.
Helene R. White is Professor at the Center of Alcohol Studies and the
So-ciology Department at Rutgers University.
Leonard Zaichkowsky is Professor and Head of the Sport and
Exer-cise Psychology program at Boston University, and has a joint appoint-ment in the School of Education (Counseling & Developappoint-ment) and the School of Medicine where he is Professor of Psychiatry and Professor of Graduate Medical Sciences (Mental Health & Behavioral Medicine).
A RELEVANT CONTEXT
Public schools and private schools in the United States and elsewhere are multi-purpose organizations. Therein, a range of individuals and groups are involved in a school’s educational mission, in diverse ways. Among others, these target audiences include students, teachers, par-ents, school psychologists and other relevant stakeholders, such as ath-letic coaches and boards of education. Clearly, many programs, services, and activities occur in schools–before, during, and after conventional school hours as well as on weekends.
Participation in sports in schools is an integral part of the educational experiences of students in school systems. Such participation is espe-cially the case at the secondary school level, but involvement in sports has been increasing at the elementary school level.
Through sports in schools, student-athletes typically compete with counterparts from other educational institutions. Concomitantly, human and financial resources are invested in the implementation of these endeavors.
Sports in schools can be explained and justified on educational grounds and particularly in relation to educational philosophy and edu-cational goals. In this regard, the individuals who participate in sports in schools–that is, student-athletes–are said to benefit developmentally from their participation in the physical, mental, and emotional do-mains. These developmental benefits are reflected by student-athlete outcomes such as learning to discipline oneself to prepare to compete,
[Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Framework for School Sport Psychology.” Maher, Charles A. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 1-7; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 1-7. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail ad-dress: [email protected]].
Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
becoming familiar with how to work as part of a team toward common goals, remaining composed in challenging competitive situations, learning to use results of one’s performance to make mental and tech-nical adjustments, and knowing how to deal with less than expected performances.
In contrast, sports in schools, if not properly designed and moni-tored in relation to an overarching educational mission, can lead to ex-periences that limit personal development of students. Such negative effects include ones such as increased stress and anxiety, frustration with one’s efforts, an inflated sense of accomplishment, and neglect of schoolwork.
Sports in schools can be evaluated in many ways by local constituen-cies including by the dollars expended on them and by educational re-turns realized. For student-athletes, educational rere-turns have to do with the personal development of the individual, his/her ability to manage schoolwork with teamwork, and development of mental, emotional, and physical skills that can be applied in the classroom and in life.
EMERGENCE OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY
Sport psychology is an emerging field in the United States and indeed throughout the world. Sport psychology can be considered as a body of theory and empirical research and also the field can be viewed in rela-tion to professional practice. During the past decade, sport psychology has been increasingly utilized at professional, elite, and collegiate levels by athletes and coaches to help enhance their performance and overall personal development. Within the contexts of public and private schools, though, sport psychology has been a lightly charted and a relatively un-documented area, especially at the level of professional practice. How-ever, the application of sport psychology theory, research and principles can be a very promising one for student-athletes, teams, athletic depart-ments, and school systems–and for development of the field of school psychology and for increasing the scope of influence made by school psychologists.
AN OPPORTUNITY FOR SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY
Not unlike sport psychology, the field of school psychology, too, is a distinct body of knowledge and professional practice. School
ogy, too, has to do with performance of students and with their overall personal development.
Within their local educational and community settings, school psy-chologists provide services for many students and relevant stake-holders–including students who participate in sports. Moreover, school psychologists typically function in many roles from assessor, coun-selor, case manager, and consultant to that of program planner and pro-gram evaluator. This is the common situation for school psychologists both at the secondary school and elementary school levels.
Thus, in their wide-ranging and very challenging roles, school psy-chologists are in positions to work with students who participate in sports. More specifically, school psychologists have the opportunities to make sure that students are provided with educational assistance and personal counseling that will be helpful to them, both as students and athletes.
Given this opportunity for school psychologists, it is important to note here that such professional help would not be provided by the school psychologist representing him or herself as a sport psychologist. Rather, the intention of the school psychologist in relation to sports in schools is best considered as helping student-athletes with their overall personal development, including as it relates to sport. However, school psychologists who choose to become involved in continuing education and training in the field of sport psychology can become involved in more specific sport psychology roles.
Sport psychology and school psychology are fields where collabora-tion can enhance both disciplines, with student-athletes, their parents, and coaches being primary beneficiaries, both in the classroom and in sporting venues.
SYSTEMS APPROACH TO SPORT PSYCHOLOGY IN SCHOOLS
If sport psychology theories, research, and procedures are going to be applied in a worthwhile manner for students in public and private schools, in conjunction with those of school psychology, then such an endeavor must be effectively integrated in school organizational rou-tines. This effective integration requires identification of areas in which sport psychology concepts and procedures may be applied in schools. In addition, effective integration must emanate from an approach to pro-fessional practice that can deliver relevant programs and services to
stu-dent-athletes, their parents, and other relevant stakeholders, including coaches and school administrators.
In essence, this kind of framework must address four standards: 1. Practicality–Sport psychology perspectives, programs, and
pro-cedures applied in schools need to be implemented in ways that are not disruptive to others and that do not stifle existing educa-tional routines.
2. Utility–Sport psychology applications must be offered only in ways where educational information is provided that can guide and direct the participants to become better students and not just better athletes.
3. Propriety–Sport psychology programs, procedures and services need to be provided by school-based professionals in ways that align with their professional education and expertise and in a man-ner that respects the rights of all people.
4. Technical Defensibility–Sport psychology programs, products, and services that are implemented need to be based upon evidence that has empirical support in psychology, education, and/or the sport sciences.
A systems framework can be used to these ends. This kind of frame-work overarches the articles presented in this volume. It incorporates three constituent concepts:
I. Levels of Intervention–the individuals, groups, and organizational units that are clients of programs and services.
II. Process of Practice–the process of assessment, intervention, and evaluation in relation to each client, at each level of intervention. III. Content and Context–the programs and services that are relevant
to particular levels and clients.
THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
The student-athlete is the primary focus at this level, although the athletic coach or even parent typically can be considered clients.
For instance, the student-athlete may benefit from any numbers of assessment and intervention services including: developing an in-creased personal awareness of where sports fit into their lives,
ing to balance sports with school work, deciding about college placements especially if athletic scholarships are involved, personal de-velopment counseling for positive lifestyles, and consultation for en-hanced performance.
The individual athletic coach may benefit from programs and ser-vices such as personal development counseling, time management training, and how to enhance communication with individual players.
The parents of student-athletes may also benefit from the advice and counsel of school-based professionals about dealing with the demands of being a parent of an athlete.
THE GROUP LEVEL
At this level, groups of student-athletes may be beneficiaries of sport psychology related programs, especially from workshops, courses, and classroom based activities.
At the group level, team development also may be an appropriate area of service, which could include consulting or working with a coach to make sure that players on the team are working together and interacting productively, both within the classroom and outside of those venues.
THE ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL
At this level, it is likely that the school principal or the athletic direc-tor can be a client who will benefit from services. Here, the athletic de-partment may be the proper focus of assessment, intervention, and progress evaluation.
At this level, psychological programs, products and services may in-clude: leadership retreats with administrators to review athletic policies and procedures, as well as the design and implementation of sport psy-chology programs in particular schools.
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME
The articles in this collection have been selected to describe perspec-tives, programs, and procedures having to do with sports in schools, within a systems framework, and that have relevance to school psychol-ogists. Naturally, many other topics and issues could have been
pre-sented; however, page limitation allows for but a small sampling of thematic content.
The articles in this volume are authored by a range of individuals, many of whom are leaders in their respective fields–some in sport psy-chology, others from school psypsy-chology, and still others from clinical and community disciplines. All of these articles have been peer-re-viewed by members of the journal’s editorial board as well as by outside consultants from the field of sport psychology.
The initial article is authored by Len Zaichkowsky, someone who has been a historic figure in sport psychology’s development, along with co-author, Adam Naylor. The material in the article delineates a con-ceptual mapping of sport psychology and an historical overview of the field. The contents of this article will be informative to school psycholo-gists as to basic parameters of sport psychology. Readers of the article are likely to see many parallels between the development of school psychology with how sport psychology has evolved.
The second article is authored by Marshall Mintz, who is a licensed psychologist and a doctoral level school psychologist. In addition, Dr. Mintz also has extensive experience in sport psychology practice. In his piece, Dr. Mintz discusses practical interfaces between school psychol-ogy and sport psycholpsychol-ogy, with specific emphasis on parental and family involvement.
The third article is authored by Steven Danish, Tanya Forneris, and Ian Wallace. It describes and illustrates one of Dr. Danish’s most well-known evidence-based sport psychology programs, the GOALS program, which has been implemented and adapted in various forms in schools and communities throughout the United States. This program meets all four standards delineated above.
The authors of the fourth article are Linn Goldberg and Diane Elliot, both of whom are renowned physicians and researchers in the area of steroids. Therein, Drs. Goldberg and Elliot summarize aspects of their evidence-based ATLAS and ATHENA programs. These programs have been implemented widely in public schools, and they provide stu-dent-athletes with increased understanding of themselves in relation to steroids and other performance-enhancing substances and how to not become involved in these areas.
The fifth article is authored by Michael Weissman, who is a school psychologist with formal education and training in sport psychology. Dr. Weissman presents a case study description of the design and initial implementation of a sport psychology program in an urban high school. This program, which was educational and consultative in nature, took
place with selected coaches and teams as part of his role as a school psy-chologist in those settings. This program also aligns with the four standards noted above.
The sixth article addresses a matter of utmost importance–use and abuse of alcohol and other drugs of abuse among high school stu-dent-athlete populations. It is written by Rob Pandina, Valerie Johnson, and Helene White, all noted prevention researchers in this area, along with Leah Lagos who is a doctoral student with concentrated study and training in sport psychology. This article considers what is known about alcohol and drug use/abuse patterns of high school student-athletes, in-cluding the implications of these trends for prevention in schools.
Relatedly, the seventh article is authored by Thomas Hildebrandt who also has formal education and training in sport psychology and who has a specialty in the eating disorders area. Dr. Hildebrandt pro-vides a seminal review of the literature in terms of eating disorders in high school student-athletes and describes what the current state of af-fairs means for secondary school prevention program development.
The eighth article is authored by Jack Lesyk, who is a nationally known sport psychology practitioner and licensed psychologist. The ar-ticle provides guidelines for school psychologists who desire to become educated and trained in sport psychology.
INTENTIONS
I hope that this introduction to the collection, coupled with the articles that appear in it, realizes the following intentions: First, I hope that the content provides some foundational information that can be used by prac-titioners for becoming involved in school sport psychology and its devel-opment. Second, I would be pleased if the material in the articles allows for professional discussion about the issues and considerations put forth therein as well as for identification of other matters. Third, I would find it satisfying if the volume serves as a springboard for future conceptualiza-tion and applicaconceptualiza-tion endeavors in school sport psychology.
As someone who has been fortunate to have been involved in school psychology and sport psychology–both for over 20 years–I am proud to have edited this publication, with these intentions in mind.
Charles A. Maher Editor
Sport Psychology Foundations,
Organizations, and Related Resources
Leonard Zaichkowsky Adam Naylor
Boston University
SUMMARY. The purpose of this article is to introduce psychologists and
counselors who work in schools to the field of applied sport psychology. We begin with a brief history of how applied sport psychology developed in North America and other parts of the world. Landmark events such as the de-velopment of conferences, professional organizations and scholarly publica-tions are described. This is followed by a discussion of the breadth of services that are typically provided by sport psychologists. The third section examines some of the current issues related to the training of sport psychologists. The final section introduces the reader to organizations, journals, texts, and on-line resources so they may learn more about the theory, research, and practice of sport psychology.[Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <docdelivery@ haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com>© 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]
KEYWORDS. Sport psychology foundations, sport psychology
orga-nizations, sport psychology resources, sport psychology in schools, sport psychology training
Address correspondence to: Leonard Zaichkowsky, Boston University, 2 Sherborn Street, Boston, MA 02215 (E-mail: [email protected]).
[Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “Sport Psychology Foundations, Organizations, and Related Re-sources.” Zaichkowsky, Leonard, and Adam Naylor. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied
School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 9-24; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 9-24.
Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].
Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
Introducing the field of sport psychology is a positive noteworthy ini-tiative on the part of the editor of the Journal of Applied School Psychol-ogy. Indeed, readers of this journal–professionals such as school psych-ologists, child psychpsych-ologists, mental health professionals, social workers, and others interested in applying psychology in schools and community settings should become aware of the field of sport psychology because they deal with young children and adolescents on a daily basis and are in a position to positively influence their development through involvement in sport and exercise. The purpose of this article is to introduce applied psychology professionals to the field of sport (and exercise) psychol-ogy. We begin with a brief history of how applied sport psychology de-veloped in North America and the rest of the world. Landmark events related to conferences, professional organizations, and scholarly publi-cations will be emphasized. Section two provides a brief overview of some of the theory and research that has informed the development of applied sport psychology and how it is currently being defined by pro-fessionals in the field. The third section examines some of the current is-sues related to the training of sport psychologists. The final section introduces the reader to organizations, journals, texts, and on-line re-sources so they may learn more about the theory, research, and practice of sport psychology.
Development of Applied Sport Psychology
It is accurate to say that from a developmental perspective the field of sport psychology as a profession, in contrast with other psychology spe-cializations, is probably at the stage of late childhood or early adoles-cence–ironically the age of the target population (school age) the Journal of Applied School Psychology (JAPPS) aims to serve. Indeed, the pro-fession is relatively young, probably to the surprise of many readers. This section will not attempt to present a comprehensive history of sport psychology. Rather, we review some important historical events that have helped shape the field. Several excellent papers have been pub-lished that detail the history and evolution of sport psychology (Alder-man, 1989; Hanin, 1979; Silva, 2001; Wiggins, 1984).
The former Soviet Union had a large impact on the development of sport psychology. Sport was an important component of the “Soviet” way of life starting with Lenin and continuing until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1989. Major Institutes for the Study of Sport and Physical Cul-ture were established in St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and Moscow as early as 1919. Extensive research was conducted in all of the sport
sci-ences, including sport psychology, so that the Soviets could better un-derstand and develop elite athletic performance (Shteinbakh, 1987). The rest of the world, including North America, believed that part of the Soviet success in international sport was due to excellent applied sport psychology research and clinical applications to their national and Olympic programs.
Other “Eastern-bloc” countries such as the former East Germany, Bulgaria, the former Czechoslovakia and, in fact, Cuba (Ucha, personal interview, November 26,1999) were influenced by the Soviet system, and these countries likewise prospered in international competition. This trend seems quite remarkable given their limited populations. The success of “Soviet-bloc” athletes at Olympic and world champi-onship events was interpreted by American sport administrators as the result of systematic psychological preparation and intervention. The be-lief was that since the other sport sciences such as exercise physiology, biomechanics, and nutrition were being integrated into the preparation of elite athletes in the United States and sport psychology was not, then sport psychology must be the factor that separated Soviet trained ath-letes from the rest of the world. After the 1980 Moscow Olympics, the United States Olympic Committee established a task force to establish guidelines for providing sport psychology services to U.S. Olympic ath-letes in preparation for the 1984 Olympic games in Los Angeles.
Western Europe, particularly Italy, West Germany, Britain, France, Spain, Portugal, and the Scandinavian countries likewise took notice of developments in the Soviet Union. Sport psychology was present but mostly as an academic subject to study and like most North Ameri-can universities, had a strong research component with an emphasis on the psychology of motor skill learning. Perhaps the most notable devel-opment in Europe was the formation of the International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) at a meeting in Rome in 1965, organized by Ferrucciio Antonelli. A second congress was held in Washington, D.C. in 1968 and since that time ISSP has convened every four years. The 2005 conference will be held in Sydney, Australia.
On a smaller scale, Australasia (Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Ko-rea) has developed their sport psychology programs in a similar vein to North America. Early programs were research based and housed in uni-versities; however, applied work quickly came to the forefront. Austra-lia, in fact, appointed a sport psychologist at the Australian Institute of Sport in 1982, six years before the United States Olympic Committee hired their first sport psychologist at Colorado Springs. Australia has also taken the lead in developing excellent training programs for sport
psychologists. In 1991, Australia created a Board of Sport Psycholo-gists within the Australian Psychological Society (APS), thereby estab-lishing credibility and status within the psychology profession, and sport.
Sport Psychology in North America
Historians of sport psychology point to the fact that Triplett (1897) published a “sport psychology” paper over 100 years ago when he con-sidered the role of spectators in facilitating or inhibiting cycling perfor-mance. That seemed to be the extent of scholarly sport psychology until Coleman Griffith, a professor at the University of Illinois, established the Athletic Research Laboratory in 1925. From his laboratory, Griffith published numerous research papers and books on coaching, sport psy-chology and motor learning (e.g., Griffith, 1926). He also consulted with the Chicago Cubs baseball team and conducted interviews with football greats Red Grange and Knute Rockne (Kroll & Lewis, 1970). Because of his work in the 1920s and 1930s, Coleman Griffith is often referred to as the “grandfather of sport psychology” in North America. The 1940s and 1950s did not produce much activity in the field. During the 1960s, however, researchers such as Franklin Henry at the Univer-sity of California at Berkeley and John Lawther at Pennsylvania State University established motor learning laboratories that stimulated a great deal of interest in the psychological aspects of motor learn-ing and performance. Bryant Cratty (1968) and Robert Slearn-inger (1968) were the first to publish textbooks on the topic of sport and psy-chology. These works were followed by a book authored by Cratty and Mirosolov Vanek, the leading sport psychologist in Czechoslovakia (Vanek, M. & Cratty, B.J., 1970). The North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity (NASPSPA) was formed in 1967, and in 1969 the Canadian Society for Psychomotor Learning and Sport Psychology was organized. These organizations reflect the close relationship between motor learning and sport psychology that was common in North American universities up to the mid 1980s.
Through the 1970s, most of the sport psychology research and teach-ing was conducted by faculty members in departments of physical edu-cation; however, several “clinical psychologists” such as Bruce Ogilvie, Robert Nideffer, and Ron Smith made large contributions to the field. Ironically, perhaps the most influential “sport psychology” article pub-lished in the 1970s was a paper written by two educational psycholo-gists at UCLA, Roland Tharp and Ron Gallimore. Tharp and Gallimore
(1976) conducted an observational analysis of the legendary John Wooden, coach of the UCLA Bruins basketball team, hoping to better understand the process of teaching by studying a master coach. Because there were not many scholarly sport psychology journals at the time (only the IJSP), these authors chose to publish their now classic paper “Basketball’s John Wooden: What a coach can teach a teacher” in the popular magazine Psychology Today (Gallimore, personal communica-tion, June 2003). A masterful update to that original paper was recently published (Gallimore & Tharp, 2004).
During the early 1980s, many members of the American Psychologi-cal Association petitioned to have a Division in APA devoted to sport psychology rather than simply a “special interest group.” The request was approved in 1986 and today Division 47 (Sport & Exercise Psy-chology) is a thriving division within APA. Because of the move initi-ated by the United States Olympic Committee–to provide professional sport psychology services to athletes, as well as interest by numerous sport psychologists to provide professional services, NASPSPA was asked to address issues associated with credentialing sport psycholo-gists. The association voted not to address the “professionalization” is-sue, i.e., certifying the professional practice of sport psychologists. As such, numerous disappointed NASPSPA members started a new associ-ation, the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychol-ogy (AAASP). AAASP held its first conference in 1986. Today, AAASP has a membership of 1073 from 27 different countries and is the largest sport psychology organization in the world (see resources section).
Members of AAASP believed strongly in establishing standards of qualification for “sport psychologists” and began a certification program in 1992 with the senior author (LZ) as its chair. Certification of sport psy-chologists is still an on-going issue. However, the United States Olympic Committee has joined forces with AAASP in credentialing sport psychol-ogists. The benefits of certification have been outlined elsewhere (Zizzi, Zaichkowsky, & Perna, 2002). Certification in sport psychology has led to modifying curricula requiring graduate students’ need to master con-cepts of sport science and psychology. At issue today is the matter of ac-crediting graduate training programs in sport psychology.
FOUNDATIONS OF SPORT PSYCHOLOGY
A commonly asked question is, “What does a sport psychologist do?” The answer to this question tends to be quite complicated in light of the
fact that sport psychologists fulfill many roles in the lives of athletes, coaches, families, teams, and sports organizations. The breadth of the field of sport psychology was perhaps best depicted by Martens (1987) when showing the work of sport psychology on a continuum ranging from working with individuals suffering from mental illness (abnormal) to teams striving to fulfill the far reaches of their potential (super-nor-mal). From looking at this continuum, it is clear that sport psychology services are both for those struggling with the stresses of sport and life, as well as those looking to create healthier and more successful ap-proaches to sport and exercise performances (see Figure 1).
The abnormal side sport psychology spectrum brings health and wellness issues to the forefront, with enhanced athletic performances being simply a by-product of sound mental health. Abnormal clinical is-sues in sport were highlighted in Beisser’s (1977) classic text The Mad-ness in Sports. Throughout this work, Beisser illustrated how athletes and their behaviors paralleled clinically diagnosed mental illnesses. While an interesting read, clinical issues commonly treated by sport psychologists are not those mentioned by Beisser. Typically, clinical is-sues considered by sport psychologists include: eating disorders, body image issues, substance abuse, overtraining, severe anxiety, mild de-pression, and trauma. Due to the complex nature of these issues, it is most ethical and medically sound if these issues are treated by individu-als with clinical training. It is not always necessary that these clinically trained resources specialize in sport psychology, but the counselor’s ability to understand the culture of sport and speak its language often helps the practitioner establish a working relationship with the client.
There is no doubt that clinically significant psychology issues exist on the playing field, but the field of sport psychology has made tremen-dous efforts in the past decade to define itself as a resource for the “healthy,” rather than the “sick.” The stigma of psychological services being for those with illness has led many athletes, coaches, and
organi-Abnormal Normal Super-normal
FIGURE 1. Breadth of Applied Sport Psychology Services
zations to avoid consulting sport psychology resources. With this in mind, the middle of the sport psychology resource continuum high-lights the work that counselors, educators, and clinicians do to help ath-letes, coaches, and teams manage the challenges of athletic performance. The following are examples of this type of sport psychology applica-tions:
• Assessment/profiling of strengths and weaknesses • Performance anxiety
• Career transition issues • Coach-athlete communication • Threats to self-confidence
• Time management for the student-athlete • Assistance in managing athletic injury • Team building
• Initiation and maintenance of exercise behaviors
Beyond helping manage the stresses of training and competition, a significant amount of a sport psychology professional’s work is spent educating coaches, parents, athletic associations, and sport organiza-tions. Common topics for educational seminars are motivation, devel-opmental needs of athletes, building confidence, positive leadership behaviors, optimal sports environments, foundations of athletic excel-lence, and character development.
On the most positive end of the sport psychology continuum is formance enhancement. That is taking an athlete from being a good per-former to fulfilling his or her ultimate potential. Performance enhancement is a service that was once reserved only for Olympic and professional athletes, but is now embraced by collegiate, high school, youth, and even recreational adult athletes. Perhaps the best work in the area of youth sports is that conducted by University of Washington psychol-ogists Ron Smith and Frank Smoll (Smith & Smoll, 2002). With the proliferation of competitive sporting opportunities at all levels, the im-portance of “strength training” for the mind is now readily embraced. At its most basic level, the “supernormal” end of sport psychology services involves teaching mental skills: goal setting, self-talk, emotional man-agement, relaxation techniques, imagery, and distraction control skills. Just as Beisser’s writings epitomize the “abnormal” in sport psychol-ogy, Orlick’s In Pursuit of Excellence (2000) is a book that has been widely embraced that highlights the enhancement of positive behaviors that sport psychologists often advocate.
Martin Seligman, noted psychologist at the University of Pennsylva-nia and former president of APA along with Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi spearheaded a movement in the late 1990s they called “positive psy-chology,” a concept that intersects well with sport psychology. The aim of the positive psychology movement is to study the positive aspects of human experience rather than pathology, and examine human strengths that lead to an improved quality of life and the prevention of disease. Positive human strengths include, but are not limited to: hope, wisdom, creativity, courage, spirituality, responsibility, perseverance, laughter, and mental toughness. Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi edited a special issue of the American Psychologist in January 2000 thus initiating the positive psychology movement. Since that time a positive psychology summit is held annually in Washington, D.C. and a number of books have also been written on the topic including a handbook by Peterson and Seligman (2003) that attempts to serve as the Diagnostic and Statis-tical Manual (DSM) for positive psychology. It is our belief that posi-tive psychology will assist the development of sport and exercise psychology as an accepted applied field.
ON BECOMING A SPORT PSYCHOLOGIST
Given the relatively short history of the field of sport psychology, and the fact that its roots are in sport, psychology, education, and medi-cine, it is understandable that the “founders” of sport psychology in North America and in fact the world came from a variety of training backgrounds. In North America most academics, writers, and practi-tioners of sport psychology received training in departments of physi-cal education/kinesiology/sport science. However, a perusal of the membership list of AAASP shows that a significant number of sport and exercise psychologists received their training in clinical/counseling psychology, organizational psychology, education, school psychology, and psychiatry (medicine). It is important to remember that courses in sport psychology at the graduate level did not exist until the 1970s and graduate specialties in sport psychology did not appear until at least the mid 1970s. Psychologists such as Bruce Ogilvie, Ron Smith, and Bob Nideffer took their extensive experience in sport and integrated it with their training in psychology.
Early significant contributors trained in sport science such as Robert Singer, Rainer Martens, and Jack Cratty studied psychology
exten-sively and integrated it with their expertise in sport and education. It be-came clear to the next generation of sport psychologists that sport psychology is very much an interdisciplinary field and as such, formal training is needed in psychology, the sport sciences, and education. When AAASP established its certification program in 1993, there was the hope that requirements for certification as an applied sport psy-chologist would have a strong impact on curricula established by graduate programs in sport psychology. For a variety of reasons, but usually departmental control and “turf battles,” curriculum reform for the interdisciplinary training of sport psychologists has been slow to evolve. An example of this integrated approach has been the train-ing program at Boston University. Graduate traintrain-ing evolved from its original home in sport science (Human Movement) in the 1970s, to counseling psychology in the late 1980s, and recently to a collabora-tive program between counseling psychology and the Division of Graduate Medical Sciences in the School of Medicine. The program effectively integrates sport science with counseling psychology, school psychology, mental health and behavioral medicine, and re-search. This program includes supervised clinical experiences in ap-plied sport psychology with the department of athletics at Boston University, local area schools, as well as more traditional clinical ex-periences in mental health at the Boston University Medical Center. The Medical Center is also able to provide rich research opportunities and support that are typically not available in small schools and col-leges. Other models of training in sport psychology exist and can be reviewed in the directory of sport psychology edited by Burke et al. (2004). Students interested in doing graduate study should be mindful of the program philosophy of a particular institution. Questions that need to be asked include: Is the focus primarily research or applied in nature? Does the masters degree lead to credentialing such as “Li-censed Mental Health Counselor?” Does the doctoral degree lead to being certified as a consultant by AAASP and USOC or “licensed as a psychologist” in a particular state or province? What kind of super-vised clinical and applied experiences can be obtained and how many hours of practical experience are available? Individuals with a doc-toral degree in psychology may wish to consult the Division 47 website and read about developing a “proficiency in sport psychol-ogy.”
SPORT PSYCHOLOGY RESOURCES Online Resources
With the proliferation of the internet there is a plethora of infor-mation regarding sport psychology available for the lay public and psychology professionals’ consumption. This provides tremendous oppor-tunities for education and application, yet at the same time yields occa-sions of misinformation and scientifically unsound advice because many of the postings are not peer reviewed. The best resources can be found at sport psychology professional association websites and through university sport psychology program websites. Beyond these web ad-dresses there is good information online, but “buyer beware” is cer-tainly a good warning to heed.
The following are websites of major sport psychology professional organizations around the world:
• Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology– www.aaasponline.org
• North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity–www.naspspa.org
• American Psychological Association-Division 47: Exercise and Sport Psychology–www.psyc.unt.edu/apadiv47/index.html • International Society of Sport Psychology–www.issponline.org Information regarding what sport psychology is and who practices it along with links to other valuable resources is available at all of these organization websites.
Beyond websites, electronic bulletin boards are available in the field of sport psychology. The Sport Psychology Listserver, SPORTPSY, is one about exercise and sport psychology where members discuss recent developments in the field of sport psychology. This is an un-moderated discussion group that gives a fair sense of happenings in the sport psy-chology field. It is also a way in which an individual might find a com-petent sport psychology professional in their area. SPORTPSY can be found at LISTSERV.TEMPLE.EDU.
Beyond these initial resources, many national sports organizations have good sport psychology information available on their websites. For example, at the USA Hockey website (www.usahockey.com) there is a PowerPoint presentation and other good information regarding par-ent education available for review. Similarly at the USA Tennis website
(www.usatennis.org) many articles regarding mental preparation and the development of a tennis player can be found in the Health and Fit-ness section. Articles from national sports associations tend to be grounded in sound scientific research and have been successfully ap-plied on the playing field. Most of these articles are written for coaches and/or parents, but they have information that is useful to anyone working with the growing athlete.
Scientific Journals
While not written for the lay reader, academic journals are excellent resources for up-to-date and scientifically sound information on the practice of sport psychology. A few journals are listed below. In this era of the internet, electronic versions are also available online for many of these resources.
The Sport Psychologist. An excellent resource for academics and practitioners. Of all the journals to be mentioned The Sport Psycholo-gist’s articles might have the most applied implications. This is evident from the large “Professional Practice” section in the journal. This sec-tion, based on sound research, reflects innovative application of psy-cho-educational and counseling principles in the field.
Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Different from The Sport Psychologist, this journal is steeped in scientific research. Some of the most controlled and intricate sport psychology research studies are pub-lished in this journal. The science is excellent and the topics are often quite specific to certain populations or precise applications. A unique feature of this sport psychology journal is the “Sport Psychologist’s Di-gest” section where brief summaries of some of the latest research is presented.
Journal of Applied Sport Psychology. This journal is the official jour-nal of AAASP. The majority of the articles published in this jourjour-nal are research studies with clear implications for application in the realms of performance enhancement, exercise adherence, and health and wellness programming.
International Journal of Sport Psychology. While all of the sport psychology journals have a strong international presence in their author-ships, the International Journal of Sport Psychology clearly reflects the worldwide interest and advancements in the field. Like the Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, this journal is principally comprised of re-search studies with a strong applied focus.
Sport Psychology Conferences
Attending and immersing one’s self in a sport psychology regional, national, or international conference can be a tremendous learning op-portunity. After four or five days of lectures, workshops, and poster ses-sions it is fair to say that an astute student can learn as much as in a semester-long sport psychology course. One can learn about annual conferences by visiting major sport psychology organization websites. Information about regional and non-organization affiliated conferences can often be found on the bulletin board section of many academic jour-nals. Regional conferences such as Springfield College’s (MA) Annual Athletic Counseling Conference are excellent places for the busy pro-fessional to make some good contacts and gain some initial insights into the psychology of sport and performance. Furthermore, regional con-ferences provide a less intimidating forum to those new to the field to present their ideas and research interests compared to national and international events.
Sport Psychology Texts
As with most applied scientific disciplines, texts in the field of sport psychology range from academic theory-based writings often sold in university bookstores to self-help texts. For a comprehensive, in-depth look at sport psychology and its research foundations, the Handbook of Sport Psychology, edited by Singer, Hausenblas, and Janelle (2001) is a strong resource. Each chapter in this text strives to provide all of the re-search and theoretical foundations of topics from sports skill acquisi-tion to the role of physical activity on mental illness. Along similar lines, but written for an audience relatively new to sport psychology, Weinberg and Gould’s Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (2003) and Silva and Stevens’ Psychological Foundations of Sport (2001) are introductory textbooks with formats that have stood the test of time and are revised to stay current on a regular basis. The edited text by Van Raalte and Brewer (2002) is also an excellent comprehensive collection of articles on the broad field of sport and exercise psychol-ogy. Mostofsky and Zaichkowsky (2002) edited a text titled “Medical and Psychological Aspects of Sport and Exercise” that is devoted pri-marily to health and exercise psychology practitioners. There are many introductory and advanced sport psychology texts on the market. You can scan the table of contents of each text and determine if the topics covered fit the reader’s professional interests.
Beyond academic texts, there are many resources written for coaches and a good number of “self help” texts on bookstore shelves. As one moves away from academic texts, the saying “buyer beware” becomes more relevant. Texts can range from motivational literature to practical exercises for embracing mentally tough competition and enjoying sport. Reviewing the author’s education background, applied experiences, and current expertise often gives a good sense of what type of book one is purchasing.
Educating coaches on how to communicate with and build confi-dence in athletes is a large part of the work of sport psychologists. With this in mind there are many good coach education texts avail-able. One of particular note is Successful Coaching, written by Martens (2004). This book provides theory-grounded insights that benefit all coaches. Types and quality of performance enhancement texts on book shelves vary widely. The recent trend in publication has been to publish sport-specific sport psychology texts. While each of these books are titled for a particular sport and the examples given within relate to this sport, a wise reader can easily apply most of the in-formation in the book to the sport of his or her choice. For example, Ravizza and Hanson’s (1998) Head’s Up Baseball is written for base-ball players and coaches, yet all of the self-awareness activities and goal setting worksheets can easily be applied to volleyball, soccer, or most any other sport. One text of particular note is Orlick’s (2000) In Pursuit of Excellence. This is a sport psychology book written with all athletes and exercisers in mind. It was first published in 1980, has been updated periodically since, and continues to be well read by athletes and sport psychology practitioners alike. This well-written sport psychology mental skills book can give the school psychologist many ideas on how mental skills might be used with their student-athletes.
Finding Sport Psychology Resources in Your Community
Beyond texts and online advice, a school psychologist might be inter-ested in finding sport psychology professionals in their community with whom to collaborate. Two credible places to find competent sport psy-chology resources are local universities and through sport psypsy-chology professional associations.
Many major universities have sport psychology graduate studies and/ or sport psychology resources for their intercollegiate athletes. With this in mind, placing a call to your local university or searching univer-sity websites for sport psychology services can lead you to many
sources. Graduate programs often have a handful of competent masters and doctoral level students hungry to develop their trade. Many Divi-sion I universities have a sport psychologist on staff or individuals in the community to whom they refer performance enhancement and health and wellness issues. A list of sport psychology graduate programs can be found in the Directory of Graduate Programs in Sport Psychology (Burke, Sachs, & Smisson, 2004).
Many of the major sport psychology professional associations also provide a means to find sport psychology experts. A good example is the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology’s certified consultant list. By visiting their website, one can find a list of competent professionals in the field and their backgrounds.
There are many people promoting themselves as sport psychology professionals. The training of these individuals varies from doctoral de-grees to none at all. The experiences of these people extend from part-time practice in the field of sport psychology to those that special-ize in the psychology of sport, making the majority of their living work-ing with coaches, athletes, and sports associations. Lastly, the work of individuals promoting themselves as sport psychologists range from high-energy motivational speakers to clinicians specializing in abnor-mal behaviors. It can be difficult to find an educator that successfully fulfills your needs.
The following are some basic tenets to consider before employing a sport psychology professional:
• What is the educational training of the individual? What is the in-dividual’s degree? Was a significant amount of their training spent studying the specialty of sport psychology?
• Is this person experienced working in athletic settings such as your school population? Do they understand the developmental needs of your athletes (within and outside of sport)?
• What is the individual’s philosophical background and does it match the programming ideas in which you are interested? Does the psychologist promise clinical talks, performance enhancement lectures, athlete counseling, and/or sport psychology curriculum development?
There are many excellent sport psychology professionals available as resources around the country. Conversely, there are individuals promot-ing interventions with little scientific validity that ultimately lead to dis-satisfied athletes, coaches, and athletic communities. To reap the many
benefits of sport psychology services, find a professional that under-stands the needs of your athletes and is prepared with your school system to develop successful interventions.
CONCLUSION
Sport and exercise psychology as a science based specialization has recently evolved to advance a body of knowledge and professional ser-vices to children, adolescents, and adults interested in improving their quality of life through exercise or performance in sport. Schools and school personnel can contribute to the development of a more positive and healthier population–one that constantly strives to achieve excel-lence, by incorporating many of the empirically validated theories and interventions developed by sport and exercise psychologists. Quality interdisciplinary training programs are now appearing, thereby making sport psychology as a field of study more readily available for the next generation of applied psychologists.
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The School Psychologist and Sport:
A Natural Interface to Promote Optimal
Functioning Between Student-Athlete,
Family, and School Personnel
Marshall L. Mintz
Springfield Psychological Associates, LLP
SUMMARY. This article provides a background and logical
explana-tion for school psychologists to feel justified in the pursuit of providing sport psychology services. This perspective is useful for the school psy-chologist or other school administrative personnel who may question or be questioned about the value or need for the provision of sport psychol-ogy services. In addition, issues surrounding sport psycholpsychol-ogy with interscholastic athletes and methods for providing these by school psy-chologists are considered. Finally, the school/family interview is dis-cussed as a systems oriented method of school/sport psychology assessment and intervention.[Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Docu-ment Delivery Service: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mail address: <docdelivery@ haworthpress.com> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com>© 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.]
Address correspondence to: Marshall L. Mintz, PsyD, Springfield Psychological Associates, LLP, 675 Morris Avenue, Springfield, NJ 07081 (E-mail: Champ93@aol. com).
[Haworth co-indexing entry note]: “The School Psychologist and Sport: A Natural Interface to Promote Op-timal Functioning Between Student-Athlete, Family, and School Personnel.” Mintz, Marshall L. Co-published simultaneously in Journal of Applied School Psychology (The Haworth Press, Inc.) Vol. 21, No. 2, 2005, pp. 25-40; and: School Sport Psychology: Perspectives, Programs, and Procedures (ed: Charles A. Maher) The Haworth Press, Inc., 2005, pp. 25-40. Single or multiple copies of this article are available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Service [1-800-HAWORTH, 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. (EST). E-mail address: [email protected]].
Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com/web/JAPPS © 2005 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
