IOG Element1

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(1)NEBOSH International Technical Certificate in Oil & Gas Operational Safety (Element 1) Please be advised that the course material is regularly reviewed and updated on the eLearning platform. SHEilds would like to inform students downloading these printable notes and using these from which to study that we cannot ensure the accuracy subsequent to the date of printing. It is therefore important to access the eLearning environment regularly to ensure we can track your progress and to ensure you have the most up to date materials. Version 2.0 (16/03/2015). SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 1.

(2) 1.0 - Health, Safety and Environmental Management in Context. Element 1: Health, Safety and environmental management in context.. Specific intended learning outcomes: On completion of this element, candidates should be able to demonstrate an understanding and knowledge of familiar and unfamiliar situations in the oil & gas industry. In particular you should be able to: 1.0 - Explain the purpose of and procedures for investigating incidents and how lessons learnt can be used to improve Health & Safety in the oil & gas industry. 2.0 - Explain the hazards inherent in oil & gas arising from the extraction, storage and processing of raw materials and products. 3.0 - Outline risk management techniques used in the oil & gas industries. 4.0 - Explain the purpose and content of an organisation's documented evidence to provide a convincing and valid argument that a system is adequately safe in the oil & gas industries. Recommended tuition time: Recommended tuition time for this unit is not less than 12 hours. 1.1 - Learning from Incidents. The Oil and Gas Industry generally has a good safety record. Unfortunately from time to time, incidents occur. Sometimes, sadly, with catastrophic consequences in terms of loss of life, damage to assets and harm to the environment (for example: Piper Alpha, BP Deep Water Horizon, BP Texas City and Esso Longford). Learning from incidents is, therefore, a vital part of an effective accident prevention programme. In order to learn from incidents, we need to ensure an effective system is in place to investigate both incidents and near misses in order to determine the immediate and root causes so that proper action can be taken to prevent recurrence. There are many reasons for investigating accidents and incidents:      . To identify the immediate and root causes in order to prevent recurrence. To learn lessons and communicate these internally and across industry. To ultimately improve standards of health and safety. To enable safety management systems to be improved. To demonstrate concern to workforce. Legal and regulatory compliance. It is required by law.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 2.

(3) 1.1 - Learning from Incidents.. Important Terminology. Accident: An unplanned, unwanted event that results in injury, ill health, damage to plant or equipment, or some other loss. Near Miss: An unplanned, unwanted event that had the potential to cause injury, ill health, damage to plant or equipment, or some other loss. Ill Health: A disease or medical condition that is attributable to a work activity (for example: dermatitis, as a result of exposure to petroleum products). 1.2 - Why Prevent Incidents? We want to prevent incidents for the following reasons:       . To prevent unwanted and unintended impacts on the safety or health of people. To prevent asset damage and financial losses for stake holders. To prevent negative impact on the environment. For legal and regulatory compliance. To maintain the 'license to operate' granted by the enforcing authority. To improve safety, reliability and effectiveness of operations. To maintain a good public reputation and relations.. Other than the employer, there may be other parties who wish to investigate the incident:     . The enforcement authority (HSE, OSHA, Environment Agency etc.). Insurance companies. The coroner (in the event of a death). Trade Unions. The press or investigative journalists (although they will not necessarily be allowed complete access). 1.3 - The Benefits of a High Quality Incident Investigation.. Incident investigations can lead to several direct benefits: . An improvement of the management systems: If an accident has occurred, this may be the result of a management system failure. The accident investigation should look. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 3.

(4) 1.3 - The Benefits of a High Quality Incident Investigation.. . . into the effectiveness of management systems and make recommendations on improvements that can be made. Learning of important lessons:. When the failure has been identified, are there lessons that can be learnt and applied in other areas? These may be common technical issues shared by other departments or companies using similar plant, or management system failures that may be systemic across the organisation or industry. Improved safety performance: By correcting the safety failures that lead to incidents, ultimately there will be fewer incidents over the long term.. In turn these benefits will lead to other benefits such as improved productivity as a result of less downtime caused by incidents. They will result in increased uptime and reliability, and financial costs will be less as a result of less product damage, less absenteeism, less compensation paid to injured employees, less time wasted in accident investigations, fewer prosecutions and enforcement action etc. 1.4 - Incident Investigation. To learn from incidents we need to ensure an effective system is in place to investigate incidents and significant near misses to determine the root causes so that proper action can be taken to prevent recurrence. For the purposes of the exam you must be able to:     . Describe the basic steps in an incident investigation. Recognise and distinguish the quality of the investigation. Describe process for sharing of incident and near miss lessons learnt. Understand what the term 'root cause' means. Describe and communicate requirements for investigation of contractor incidents. 1.5 - Buncefield Video: Learning from Incidents. Download Video. On December 10th 2005 there was a major explosion and fire at the Buncefield oil storage depot in the United Kingdom. It was the largest fire in the UK since the Second World War. The subsequent investigation identified a large number of immediate and root causes which helped, not just the organisations involved but the entire oil and gas industry, improve their technical control measures and management systems. The root causes identified included: . Failures of management and contractors to repair a faulty level gauge.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 4.

(5) 1.5 - Buncefield Video: Learning from Incidents.     . Inadequate design and maintenance of secondary and tertiary containment measures (i.e. the bund and catchment drains). The management systems related to tank filling were deficient and not properly followed. Insufficient control and information for staff to properly control the filling of the tanks. Excessive pressure placed on staff due to an increase in workload, resulting in their inability to manage the receipt and storage of fuel. The focus was on keeping the process operating and not on process safety. 1.6 - Management Involvement in Investigations.. Incident investigation guidelines and procedures are typically developed by senior management. However, first and second line supervisors and managers should play an active role in carrying out incident investigations. They are familiar with the work practices and have control over the area. In addition, they should ensure that the recommendations resulting from incident investigations are implemented as soon as possible. Without the cooperation and commitment of the line managers the investigation will be of poor quality and it is unlikely any real changes will be implemented or sustained. 1.7 - Incident Management Cycle.. Figure 1. Incident Management Cycle. The Incident Management Cycle is a simple way of understanding the order of actions which we carry out after an incident. 1. Imagine that an incident has occurred. BEFORE we tend to the casualty, we have to ensure the situation cannot get any worse. This is to ensure any rescuers or medical SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 5.

(6) 1.7 - Incident Management Cycle. personnel are not put in a position of danger. By securing the site, we may be shutting down systems, processes, closing valves, isolating electricity etc. Securing the site might also include restricting access to people other than those prepared to deal with an emergency (e.g. trained personnel with specialist PPE and equipment). Once the site is safe and secure then we may rescue and attend to the casualty, providing any required first aid and medical treatment. 2. At this point we must begin to gather evidence and facts from the scene:     . Witnesses are identified and interviewed. Physical evidence is taken. Photographs of the scene are taken, possibly showing the position of objects as they were when the accident occurred. Measurements are made and recorded. Records are copied, possibly including printouts from the process logs and data.. 3. The above evidence and facts are analysed and interpreted and the company draws its conclusions and takes any immediate action necessary to guarantee safety. 4. The incident must be reported to the relevant internal authorities such as the H&S Department. 5. Where applicable the incident should be reported to the relevant regulatory authorities such as the HSE or Environment Agency and also passed onto Senior Management. 6. The root cause learnings of the incidents should be shared internally so the organisation can learn the mistakes and take any opportunities to improve their own processes. 7. Any corrective actions should be implemented, with progress and their success reviewed regularly. 8. From a statistical point of view, the incident should be logged and added to the overall data to allow the analysis of trends. 1.8 - Basic Accident Investigation Process.. Which Incidents Should Be Investigated? ALL incidents should be investigated. The main reason for this is that, without an investigation and corrective action, the incident may reoccur. The effort put into the investigation, however, should be based on 'potential severity' rather than the actual severity. For example, it is just as important to investigate a process gas release (which SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 6.

(7) 1.8 - Basic Accident Investigation Process. doesn't ignite, or result in injury) as it is to investigate a lost time or serious injury incident. Just because an incident did not result in significant harm or damage, does not mean that it should be ignored. Had the circumstances been slightly different, the actual severity may have been much higher. The UK HSE offers guidance on the basic accident investigation process (click on this link to read it in full: HSG 245: Investigating Accidents and Incidents). It recommends a 4 step approach: Step 1: Gather the information. Step 2: Analyse the information. Determine the Immediate and Root causes. Step 3: Identify suitable risk control measures. Step 4: Develop an action plan, and implement. However, before the Investigation can start, there are some basic emergency response actions that must be taken: 1. Render the area safe. 2. Ensure that first aid treatment is given to any injured persons. Once these actions have been taken, a decision needs to be made regarding the type and level of investigation to be undertaken. As discussed above, in determining the level of investigation you must consider the worst potential consequences of the incident, NOT the actual outcome. (e.g. a scaffold collapse may not have caused any injuries, but had the potential to cause major or fatal injuries). A risk matrix is sometimes used for this purpose. See an example of a risk matrix here: http://www.hse.gov.uk/risk/images/risk-matrix.gif There are broadly two types of investigation: . . A simple investigation (for low potential incidents), normal undertaken by the relevant line supervisor. This will look into the circumstances of the event, and try to learn any lessons in order to prevent future occurrences. Usually the lessons learnt will only be shared locally, and corrective action will not require major investment. A higher level, more detailed investigation (where there was actual, or potential for, serious outcome). This will typically involve line supervisors or line managers, health and safety advisers and employee representatives, and will look for the immediate, underlying and root causes. The lessons learnt will usually be shared across the company, and possibly across the industry. The prevention of serious damage or casualties will often justify significant expenditure and effort.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 7.

(8) 1.8 - Basic Accident Investigation Process. The following four sections are a text copy of the Four Steps to Incident Investigation animation. This is for the benefit of those students who are studying offline and cannot access the animation. You can skip the next four sections by using the buttons below. 1.9 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 1: Gathering Information.. Step 1: Gathering the information. Some of the information required to conduct the investigation must be taken from the scene of the incident. The scene must be kept secure and undisturbed until the investigation team are satisfied that they have obtained all evidence and facts they need, including all photographs, sketches and measurements they may want to take. Other information may be gathered from other sources such as:           . Witness statements. Risk assessments. Permits to Work. Safe Systems of Work (e.g. Operating procedures). Maintenance records. Training records. Medical Records. Photographs, CCTV. Computer print outs. Log Book entries. Audits, inspection reports.. The information gathering process should ensure that: .  . It explores all reasonable lines of enquiry and that the causes are not decided beforehand (i.e. the investigation team need to have an open mind and not be biased). It is carried out in a timely manner which means as soon as possible after the event. The investigation is structured, setting out clearly what is known, what is not known, and records the investigation.. Observational Techniques. The investigators will need to have good observational techniques so that they can identify what work practices are unsafe and need to be changed. For observation to be effective, they will need to have knowledge of the workplace and procedures, be open minded, and keep a record of observations. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 8.

(9) 1.9 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 1: Gathering Information. The observers should:   . Take time to observe the whole scene. Look everywhere (look above, look below, look behind, look inside). Be inquisitive and question employees to get their views and information on risks.. Interview Techniques. Interviewing witnesses is a key part of an investigation. However, if poor technique is used in the interview it can severely limit the usefulness of the information obtained. Good interview technique includes: .     . Explaining the purpose of the interview, what will be done with the information, and that the ultimate goal is not to blame a person, but to identify the root causes of the incident and prevent further incidents. The interviewee may not reveal information if they believe you will blame or persecute one of their colleagues. Making sure your manner does not intimidate the witness or make them feel uncomfortable. Conduct the interview in familiar surroundings which are less intimidating. Encourage witnesses to cooperate by speaking openly, with their own words. Interviewing witnesses privately and separately to avoid them sharing their own accounts of the incident. Providing a summary of what the witness said so that they can ensure that everything has been understood correctly and that the interviewer has not misinterpreted their account.. Essentially, you are seeking to gather all the information relating to the Material, the Task, the Environment, the Personnel and the Management.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 9.

(10) 1.9 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 1: Gathering Information.. Figure 1. Accident Information. 1.10 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 2: Analysing the Information. An analysis involves:   . Examining all the facts. Determining what happened. And why it happened.. All the detailed information gathered should be assembled and examined to identify what information is relevant and what information is missing. The information gathering and analysis are actually carried out at the same time. As the analysis progresses, further lines of enquiry requiring additional information will develop. New evidence raises further questions, which require further information gathering. The analysis should be conducted with employee or trade union health and safety representatives and other experts or specialists, as appropriate. This team approach can often be highly productive in enabling all the relevant causal factors to emerge. Those with expert knowledge or experience will have a different view point and will be able to ask questions that other team member will not think of. It is only by identifying all causes, and the root causes in particular, that you can learn from past failures and prevent future repetitions. There are many methods of analysing the information gathered in an investigation to find the immediate and root causes and it is for you to choose whichever method suits you best. One such analytical tool is the "Why" tree which we illustrate below. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 10.

(11) 1.10 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 2: Analysing the Information. It is important to understand the difference between Immediate, Underlying, and Root causes. Immediate causes are the unsafe acts and conditions that occurred at the time and place of the accident. These are the most obvious reasons why the incident occurred. For example: a missing blank caused flammable gas to escape, or overspeeding caused a road tanker to overturn. Underlying causes are the less obvious system or organisation reasons for the incident. Using the above examples: the manager of an installation was not aware that the blank was missing because he had not been informed by the previous shift, or the delivery schedule included an extra delivery that could not be reasonably be delivered that day, and therefore the driver was speeding. Root causes are much deeper and rooted in problems within management, planning, and organisational culture. These root causes lead to the situations, events and behaviours that lead to the incident occurring. These are the true cause of the incident. Again using the two examples above, production pressures may have caused supervisors to take shortcuts in the permit to work system, resulting in gas being pumped into a pipe without a blank fitted. Similarly, poor scheduling or pay policies may encourage a driver to speed.. A common definition for a root cause is "the most basic cause (or causes) that can reasonably be identified that management has control to fix and, when fixed, will prevent (or significantly reduce the likelihood of) the problem's recurrence." How Do we Identify the True Root Cause? As we said above, there is a variety of different methods to identify Root Causes but one of the easiest and most common methods is called the '5 Whys' approach, commonly known as a 'Why Tree'. It does require experience and common sense to be used effectively and get to the true root cause. As a general rule if you identify that an individual person is at fault, then you have not reached the true root cause. Let us summarise the above examples, and hopefully you will understand the difference between the immediate, underlying, and root causes.. Missing Blank. 1. Top event: An explosion occurred. Why? 2. Immediate cause: Because flammable gas was pumped into a pipe with a SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 11.

(12) 1.10 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 2: Analysing the Information.. missing blank, allowing it to escape and reach an ignition source. Why? 3. Underlying cause: Because the control room operator was not aware the blank had been removed. Why? 4. Underlying cause: Because this information was on an open permit to work and this had not been communicated at shift handover. Why? 5. Root cause: Production pressures are leading to control room staff taking shortcuts in the permit to work and handover procedures, resulting in poor communication.. Overturned Road Tanker. 1. Top event: A road tanker overturns while going around a sharp bend. 2. 3. 4.. 5.. Why? Immediate cause: The road tanker was travelling too fast. Why? Underlying cause: The road tanker driver felt under pressure to deliver his load on time. Why? Underlying cause: The delivery schedule added in an extra delivery at the last minute which cannot be delivered without taking shortcuts or speeding. Why? Root cause: There are problems in scheduling and priority is given to ontime deliveries instead of road safety.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 12.

(13) 1.10 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 2: Analysing the Information.. Figure 1. Example of a 'Why Tree'. 1.11 - 'Why Tree' Example.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 13.

(14) 1.11 - 'Why Tree' Example.. Figure 1. Another 'Why Tree' example. By asking why during the investigation process, the investigation team can build up a clear picture of where the failures occurred. 1.12 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 3: Identifying Suitable Risk Control Measures. The analysis will have identified a number of risk control measures that either failed or that could have interrupted the chain of events leading to the accident or incident, if they had been in place. You should now draw up a list of all the alternative measures to prevent this, or similar, adverse events. Some of these measures will be more difficult to implement than others (for example: those which correct root causes, which reflect management system failures), but this must not influence their listing as possible risk control measures. The time to consider these limitations is later when choosing and prioritising which measures to implement. Evaluate each of the possible risk control measures on the basis of their ability to prevent recurrences and whether or not they can be successfully implemented. In deciding which risk control measures to recommend and their priority, you should SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 14.

(15) 1.12 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 3: Identifying Suitable Risk Control Measures. choose measures in the following order, where possible: 1. Measures which eliminate the risk (e.g. use 'inherently safe' solutions such as a water-based product rather than a hydrocarbon-based solvent). 2. Measures which combat the risk at source via engineering or physical solutions (e.g. provision of guarding). 3. Measures which minimise the risk by relying on human behaviour (e.g. safe working procedures, the use of personal protective equipment and training). In general terms, measures that rely on engineering risk control measures are more reliable than those that rely on people. The above priorities are a philosophy loosely called the 'hierarchy of control'. 1.13 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 4: The Action Plan and its Implementation. At this stage in the investigation senior management, who have the authority to make decisions and act on the recommendations of the investigation team, should be involved. An action plan for the implementation of additional or improved risk control measures is the desired outcome of a thorough investigation. The action plan should have 'SMART' objectives (i.e. Specific, Measurable, Agreed, and Realistic, with Timescales). Risk control measures will be implemented according to priority. In deciding your priorities you should be guided by the magnitude of the risk. Ask yourself 'What is essential to securing the health and safety of the workforce today? What cannot be left until another day? How high is the risk to employees if this risk control measure is not implemented immediately?' If the risk is high, you should act immediately. Risk control improvements will, no doubt, be subject to financial constraints. But failing to put in place measures to control serious and imminent risks is totally unacceptable. You must either reduce the risks to an acceptable level, or stop the work. For those risks that are not high and immediate, the risk control measures should be put into your action plan in order of priority. Each risk control measure should be assigned a timescale and a person made responsible for its implementation. Progress on the action plan should be regularly reviewed. Any significant departures from the plan should be explained and risk control measures rescheduled, if appropriate. Employees and their representatives should be kept fully informed of the contents of the risk control action plan and progress with its implementation. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 15.

(16) 1.13 - Basic Incident Investigation Process. Step 4: The Action Plan and its Implementation.. Figure 1. Example of a blank safety action plan document. 1.14 - Types of Causes or Failures. We can categorise most causes of incidents as the following types of failure:   . Management or system failures. Cultural failures. Technical or process failures.. Management or System Failures. These can include: . Lack of commitment by management to safety.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 16.

(17) 1.14 - Types of Causes or Failures.      . Lack of supervision. Inadequate resources provided (manpower, financial, equipment etc.). Failure to risk assess. Mixed messages (actions and behaviour contradict verbal commitment to safety). Lack of procedures, or procedures not implemented, maintained or followed. Equipment not maintained adequately due to lack of time, resources or management oversight.. Cultural Failures. These include causes rooted in the organisation's safety culture. Safety Culture can be defined as: "The product of individual and group values, attitudes, perceptions, competencies, and patterns of behaviour that determine the commitment to, and the style and proficiency of, an organisation's health and safety management".     . Lack of safe working practices tolerated and condoned by all. Previous near-misses not reported as not seen as important. Blame culture. Poor communication or working relationships between departments or between client and contractors. Complacency amongst workforce.. Technical or Process Failures. These include any equipment malfunction, for example:      . Emergency shutdown devices do not activate. Gas detectors fail to detect the gas. Blowout preventer buckles under pressure. Automatic fire doors fail to close. Pressure relief valve fails. Overfill alarms do not send signal to control room. 1.15 - Learning the Lessons.. The lessons learned from incidents all contribute to the growing knowledge and experience of the individuals, organisation, and industry, and this can help in avoiding repetition of such events. This is because the consequences of accidents in the oil and gas industry can be particularly catastrophic causing many fatalities (for example, Bhopal and Piper Alpha), massive damage (for example, Buncefield), and major pollution (for example, Deepwater SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 17.

(18) 1.15 - Learning the Lessons. Horizon). You will learn more about the above incidents in Element 2 of this course.. Figure 1. The enormous size of the Deepwater Horizon spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Acquiring knowledge and experience from incidents should be a structured process, whether it is a minor or major incident. It is important that lessons learned come from a basic understanding of the root causes to develop a safety culture and systems that are capable of avoiding major catastrophes. Learning lessons from an incident can benefit two main areas: . . Local and organisational learning i.e. the people directly involved, and others employed in the organisation who may use similar equipment and operate similar processes or systems. Wider learning, for example across industry, professions, and amongst regulators. 1.16 - Learning Lessons Locally.. At the end of the investigation there needs to be a communication of the conclusions arrived at from all of the information gathered and analysed. This includes the root causes, underlying causes, and the recommendations to remedy these. It is important to communicate these in such a way that it is understood by everyone, in a format that is appropriate to the audience and hierarchical level. Sharing information across teams and departments can result in local improvements and changes to practices. It can also SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 18.

(19) 1.16 - Learning Lessons Locally. communicate lessons which can change attitudes and perceptions. For particularly large organisations it can be difficult to decide what lessons are relevant to share within our teams. Therefore sharing information should be a structured process where each department decides if the information is relevant and how to communicate it. Below is an example of a assessment process.. Figure 1. Incident Information Assessment Process. 1.17 - Learning Lessons More Widely. Lessons learnt within one organisation can be disseminated widely throughout other organisations by the publication of information in trade or specialised journals or publications, or through websites. This allows professionals in other organisations to take those lessons and present them to their colleagues and managers. One of the major lessons that the oil and gas industry has had to learn over the past 20 years is that they need to make sure they do not focus on general health and safety at the expense of process safety which is capable of causing major incidents. Regulators and enforcing authorities are also capable of learning lessons. One of the root causes of some major oil and gas disasters has been poor or ineffective regulation and oversight. This has led to the development of safety case and safety report legislation in some countries (we will learn more about this later in this Element). SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 19.

(20) Quiz - Incident Management Cycle. Please drag the elements of the 'Incident Management Cycle' to their corresponding areas.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 20.

(21) Question 1. Which of these parties may take part in an accident investigation? Question 2. Put the steps of accident investigation into the correct order. Question 3. Is this the correct definition of a 'root cause'? "The most basic cause (or. causes) that can reasonably be identified that management has control to fix and, when fixed, will prevent (or significantly reduce the likelihood of) the problem's recurrence". 1.18 - Example Exam Questions on Learning from Incidents. Here is a selection of past exam questions on learning from incidents. There is no guarantee that these questions will ever be asked again, but these will give you a good idea of the types of questions you could be asked. 1. Many major oil and gas incidents have occurred in recent years, e.g. Piper Alpha, Texas City, Mumbai High. (a) Outline reasons why such incidents should be investigated by employers. (4 marks available). (b) Identify parties, other than the employer, who may want to investigate these types of incident. (4 marks available). 2. Identify the information that might be included on a checklist for an investigation following an accident. (8 marks available). 1.19 - Summary. The learning outcome for this section was: 1.0 - Explain the purpose of and procedures for investigating incidents and how lessons learnt can be used to improve Health & Safety in the oil & gas industry. In summary we have learnt:  . Why investigating incidents is important. About the 4 Step process recommended by the HSE for investigating incidents:. 1. Gather information. 2. Analyse information and determine immediate and root causes. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 21.

(22) 1.19 - Summary. 3. Identify suitable risk control measures. 4. Develop an action plan and implement.    . The information and techniques required for an effective investigation. The difference between immediate, underlying, and root causes. The difference between management, cultural, and technical failures. The importance of sharing lessons locally and more widely. 2.0 - Hazards Inherent in the Oil and Gas Industry.. The learning outcome for this section is: 2.0 - Explain the hazards inherent in oil & gas arising from the extraction, storage and processing of raw materials and products. In this section we will look at various hazardous definitions from the oil and gas industry so that you have a greater understanding of hazardous situations and hazardous conditions. In particular we will cover the following phenomena, along with a number of hazardous gases and substances.           . Flash Point. Vapour Density. Vapour Pressure. Flammable. Highly Flammable. Extremely Flammable. Toxicity. Skin Irritant. Carcinogenic Properties. Upper Flammable Limit. Lower Flammable Limit.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 22.

(23) 2.0 - Hazards Inherent in the Oil and Gas Industry.. Figure 1. Photo of a platform fire. 2.1 - Flash Point. This is the lowest temperature at which the vapour above a volatile liquid forms a combustible mixture with air. At the flash point the application of a naked flame gives a momentary flash rather than sustained combustion, for which the temperature is too low. The flash point is an indication of how easy a chemical may burn. Liquids with low flash points pose the greatest danger because the flash point will be below the ambient temperature of most workplaces. The higher the flash point, the less likely it is to burn.. Figure 1. Example of a flammable warning symbol. 2.2 - Vapour Density. This defines the density of a vapour in relation to air. The vapours of flammable liquids can ignite if fire or sparks are present. The vapour density would indicate whether a vapour is denser (greater than one) or less dense (less than one) than air. The density has implications during storage and personnel safety. If a container can release a dense gas, its vapour could sink and, if flammable, collect until it is at a concentration sufficient for ignition. Even if not flammable, it could collect in the lower floor or level of a confined space and displace oxygen, possibly presenting an asphyxiation hazard to SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 23.

(24) 2.2 - Vapour Density. individuals entering the lower part of that space. In summary, dense gases and vapours will sink, causing potential fire and asphyxiation hazards. Lighter gases and vapours will rise, dispersing quickly but also possibly accumulating at a higher level.. Figure 1. Illustration of CO2 gas sinking to a low level and extinguishing a candle. 2.3 - Vapour Pressure. The definition of vapour pressure is difficult to understand. It is the pressure of a vapour in thermodynamic equilibrium with its condensed phases in a closed system. All liquids and solids have a tendency to evaporate into a gaseous form, and all gases have a tendency to condense back to their liquid or solid form. This can be a difficult concept to grasp, so we will try to provide a better explanation. The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure. To make it easier to understand, think of 'atmospheric pressure' as the air in the world pushing against a certain person or object. The vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the gas (evaporated liquid) back against the SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 24.

(25) 2.3 - Vapour Pressure. atmosphere. It is a battle of the two pressures. The liquid wants to evaporate and therefore exerts pressure against the atmosphere. The atmosphere exerts pressure back. If the vapour pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure then the liquid will evaporate. If not, then little or no evaporation can occur. Exposure to higher temperatures increases the vapour pressure of a liquid. For example, water boils at 100°C at an atmospheric pressure of 1 atm (atm is short for atmosphere, one of the units for pressure). If the atmospheric pressure was lower than 1 atm, it would be easier for the water to boil and evaporate, because there would be less pressure for it to fight against. Therefore the boiling point would be lower, which means that water would boil at a temperature lower than 100°C (water would boil more easily). If the pressure was greater than 1 atm, then a higher temperature would be needed to boil the water, because the vapour would need to have a higher pressure to fight against the atmospheric pressure. This means that you would need to heat the water to a temperature greater than 100°C in order for it to boil. All liquids have an inherent vapour pressure at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature. Some are higher, some are lower. This means that the greater the vapour pressure, the easier it is for a liquid to evaporate. This is particularly relevant when the vapours are flammable or toxic, as a higher vapour pressure will increase the amount of evaporation of these hazardous liquids, resulting in increased fire risks. A substance with a high vapour pressure at normal temperatures is often referred to as 'volatile'. For example, LPG and LNG. Consideration also has to be given to mixtures of substances with different vapour pressures.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 25.

(26) 2.3 - Vapour Pressure.. Figure 1. Drawing illustrating vapour pressure and the effect of mixing substances. 2.4 - Flammable. Flammable liquids are defined as those with a flashpoint below 55°C. In the United Kingdom, flammable liquids are categorised according to their level of flammability:   . Flammable liquids which have a flash point between 21°C and 55°C. Highly flammable liquids have a flash point below 21°C Extremely flammable liquids and gases have a flash point below 0°C and a boiling point below 35°C. At an international level there are differences in the definition of flammable liquids, with some variation in the defining temperatures. However, what remains the same is that the lower the flash point and boiling point, the more hazardous the flammable liquid. For example, in the United States, flammable liquids are defined as those with a flash point below 38°C. For exam purposes, you should remember the U.K. definition.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 26.

(27) 2.4 - Flammable.. Figure 1. Flammable liquid burning. 2.5 - Flammable Limits.. The Fire Triangle. The fire triangle or combustion triangle is a simple model for understanding the necessary ingredients for most fires. The triangle illustrates the three elements a fire needs to ignite:   . Heat or energy in the form of a spark. Fuel. An oxidising agent (usually oxygen).. A fire naturally occurs when the elements are present and combined in the right mixture. This means that:  . There needs to be sufficient heat or energy to ignite the fuel. The mixture of oxygen and fuel has to be in the correct proportion to burn. There is a limit to how much or how little oxygen you can introduce into an atmosphere without extinguishing the fire.. These limits are called 'flammability limits'.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 27.

(28) 2.5 - Flammable Limits.. Figure 1. The Fire Triangle.. Upper Flammability Limit. The upper flammable limit (UFL) gives the richest flammable mixture. Beyond this there is too much vapour and not enough air for ignition to take place. We also refer to upper explosive limits (UEL) where there is a possibility of an explosion.. Lower Flammability Limit. The lower flammable limit (LFL) describes the leanest mixture that still sustains a flame, i.e. the mixture with the smallest fraction of flammable gas. Below this there is too much air and not enough vapour for ignition to take place. We also refer to lower explosive limits (LEL) where there is a possibility of an explosion.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 28.

(29) 2.5 - Flammable Limits.. Figure 2. Flammable limits illustrated. The risk of working in an atmosphere which is in between the lower and upper flammability limits is that an ignition source (such as a spark from a metal tool, or electrical equipment) can ignite the atmosphere causing an explosion and a fire. 2.6 - Toxicity. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ ( the liver for example). There are generally three types of toxic entities: chemical, biological and physical. Toxicity can be measured by its effects on the target (organism, organ, tissue or cell). Because individuals typically have different levels of response to the same dose of a toxin, effects to the human body can vary in time and outcome. A central concept of toxicology is that effects are dose-dependent. Even water can lead to water intoxication when taken in too high a dose.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 29.

(30) 2.6 - Toxicity.. Figure 1. Toxic hazard symbol. 2.7 - Skin Irritant. Irritation is a state of inflammation or painful reaction to an allergy or cell-lining damage. A stimulus or agent which induces the state of irritation is called an irritant. Irritants are typically thought of as chemical agents but mechanical (for example fibreglass), thermal (heat), and radioactive stimuli (for example ultraviolet light or ionising radiation) can also be irritants. Chronic irritation is a medical term signifying that afflictive health conditions have been present for a long time (chronic implies a low dose over a long period of time). There are many disorders that can cause chronic irritation. The majority involves the skin, eyes and lungs. In higher organisms, an allergic response may be the cause of irritation.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 30.

(31) 2.7 - Skin Irritant. Figure 1. Hazard symbol for irritant substances. 2.8 - Carcinogenic Properties. A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide or radiation, which is an agent directly involved in causing cancer. Several radioactive substances are considered carcinogens, but their carcinogenic activity is caused by the radiation which they emit (for example, gamma rays and alpha particles). Other common examples of carcinogens are inhaled asbestos, certain dioxins, and tobacco smoke. Cancer is a disease in which damaged cells do not undergo programmed cell death. Carcinogens may increase the risk of cancer by altering cellular metabolism or damaging DNA directly in cells, which interferes with biological processes, and induces uncontrolled, malignant division, ultimately leading to the formation of tumours.. Figure 1. Hazard symbol for carcinogens. 2.9 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Hydrogen.. Figure 1. Hydrogen as represented on the periodic table. Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, tasteless, flammable and non-toxic gas. It is the lightest of all gases.. Hazardous Properties. Risks. Hydrogen is flammable over a wide High risk of fire and explosion, even range of concentrations (LFL 4% - HFL with the smallest and largest of leaks. 75%). The ignition energy for hydrogen is Incredibly easy to ignite. very low. This means it can ignite even with very low energy sparks. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 31.

(32) 2.9 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Hydrogen. A single volume of liquid hydrogen This means that a hydrogen leak can expands to about 850 volumes of gas rapidly become a large flammable at standard temperature and pressure vapour cloud. when vaporised. Hydrogen is able to reduce the Metals can become brittle and break performance of some containment easily, causing loss of containment. and piping materials, such as carbon steel as a result of a phenomenon called 'hydrogen embrittlement' where hydrogen atoms diffuse into the metal. This diffusion of atoms also means it Tendency to leak easily and cause has a tendency to easily leak out of flammable atmospheres. vessels and pipes. Liquid hydrogen is extremely cold. Can cause frostbite and cold burns. The cold also contributes to metal embrittlement. If a hot metal is exposed to liquid hydrogen then it can suffer from thermal shock and fracture. Can be an asphyxiant in its pure, A build-up of hydrogen can asphyxiate oxygen free form. people. A hydrogen fire is extremely hot and If you cannot see it you may almost invisible. accidentally come into contact with it. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of Hydrogen. 2.10 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Methane.. Figure 1. Chemical formula of methane. Methane is a naturally occurring, flammable gas that is colourless and odourless. Methane is the primary component of natural gas. 97% (by volume) of natural gas is methane. Methane comes from a number of different sources. Underground deposits of natural gas are the primary source of methane. Methane is also trapped in pockets near coal deposits. Methane can also be stored in liquid form. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 32.

(33) 2.10 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Methane.. Hazardous Properties. Risks. Methane's flammability range is between LEL 5% and UEL 15%. Colourless and odourless. Cannot be seen or smelled. Displaces the surrounding oxygen. Methane reacts violently with oxidisers, halogens and halogen containing compounds. Leak from a refrigerated stored vessel is heavier than air. Methane at ambient temperature is lighter than air.. High risk of fire and explosion when in presence of oxygen. Difficult to detect by humans without detection equipment. Can be an asphyxiation risk. Can spontaneously ignite or explode if it comes into contact with incompatible materials. Leaks will initially create a pool of flammable liquid and gas. When the methane reaches ambient temperature it can form a flammable vapour cloud.. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of methane. 2.11 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). Produced from petroleum, LPG is a mixture of gases (propane and butane). Its uses include fuel for cooking, heating and vehicles, and as a refrigerant. It is colourless and odourless, and has an odorising agent added for leak detection purposes.. Hazardous Properties. Risks. Flammable between LEL 2% and UEL Can cause fire and explosions in the 10%. presence of oxygen, even at very low concentrations. Twice as heavy as air. Will sink to the lowest possible level and accumulate. This could be in basements, cellars, pits, drains, where it can find an ignition source. There is an obvious fire risk in underground confined space work. Extremely cold when stored under Can cause severe cold burns due to pressure. the low temperature and rapid vaporisation. It can also cool equipment to the point where touching the equipment can also cause cold burns. LPG is stored under pressure. On Can quickly create a flammable SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 33.

(34) 2.11 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG). release it reverts to its gaseous state, the gas becoming about 250 times its stored liquid volume. Vapour and air mixtures arising from leakages travel some distance from the point of escape. At very high concentrations when mixed with air, vapour is an anaesthetic and subsequently an asphyxiant by diluting the available oxygen. Colourless and odourless (without the odorising additive).. vapour cloud.. When ignited the flame can travel back to the source of the leak. Asphyxiant risk.. Difficult for humans to see or smell, which is why an odorising additive is added. Empty LPG vessels usually contain Even empty vessels are a fire and some residual LPG vapours. explosion risk. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of LPG.. Figure 1. Warning sign for LPG. 2.12 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). LNG is liquefied natural gas. It originates from underground natural oil and gas reservoirs, SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 34.

(35) 2.12 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). often discovered through drilling and exploration operations. LNG is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets, where it is regasified and distributed as pipeline natural gas.. Hazardous Properties. Risks. Has a flammability range of LEL 5% to UEL 15%. The gas is a liquid because it is stored at very low temperature (-162C), at around atmospheric pressure. When released at its cold temperature will create a pool of liquid and gas.. Highly flammable and explosive in the correct air to gas ratio. Because of its temperature LNG can cause cold burns.. Can create a pool fire which is extremely difficult to extinguish. Usually this is left to burn until all of the fuel is burnt. Once it reaches ambient temperature Can create a flammable vapour cloud. the liquid rapidly expands to 600 times the volume of its liquid form. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of Liquified Natural Gas.. Figure 1. A LNG pool fire. 2.13 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Nitrogen.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 35.

(36) 2.13 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Nitrogen. Figure 1. Nitrogen on the periodic table.. Nitrogen is a nontoxic, odourless, colourless, tasteless and non-flammable gas. 78% (by volume) of the air we breathe is nitrogen. Oxygen constitutes approximately 21% of the air. Nitrogen weighs approximately the same as air, therefore it does not tend to sink or rise. Its ability to displace oxygen in the air is the reason it is often used as an inerting gas to control flammability risks.. Hazardous Properties. Risks. Will displace the oxygen in the air.. Will cause asphyxiation when the concentration of oxygen drops below 19.5%. Odourless, colourless, and tasteless. Difficult for humans to detect without the use of detection equipment. When stored under pressure nitrogen Contact with this liquid or the cold is an extremely cold liquid (-200oC). vapours can cause severe frostbite (it is used by the medical profession for destroying warts). When inhaled at high pressures it Has an anaesthetic effect on the body begins to act as an anaesthetic. and nervous system. For example, nitrogen narcosis when scuba-diving below 30m. Nitrogen dissolves in the bloodstream Rapid decompression of scuba-divers and body fats. can lead to decompression sickness and "the bends" where the nitrogen bubbles form inside the bodily tissues. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of nitrogen.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 36.

(37) 2.13 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Nitrogen.. Figure 2. A jar of liquid nitrogen evaporating. 2.14 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S).. Figure 1. Hydrogen sulphide hazard symbol.. Found in crude oil and gas, hydrogen sulphide is considered a broad-spectrum poison, meaning that it can poison several different systems in the body, although the nervous system and respiratory systems are most affected. Besides being highly toxic, H2S is a flammable gas. It also causes irritation to the eyes, skin and mucous membranes. H2S is commonly found in natural gas, biogas, and LPG.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 37.

(38) 2.14 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S).. Hazardous Properties. Risks. Has a flammability range of LEL 4.3% and UEL 46%. Highly toxic at extremely low concentrations.. Highly flammable and explosive in the correct fuel to air ratio. At concentrations of 800ppm 50% of people will die within 5 minutes of exposure. 1000ppm will cause instant collapse and loss of breathing, even with one single breath. It is heavier than air and hence tends Risk of death to anyone in a low-lying to accumulate in low-lying areas. space where H2S accumulates. Also a fire and explosion risk if it finds an ignition source. It has an extremely pungent odour Despite its odour, the corrosiveness (rotten eggs) and highly corrosive. will rapidly destroy the body's sense of smell. The corrosiveness can also make metals brittle. Therefore, employers need to take special precautions when choosing equipment if they may come into contact with H2S. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of Hydrogen Sulphide.. Figure 2. Workers working on plant containing H2S. 2.15 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Oxygen.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 38.

(39) 2.15 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Oxygen.. Figure 1. Oxygen as represented on the periodic table.. The air we breathe contains about 21% oxygen (O2). Without oxygen we would die in a matter of minutes. However, oxygen can also be dangerous. The dangers are fire and explosion. Oxygen behaves differently to air, compressed air, nitrogen and other inert gases. It is very reactive. Pure oxygen, at high pressure, such as from a cylinder, can react violently with common materials such as oil and grease. Oxygen is not flammable. But other materials may catch fire spontaneously when in contact with pure oxygen. Nearly all materials including textiles, rubber and even metals will burn vigorously in oxygen enriched atmospheres. A small increase in the oxygen level in the air to 23% (oxygen enrichment) can create a dangerous situation. It becomes easier to start a fire, which will then burn hotter and more fiercely than in normal air. It may be almost impossible to put the fire out. A leaking valve or hose in a poorly ventilated room or confined space can quickly increase the oxygen concentration to a dangerous level (for example the HMS Glasgow incident in 1976).. Figure 2. Example of how oxygen helps a fire burn faster and hotter.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 39.

(40) 2.15 - Properties and Hazards of Gases: Oxygen.. Hazardous Properties Highly reactive.. Stored under pressure and at low temperature. Pure oxygen can be toxic to inhale. Oxygen can also be toxic in high pressure atmospheres.. Risks Oxygen enriched atmospheres or pure oxygen can cause spontaneous burning of materials (particularly oils and greases). All fires will burn hotter and more fiercely in the presence of oxygen. Can cause cold burns. Disrupts the central nervous system and causes pulmonary difficulties. In particular scuba divers and people being treated in hyperbaric chambers are most at risk.. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of Oxygen.. 2.16 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Additives: Antifoaming and AntiWetting Agents.. Antifoaming Agents: A defoamer or an antifoaming agent is a chemical additive that reduces and hinders the formation of foam in industrial process liquids. Generally a defoamer is insoluble in the foaming medium. An essential feature is a low viscosity and a facility to spread rapidly on foamy surfaces. It tends to float on the surface where it destabilises the foam. This causes the rupture of the air bubbles and the breakdown of surface foam. Foam (entrained and dissolved air that is present in coolants and processing liquids) may cause various kinds of problems, including:      . Reduction of pump efficiency (cavitation). Reduced capacity of pumps and storage tanks. Bacterial growth. Dirt flotation and deposit formation. Reduced effectiveness of the fluids in use. Eventual downtime for cleaning.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 40.

(41) 2.16 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Additives: Antifoaming and AntiWetting Agents. Antifoaming agents may be oil, powder, water or silicone based.. Figure 1. Defoamer in action.. Anti-Wetting Agents: Water is often detrimental to materials when their surfaces become penetrated by moisture. Metal surfaces can corrode and wood degrades. Anti-wetting agents (for example, Teflon) place a waterproof barrier between the surface of the material and the water (for example, sea water and rain). Such coatings are said to be 'hydrophobic' (water repellent). Anti-wetting agents effectively offer good corrosion protection.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 41.

(42) 2.16 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Additives: Antifoaming and AntiWetting Agents.. Figure 2. Example of 'phobic' coatings such as anti-wetting and self-cleaning.. Hazards and Controls. Antifoaming and anti-wetting agents are usually not hazardous. Prolonged exposure may cause some skin irritation so it is sensible to wash your hands carefully after use. The product's Material Safety Data Sheet will specify any particular hazards and the handling precautions. 2.17 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Micro-Biocides. Micro-biocides are used in the gas and oil industry to control the growth of bacteria and prevent the formation of harmful by-products of their growth (such as H2S). A biocide is a chemical substance or micro-organism. They can be added to protect materials (typically liquids) against biological infestation and growth. In refineries, for example, uses include the treatment of cooling water to remove and prevent spores, fungi, legionella bacteria, and to prevent bacterial slime which significantly reduces heat transfer in cooling systems, such as heat exchangers. As a general rule they tend to be irritants and toxic when ingested. The use of chlorine, for example, poses the risk of severe irritation of the skin, nose, throat and respiratory tract. To control exposure to micro-biocides they should be stored safely and precautions taken SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 42.

(43) 2.17 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Micro-Biocides. to eliminate contact with the skin, eyes, and inhalation. These could include:     . Choosing a safer form of micro-biocide. For example, using a granular form instead of a powder or liquid. Using safe handling methods such as automatic dispensers. Adequate chemical resistant storage. Suitable PPE such as appropriate gloves, and if necessary goggles, apron, and respiratory protection. Procedures for dealing with spillages and releases.. Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) should be consulted for the specific hazards and control measures required for each type of biocide.. Figure 1. Example of chlorine cylinders stored securely. 2.18 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Corrosion Preventatives. Corrosion of metal in the presence of water is a common problem across many industries. The fact that most oil and gas production includes water and other corrosive substances makes corrosion a pervasive issue across the industry. These are additives which are used to delay or prevent the formation of corrosion within SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 43.

(44) 2.18 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Corrosion Preventatives. vessels, pipelines and structures. These are often applied to the surfaces of metals, forming a film which displaces water and other liquids from cracks to block out their corrosive effect. Other products form a protective barrier to prevent liquids from coming into contact with the metal. The Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) should specify the relevant risk control measures. The products are often irritants, such as alkyl amine corrosion inhibitors which can cause severe skin, nose, throat and eye irritation. The controls will usually be similar as those for micro-biocides i.e. safe storage, handling, and appropriate PPE.. Cathodic Protection. Cathodic protection (CP) is another technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making it the cathode of an electrochemical cell. The simplest method to apply CP is by connecting the metal to be protected with a piece of another more easily corroded 'sacrificial metal' to act as the anode of the electrochemical cell. The sacrificial metal then corrodes instead of the protected metal.. Figure 1. A sacrificial anode is bolted to the hull of a boat.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 44.

(45) 2.18 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Corrosion Preventatives.. Figure 2. An underground pipe with cathodic protection. 2.19 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Refrigerants. A refrigerant is a substance used to provide cooling either as the working substance of a refrigerator or by direct absorption of heat. Common refrigerants include ammonia, sulphur dioxide, and propane. They are liquified gases, and present minimal risk when they are contained within their system. The risks increase when there is an escape or a release of the refrigerant. Health risks include flammability, toxicity and cold burns. At high levels they can cause Central Nervous System depression and cardiac arrest. Vapours displace air and can cause asphyxiation in confined spaces, particularly as the gases are heavier than air. As usual, the Material Safety Data Sheet will contain information on the hazards from exposure, toxicity, and exposure limits for the specific substance used. Generally speaking, the hazards and risks associated with refrigerants are:. Hazardous Properties. Risks. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 45.

(46) 2.19 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Refrigerants. Will displace oxygen in the Can cause asphyxiation. atmosphere. May be flammable. Fire or explosion risk. Refrigerant gases are heavier than air. Will collect in the low available space, creating an asphyxiation and/or fire risk. Combustion byproducts can be toxic. If involved in a fire the byproducts can cause harm if inhaled. Stored under cryogenic pressure. Cold burns, particularly to skin and eyes if the worker comes into contact with the refrigerant. They have a high expansion rate when Can cause overpressure to vessels and they change from a liquid to a gas. piping, possibly causing rupture. In the event of a high pressure escape, workers can be injured from ejected material or components. Table 1. The hazardous properties and risks of refrigerants. The general control measures for controlling refrigerants include: . .   . Ensuring maintenance and inspection procedures are in place to ensure leaks and loss of containment do not occur, and that faults are repaired when they are identified. Having procedures in place to deal with unexpected release of refrigerants, such as emergency spillage procedures, recovery procedures, and equipment to contain the release. Confined Spaces precautions such as atmospheric testing before and during work, and not working in a confined space if there is a risk of refrigerant release. Having well ventilated areas and ventilation equipment to quickly dilute and disperse concentrations of refrigerant. Emergency procedures for evacuation if there is a large release, along with first aid measures such as moving victims to fresh air and providing oxygen as necessary. Medical assistance may be necessary. 2.20 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Water and Steam.. Water exists in three states: liquid, solid (ice) and gas (steam). It is used extensively in the oil and gas industry processes.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 46.

(47) 2.20 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Water and Steam. Uses include: Water:   . Cooling. Lubrication (drilling muds). Fire water source.. Steam:  . Power turbines to generate electrical power, to drive pumps, compressors, fans and other equipment. Heating source (control rooms, tank coils and trace heating).. Hot Water and Steam. Heated water produces steam. When released (intentionally or accidentally) it is generally under very high pressure and extremely high temperature. Steam most often refers to the visible white mist that condenses above boiling water as the hot vapour mixes with the cooler air. This mist consists of tiny droplets of liquid water. Pure steam emerges at the base of the spout of a steaming kettle where there is no visible vapour. Pure steam is a transparent gas. At standard temperature and pressure, pure steam (unmixed with air, but in equilibrium with liquid water) occupies about 1,600 times the volume of an equal mass of liquid water. Water and steam are used extensively in oil and gas processing. Hazards and control measures include: . . . . Burns from steam or hot water. The avoidance of contact is critical. Good maintenance procedures are required to ensure systems are in good condition to prevent leaks and releases. Valves will need to be isolated to prevent the flow of hot water and steam if work is to be carried out on the system. Corrosion of pipe work or equipment. This can lead to leaks and releases, or the failure of load-bearing metal structures. As discussed previously, protective coatings can be applied to steel components or sacrificial anodes can be fitted to provide cathodic protection. Water starvation leading to overheating of process equipment. This can be caused by blockages of cooling water, possibly caused by ice or hydrate formation (plugs of ice and hydrocarbons). Loss of water supply can also lead to overheating. High pressure injuries and amputation, especially from pressure jet cleaning. Safe systems of work need to be put in place, including exclusion of unnecessary. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 47.

(48) 2.20 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Water and Steam.. .  . . . . personnel, and safety features on the cleaning equipment (such as a dead man's switch). Water hammer from condensed water in steam systems. This is usually prevented by closely controlling the conditions within the system to minimise condensation, and regularly draining the water. Exothermic reaction when water reacts with volatile substances. This is prevented by controlling the process and strictly separating water from volatile substances. Legionella exposure, from poorly maintained cooling water systems. This is prevented by good temperature control, chemical disinfection, maintenance and testing for bacteria. Water must be regularly circulated to prevent it from stagnating, especially if it is in the 20°C to 45°C temperature range. Leptospira, which can be found in water which has its source in freshwater rivers or lakes. It can be transmitted to humans via broken skin or through the mucous membranes of the nose and eyes. Extreme cases can lead to Weil's Disease which can be fatal. Good personal hygiene is crucial. Stored under pressure, as in fire lines and steam water lines. An increase in pressure within pipework and other components can cause a sudden and catastrophic release. This may be caused by an increase in temperature (e.g. exposure to direct sunlight, or overheating). If steam is suddenly introduced to a cold pipe then it can cause thermal shock, leading to damage to the pipe due to the uneven expansion of the metal. Metal joints and flanges are especially vulnerable.. Figure 1. Diagram illustrating power generation from steam turbines.. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 48.

(49) 2.20 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Water and Steam.. Figure 2. Ultra high pressure jet cleaning.. Freezing Water and Ice. Water expands when it freezes, and this can result in the bursting of pipework and other components within the system. Under certain conditions plugs of ice can form and these can block pipes and pumps and prevent the closure of valves. In critical situations this can have catastrophic effects. An example of this is the Feyzin Disaster in France 1968. An operator was draining water from a pressurised propane tank when a hydrate plug formed in the drain valve. Consequently, he was unable to close the valve and a cloud of propane vapour escaped and exploded when it came into contact with a source of ignition. SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 49.

(50) 2.20 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Water and Steam. Controls to prevent this include:   . Lagging and insulating pipes which are at risk of being damaged by freezing water. Fitting steam or electric trace lines, which prevent the pipe from freezing. Draining unused components so they cannot freeze.. Figure 3. Example of pipe lagging.. Figure 4. Example of electrical trace heating.. Sea Water. Sea water contains living organisms which can multiply and cause blockages such as in filters and the heads of sprinkler systems. This can be avoided by regularly maintaining all parts of the system to keep them free of blocks, including using additives to kill any organisms which may be present. 2.21 - Properties, Hazards, and Control Measures of Mercaptans. Mercaptans are a group of sulphur-containing organic chemical substances. They smell like rotting cabbage. If mercaptans are in the air, even at low concentrations, SHEilds Ltd www.sheilds.org eLearning: www.sheilds-elearning.com NEBOSH Oil & Gas Cert Element 1 v 2.0 (169/03/2015). Tel: +44(0)1482 806805 Page: 50.

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