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(1)Learner English SECOND EDITION. A teacher's guide to interference and other problems. ) ! + .

(2) published by the press syndicate of the university of cambridge The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, United Kingdom cambridge university press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011±4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de AlarcoÂn 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http://www.cambridge.org # Cambridge University Press 2001 This book is in copyright, which normally means that no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. The copying of certain parts of it by individual teachers for use within their classrooms, however, is permitted without such formality. To aid identi®cation, pages which are copiable by the teacher without further permission are identi®ed by a separate copyright notice: # Cambridge University Press 2001. First published 1987 Second edition 2001 Fourth printing 2002 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge Typeset in Sabon 10.5/12pt. [CE].

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(7) Learner English: a teacher's guide to interference and other problems / [edited by] Michael Swan and Bernard Smith. ± 2nd ed. p. cm. ± (Cambridge handbooks for language teachers) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-521-77939-1 (pb) ± ISBN 0-521-00024-6 (audio cd) ± ISBN 0-521-77497-7 (cassette) 1. English language ± Study and teaching ± Foreign speakers. 2. Interference (Linguistics) I. Swan, Michael. II. Smith, Bernard, 1937± . III. Series. PE1128.A2 L36 2001 428'.0071±dc21 ISBN: 0 521 77939 1 paperback ISBN: 0 521 77497 7 cassette ISBN: 0 521 00024 6 CD (audio). 00-046785.

(8) Contents. Notes on contributors vii Introduction ix Note for teachers of American English List of phonetic symbols xiv Acknowledgements xvi. xii. Dutch speakers 1 Speakers of Scandinavian languages 21 German speakers 37 French speakers 52 Italian speakers 73 Speakers of Spanish and Catalan 90 Portuguese speakers 113 Greek speakers 129 Russian speakers 145 Polish speakers 162 Farsi speakers 179 Arabic speakers 195 Turkish speakers 214 Speakers of South Asian languages 227 Speakers of Dravidian languages 244 Speakers of West African languages 251 Swahili speakers 260 Malay/Indonesian speakers 279 Japanese speakers 296 Chinese speakers 310 Korean speakers 325 Thai speakers 343 The cassette and CD. 357. v.

(9) Dutch speakers

(10) . Distribution ! "# $$ % & '( !$$ $ ) ! $$ $$*&$ " + & & , !$$ & & -. !$$ $ # +" !& / +0" $$ " $ * *1. Introduction "# !!& + # )2 1 ! " & "# + 3 . "# "$ $ $ 4 *$ # ! # " $ * * # $ * * # #$ . 4$ # # + $*! /# + & +0" $$ " $$ 54$! #6 # + # $ * * # 0 $ * * + ! / # #$ # 4$ # ! $ # & $$ + # ! $" $ $" 7! + # $ * * # #*# ! #* . $$ * # $ * * 3. $! /# & $" & ! $$ $$*&$ &# # #$ 4$ "# *$ # &* "$ $ $ # # ! !3 $ $$ + # * !! "# * *$ # $ $ $$ /# # ! *. . Phonology General # "# *$ # #$*" $ ! & $ !$ # + "# ! $$ # +0"$ "* * "* ! *$ # $ ! * * $ "" # "# -.

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(12) . # &$! /# *$ # ""*$ $ + . + "# ** "# "" *$ # 8 9 "* + 0 $ " " * #* # $*# + "* /$ 8

(13) + + " 9 !"# / * "#* # ! $/ "# *$ # 9 :" + /# "" # $$*. Vowels. i:. I. e. {. eK aI OI. A: ¡. O: U. aU @U I@. u: Ã. z8 @. e@ U@. aI@ aU@. # #! # ; $ ; $ "# . #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - * # $ 6 * + * <I< ! & " "$ )$ * "+ &/ $ 1 )/# "+ &/ $ 1 ' "# <e< . !/# &/ *$ # <e< <{< #. $ "+ + # $ / ) $ 1 " $$ " "# # /$ " * <{< = $ " *$ # <A:< + & "% ! . !$ <O:< )/#"# + 1 $ * "+ &/ $ > <¡< and <Ã< ! & * # $ * "+ . $ ! $ ! $ " <Ã< # $ <@< . "# 0 *$ # <O:< <@U< +0"$ ! "+ $ , "# # ; $ + <U<

(14) ! & " # $ <Ã< )/# "+ &/

(15)

(16) + 7 ! $1 $ <u:< )! * !$ 1 ? <z:< ) 1 $$ " /# $ 3* & "# $ '.

(17)

(18) . Consonants. p. b. f. v. T. D. t. d. s. z. S. Z. tS dZ k. g. m n. ê. l. r. j. w h. # #! # ; $ ; $ "# . #$ #+ & " "$ /# +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! 4 $ "!! &$/ - # $ )5"61 " <b< <d< <v< <D< <z< <Z< <dZ< "" # + / "# /$$ $ " #! & # + )5"61 " 8 + % + % + % + % + % + % + ) $ $ + $ ! # *$ # " # $*# + /$ &+ " " " 1 ' # / ! # "# $ . " <f< + <v< <s< + <z< <S< + <Z<8 + % + % + = "# $ " # #! <g< /$$ # <k< # +" <7< ) " # 1 " ; $ <[< > <p< <t< <k< # &** + / "#% # " ! #! # $ <b< <d< <g<8 + %. + % + . <tS< + " <S< <dZ< <Z< ) <S<18 + % <Z{m< or + , <T< $$ " <s< <t<8

(19)

(20) +

(21) <D< . $$ " <z< <d<8 + ? # "# ! ! <s< # $ <S<8 + @ ! ! <w< /# # $ $ * "+ /# <v<8 + A "# <r< 7#& $ + % + # $ *$ # <r< -( "# " $" 5 6 <l< 5 6 /# # * +# & " # !# # *$ # " $$ + <i:< <I< <e< ! "# "" # 5 6 <l< &+ /$ /# *$ # # 5"$ 6 <l<. =.

(22)

(23) . -- <h< " & &$! + $ /# $" & "* +! # " $ " + $*!8 # " <7<3$ +" . Consonant clusters *$ # "$ * $ +0"$ + "# . ! <@< &/ <l< " # " 8 + %

(24) +

(25) . Influence of spelling on pronunciation - # "# ! + $$* /$ ##* + $ ! $ " # * +0"$ #+ . 3 " * /6. $$* +! " ' " # $ /# "" $ * ! + # !* # *$ # = "# $ "* <g< # "!& $/ " <ê< "# # $ &$! /# / $ " > " $ /$$ " # $ / $ <¡< + <Ã< . # $ / $ $ ! . <@U<3$ + <O:< , 4 $ + " <w<8 " <haUw<% " <sO:w<% " <drO:w< " ? /$$ " # $ $ / $

(26) ". Stress "# *$ # . / " ;. !$ # ! &$! #*# - "# "! *$ $ # . # 0 $! " $ * &$!. /# *$ # "! . " " " + )"# appeltaart1 ' "# . " &$ * " " * !! " $ " * )&1 )1 #. $ $ " & # . + ! / = "# # ! / +! *$ # #! " $ /$$ . / $ . " * * +! #*# >.

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(28) . Intonation "# ! /# !"# / * # *$ # # "# * # /#$ $ $ #*# "# # ! $/ "# *$ # * / # " * ! / # # // . Juncture and assimilation - "# # 0 $ " +" " /# # "; 0 $ <b< <d< <g< <v< <D< <z< <Z< <dZ< /$$ $$ ! #! " + # 7 / &* /# " B $ "# /30 $ " /$$ + &"! " &+ / &** /# " /$ # $ &$! *$ # 4 7 ! $8 " " ! " !

(29) " ' "# ;" + / " $ !$ " . $$ " 8 " " . Punctuation "# "!! + " $ "$ % #" ! . $8 C " # $ B!! ! & &/ $ "$ 8 C " . " $ D ! / $ # 8 C % " $ && $ $/ " * $/ " ! $$ +$$/ & 8 #" & & 7 # / # *$ # + $ $ ! & + "+ * 2# ! 7" "# "! / / ! #/ $* # /# # &/ +! & *$ # )*

(30) 1 # $ . $$* $ $ ..

(31)

(32) . Grammar General $*" $$ * # "# $ * * "" !/ &/ *$ # ! 2 $$ # ! ! % "# $$ # * !! " $ * #*# " * + " &$ & ! " * / "# + ! +! + !& + $ * *3 "0" ++" ! #$* "! "$ # *$ # ! # E" $ ! $ $ ! $% # & * 5" 6% # $ +/ $" + # $ &F". Interrogative and negative structures - "# # 3 * +! & ! $ % * & $ "* niet )G 1 + # & &+ # 0 30 & $ $!8 C' ( C

(33) " %

(34) $ C% $ ' : 3 * ; / "# ) #/ " = 5$ 6 " .1 # & *# 7 $"$ /#$ &+ "# /$$ 3 $$ " '

(35) ( +

(36) ( $ " " # $ &$ # "# = "# * & $ &** /# # ; $ + ; & #* ) $ 5$ 61 # &$ # !*# 3 * & # & + + # $ *8 C'

(37) ( )+ '

(38) (1 C' ( > D /# " # + $$* "# #. . !! + *$ # /#"# " ! ! $ " ; $ ) * ( $! &$$*. Tags, short answers and reply questions "# # " " "! &$ /# # *$ # ; *% "$ & 8 ,.

(39)

(40) . C+ " ( , ( )+ + " (1 $ "# *$ # # ; !& + 07 &F"3 $ 3 7$ /#"# +; " $ 7"# * # 3 # / + "# ! !! * ! . + & . **. . . ) ( - $ )+ - " % $1 - $ ." $ )+ + $1 $ / $ )+ / " $ / " " (1 -

(41) $ - 0 )+ - " % $ % $1. Auxiliaries # * $ +" "3! "# *$ # hebben )G 1 / zijn )G 1 +! # +" + zijn + blijven )G 1 + "!! "# *3+3 & 8 C1 " $ C1 $ # "# ! + # . " worden )G 1 #. ! $ % #/ # +" "# # ! $ +! + zijn )G 1 + "# $ # zijn $$ # /#$ #* # # *$ # & * +" # # /$$ & . # * # &$! "!3 & # 7 " *$ # + " " $ /#"# ! !$ + 2 # + ! # *$ # + + $ " $ . Time, tense and aspect + "# " &# +" /# !"# ++" ! * # $ # ! $ +! B $ "# " /# *$ # /$ +"8 C% $ C) $ ?.

(42)

(43) . C+ % " $.

(44) 7 . #/ $* + ++ # & ** "# ! $$ +"8 C%

(45) $ C% ) % $. - #*# "# # + +! /# 7$ )*#$ ; $ # , + + *$ #1 + . # + # +8 C% % $ ' 7 . #/ $* + + ++ /$$ # $ "# + ! $ + ! $ 8 C% 3456 %

(46) 57 $ C %

(47) $ = "# " +$ # + &"$ + !8 C1 $. "# # *. & +! 8 C% * $ C% 2 $ 5:*. 6 ! * " #/ & 7 . + ". & # + " F" & 8 C' ( )+ ' (1 C-

(48)

(49) " ( ! &* * $ # *$ # *. 8 C $. Conditionals - # "# # " &/ # + & $ +!. # "# &"$ ! "$ # *$ #% +! # ; $ + # ! $ *$ # +! "# $$/. # + , , # &"$ + +$$ $7" $ & # ! "$ " ! $8 @.

(50)

(51) . C% % " % $ C%

(52) " ) 1 $ C%

(53) " . $ ' "!! "# # & dan )G 1 # ! "$ + " $ " "8 H C% " % #

(54) ( H C1 %

(55) " % $. Modal verbs I # /#$ # "# *$ # ! + ! $ & . !$ 8 - *$ # " $ $ "# moeten )G 1% #" # +; + /# # # ! $8 C'

(56) ( )+ ' $ $ $(1 C% 8 )+ $ $ $ $ $ $1 # * moest niet ! 8 C-

(57) " % ' "0" $$ $ ! & # ; $ + # "# moest )G 1 C% * $ C .

(58) " $ = # "# moet niet ! . . #+ "! $$ ++ +! 8 C9

(59) > "# kan )0 kunnen1 $$ + . &$% # . ; $ + *$ # , #. 8 C% : $ C% . # + "# kunnen kon ) *1 < konden ) $1 /# * &$ $$ ! $ ! # ! &$8 $! &$ ** # # " 7 . & # ! & /. " $$ " " "# ! & ! $ & # 8 C- 7

(60) )+ $ $ $ 1 , :!. ! $ *# * "# & ! + # A.

(61)

(62) . ! $ mag )0 mogen1 +! $ * $ *. *$ # $ $ # + mag /#"# mocht ) G 18 C+ # ? "# zou #. $ ++ ! * $ +/ + /#"# " & 7 . & ' = 8 C

(63) )+ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $: 1 C1 + " )+ $ $ $ $ $ $8 +$0$$ 1 C) )+ ) 8 !1. Non-finite forms "# " &$ +/ 30 +! # *$ # #. " &$! " $$ # + & $ "! $! 3 # +! / / &# *$ # "# "# ! " $ $ # *$ # "! $! + / + ++ +! "# ; $ - "# /$$ & "$ F" $ & $ " " + 0 * + & 8 C1 % $ C% C% )+ % 1 C ' "# # ; $ + # *$ # * /$$ +. & 0 + +/ " $ 7 ! $ 8 C% $ C% "

(64) C% $ C%

(65) $ C% $ C%

(66) $ " $$ # & " + * ; $ /$$ $ $ # """ + 0 + 8 C% " = # ; $ + # " 5& J &F" J " $6 /# ! * 7 . !& + ++. " 8 C% $ C%

(67) ;

(68) $ C

(69) -(.

(70)

(71) . 4 $$ " $ "$ "# "# $ . $ &$ $ " !+* " $ " $ & $ "$ ) 1 $ /#$ * #! & $ " $ "$ $ < "

(72) * #! / +" " $ "$ $ 1 " )/#"# # "# ; $ $$1 /$$ $*. Word order 2 "# $. ! $ # *$ # ! + # ! . * ++" /$$ $ + $! $$ & # "# ! ! & $ # # /$$ $ &$! ! ! " $$.

(73) - "# # &F" # 0 +! + # & . &$8 C1

(74) + ' # "# 0 & * & +! # + # & $ * )0 " $ 18 C% C = " *$ # "# " # & ) ! $1 &F". "! $!. & & $ 8 C% C C+

(75) > $/ "" "# + # " /# " # # # &F" "F"8 C % C% 0 C # . # $ + & $ $ ++ ! & $. * " # + $ "8 C+ * , # & "$ "! # + # "$ 8 C1 ;

(76) ? "# # "$ " & +! & "! $7 " $ "$ & F" "! $!8 --.

(77)

(78) . C + . C1 @ 4 / * "$ # " 5* * " 6 A "# + &*. " /# # ; $ + 8 C' +$ )

(79) )+

(80) 1 C) 5==3 % . & & $ * "! # + & "$ 8 C1

(81) 2 ) $ $ $ 1. Constructions with it and there - B$ +* $ #* &* /# het # "# ; $ + het +$$/ & $ $ & +! /# $ $ +$$/ " /$$ 3 "* " $8 C% 2 $ C% $ ' "# $ het $ + " " +! & ! $ % < ( / " $ = "# er + ! " " # *$ # ; $ <D@< /#"# $! &$ +$$/ & +! + "# /$$ / #* $8 C

(82) $ C

(83) ) !!

(84) 1 C $ C $. Articles # "# ! + 0 0 "$ & " $$ # !. *$ # +! !& + ++" + ! " # ! 8 - "# !! 0 "$ /# " &$ $ $ +* !#*<#* < $ * $8 -'.

(85)

(86) . '. =. >. .. C C "# # 0 "$ &F" "! $! /# " &$ * +. "" $* $% + # ; $ + : C+ " . + $ + $ C)

(87) > C+ # ! / *$ # )$ " " 1 /#"# " & # "$ /# # /# ! & # ! ! * $ " & /#"# $ " # "$ /# #. " # & # " + /#"# # $ " " $$ #*# "# #. ! $$$ # /# # "$ $ naar bed/school gaan )G , 1 # + +/% #" ! $8 C )+ 1 C ! + ! $ ! $$ " & "$ # $ $" " # # ) 1 $ ! $8 C*

(88) # ! $ -(( - ((( # "$ "#% #" C C . Adjectives and adverbs & " $ /# # E" +! + # " * F" # + ! & $ +! . $ # "# 6 "! " # " $ ! ! $8 C+ $ C-

(89) ? # 8 C

(90) . Quantifiers and determiners - "# ++ ; 0 /# " &$ "3 &$ % #" ! $

(91) $. + )+ 1 ' # " &/ /$$ # & *# -=.

(92)

(93) . 7 $"$ # #* # "! "$ # ; 0 "# # ! #$ + , , ! " $ ! 8 C%

(94) )&* $1 C$ $ $ # C@ %

(95) ( C

(96) $. Interrogative pronouns # $ &$! # + # &* 7 " ; $ + # "#% #"8 C' " ? A (. Relative pronouns - "# # ++ $ + $ #* # + /# $ " )) $ $ $1 +0"$ " ' # &* " &/ " 3 " "$ + # "#" + "" &* + /# " $ & " A & " ) * !! " $ = Wat # !"# / " * # *$ # 8 /# "$ " /# ; 0 " " * $ /# # 7 $ # + !& + " /# *$ # ; 8 C2 " # $ C %

(97) $ I"" $$ $ 8 C % $ $ $ > B " "$ )"$ /# $ 1 3 * $$ / "# 7% #+ &* ! 7". + " $8 % B 2 . + $ J "# + "! $ & $ + # / * $$ & $ *$ # K J +! $ "# # + #! " # $$. &$ /#"# /$ & * #$ "#* . * 7" # $ + )K1 $ 8 ->.

(98)

(99) . C $ C %

(100) $ , 4 "!! /# $ "$ 5:" 6. Reflexive pronouns "# E" # " # $+ + E7 + !& #" ! $ )+ % $ ""1 # "!& /# /# ! $$ !$ & ) ! $ & +* #* # $ #! $ 1 *$ # /#"# # "# ; $8 C1 . The indefinite pronoun one Men $ +! $ *$ # ; $ "#. . #$ & $ # # * + $ " ; $ 8 C% &. ) )+ $ $ $ 1 . $ $ $ )+ $. +! $ - 1 C.

(101) )+ $ $ $1. Gender # $ * ! + *$ # # ! "# "#8 # "# # ! $ # ! " ! )F $ # ! 1 /#$ + # "# / & ! )! "$ 1 /# $! #* !& + +! 2#"# ! # $* "# + "$ " ! . # ! "$ +! *! /# # "# ;3 $ 8 C ? $ $ $ $ $ $ C $ $ $ $ $ $. -..

(102)

(103) . Countability and number - "# "$$" $/ +$$/ & *$ & /#$ &+ /$$* $ *$ # & +$$/ & $ $ /# % # /$$ * + . # # . "$$" # ; $ $ & /$$ * $8 C $ ' : 3 $ $ /% # & 3 *$ # &/* ". $ * 8 C' ( % ) % 561 ! "!! + $ # $ $ +! 8 + $ = "# $ * # " &$ " &$ & $$ ; $ &$* # ! " *% #" ! $ C " " " > + # 0 $! + J "! $ $ . ! $ *$ *$ # "# # !& " $ * ! $

(104) $ . & $ # ++" &/ + 7 ! $ + "# # *$ # /$ & &# " " ! $ C . Conjunctions # $ $ &$! # # "!! "+ &/ 8 C' $. Prepositions #*# . &$ " *# ; $" &/ "# *$ # # ! " /# # ! "# # /$$ # $ ! # "$$" +/ "!! ! & / + 7 ! $8 C C1 =$ C, )+ 1 C -,.

(105)

(106) . C C C $ C $ C )+ 1 # $ $. / +/ ! " ! " & ! 8 - Sinds $ # % $8 C% ' Achter $ # % "+ #!8 C1 = In $ # % $8 CB $. Vocabulary "# *$ # # # ! & " ! " " &$ )* voet G groet G zien G mij G in G 1 /#"# * $ + "$ $ * + # ! + $ + * # ! " + # " &$ + "$ & # + " # "# #. &/ + $ 7 $ +! ! " # ! " $ / 4"# ) " $$ $*!1 ! . False friends # "$ *" $ # # ** #" $ 7! &/ "# *$ # $ # + " # &# # &/ 7 $ +! ! " ". $ $ # 7 " + ! + $ + + # ! # "# $ $ * *. 4"# $ "# /$$ # +$$/*8

(107) . . .

(108)

(109)

(110) ;. bekomen merk brengen camping parking smoking chance techniek. dramatisch solliciteren.

(111) *" $ )+ F&1 * F&3#* * "; & ! " ! *3 " * $ F " 7 $" "#$* -?.

(112)

(113) . . .

(114) . concurrentie controleren neef nicht actueel actueel defect rijden zich amuseren eventueel leren missen fout novelle stage achterkant. "! "#" ) 1 " " " "$ +" ) " 1 F $+ . &$ "# /# . # # & ". Some typical mistakes with high-frequency words

(115) . CD = . %

(116)

(117) $ 1 ( + $ @ %

(118) ( )# * 81 9 $ 1 ( )+ 1 (1 " $ CD % $ %

(119) )+ %

(120) 1. Compounding *$ # "! $. +;$ # "# /$$ ! . "# "! . Multi-word verbs # 7 "# & # + $. # *$ # /$$ + & ". 7 $"$ / # 6 -@.

(121)

(122) . $ & # # /$$ #/ + $ " 8 . + . & . zoeken beschouwen verdragen.

(123) " .

(124)

(125) . ) !$3/ & + $ &$! # ! "# & !$ "! & &$ & "#1. A sample of written Dutch with a word-for-word translation Vele. malen heb ik al. meegemaakt, als. in een gezelschap. ! # $ 7 " /#<+ . iemand. zo onhandig. is te verklappen dat ik taalkundige. ! # L"$! M & ben, dat men reageert met:. ! # ". "! . `Oei,. # $* . dan mag ik wel. op. /#8 5I # ! /$$ L6 &M . mijn woorden letten!'. Misschien dat een politiecommissaris. ! / / "#N6 wel herkent,. &. # . maar de wijnkoper,. de hondenfokker of de. /$$ "* & # / & # * leraar. wiskunde heeft zoiets. "# )+1 ! #. toch. dat. $" "!!. # . niet. Hoe. #. komt het. #. !#* / "! . dat de taalkundige of de leraar. L #M # # $* hetzelfde schuitje. Nederlands in. # "# )+1 "#. zit als de politiecommissaris?. . Ik weet. # ! & L!M # $" "!!. H / het niet, maar Nederlandstaligen, aan beide zijden van de grens, zijn. & "# #. als. het om. hun taal. &# + # & . gaat, voÂoÂr. alles onzeker, voorzichtig. /# & # $ * * * &+ L &M $$ " +$ bang.. Bang gemaÂaÂkt, lijkt. " " ! . me. Terwijl. de meesten. )1 ! )1 ! 2# # ! L! $M -A.

(126)

(127) toch minder reden tot schrik. $. hebben dan in de. + E F # . nabijheid van de politiecommissaris.. # #. Vreemd. genoeg zijn het. . + # $" "!!. *)$1 *# juist de leraren. Nederlands en. F # "# )+1 "# in taalkwesties. veelal. de taalkundigen die. # $* . /#. het meest tolerant zijn. Veel. $ * * ; ! $ # ! $ toleranter. dan vele. anderen buiten. "#. hun kring. Niet. ! $ # ! # # ""$ vreemd wegens. hun opleiding,. maar wel. vreemd. * /* # " & /$$ LM * omdat. het ijzeren schrikbewind. dus uit. andere. &" # + *! L M # )+1 # bron. moet voorkomen. Lag het aan. de doorsnee-. " ! +#"! L2 M # * taalgebruiker,. men zou. onze taal. onmiddellijk. tot kerntaak. $ * * /$ $ * * !! $ " uitroepen van een minister tot. "$ ! + . deugdzaamheid en Preventie. . Bevordering van de. ! L+M )#1 4#* + # van het kwaad. : + # $. )5 "$!6 & . =? )-AA@1 ,'1. '(.

(128) Speakers of Scandinavian languages: Danish, Norwegian, Swedish $ 3$ : . Distribution O I2P 2 4 )/ #1 ! ) #1. Introduction # " $ * * 3 $ * * &$** $ *$ # # ! " & "# B &$ " " &/ # *$ # " $ * * /$$ . "!! E" # +" # "$ $ # &/ # $ * * *$ # #+ $ $ + " $ 4 # + ! $" # +$$/* " "" # ! F &$! /#"# # /* / # $ + *$ # # "!! . # & . /#"# ; ". 3" "! )#*# # & ". $ /# ! + # # " #$*1 + + " # & . &$ "$ # +0"$ + "$ " 4 $ . Phonology General $$ # " $ * * #$*" $$ & $ !$ *$ # ! + + *$ # " . +0"$ + # $ * * # #$*" $. ! + # /* / # "# " & " &$ !$ &# /# " *! )+ 7 ! $ # + /$ 1 /$$ &$/ # ! "!! " *$ # 3 #$. $ " + 7 /#"# # " $ * * +! "# # #+ $ +! '-.

(129) +

(130) + . &6 3 / # ! . & *$ # " /# 5" ""6 # /$ " "# &$/ 3" ++" # & ! & ! ++3 " + # "& # 7. Vowels. i:. I. e. {. eI aI OI. A:. ¡ O: U. aU @U I@. u:. Ã z: @. e@ U@. aI@ aU@. # #! # ; $ ; $ $$ # " $ * * " "$ /#. +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! + # / # < /* 4 $ "!! &$/ - <I< + " "$ /$ <i:<8 + ' <{< + " & / # <e<8 + B $ ! /* " <e< <{<8 + = <U< )

(131) 1 + " "$ "$ $ /$ & / /* & ! " $. "$ $ /$ > <u:< ) 1 + " " $ /$ & 3 /* *$ " !/# $/ /$ & / . / /* +;$ $ " <Ã< )

(132) 1 & ! + /$ , "# " " $$ $ " <Ã< & /$ ! &/ *$ # <Ã< <¡< # $ $ <¡< " ;$ 0 +0"$ +! "

(133) +!

(134) " ? <z:< ) 1 " $$ " & / @ <@< $/ . +0"$ " )5 . 61 A /* ! " <eI< )

(135) D 8 <{I< -( <@U< + " & / <u:< ) + 1 & . <Ou< <Êu< & /* <au< <¡u< /* . ''.

(136) +

(137) + . " $$ 0 +0"$ * # &/ *$ # <@U< <aU< ) 1 ! " $$ & #! ""$ -- <I@< <e@< <U@< ) 1 $$ " /# <r< + <@< & /* / " $$ $ " #! /# # ##* <i¡< <e¡< <u¡< "$. Consonants. p. b. f. v. T. t. d. s. z. S. Z. tS dZ k. g. m. n. ê. l. r. D j. w h. # #! # ; $ ; $ $$ # " $ * * " "$ /#. +0"$ $#*# ! "+ ! $$ # #! ! " &$! + # / # < /* 4 $ "!! &$/ - <T< "" " $$ " <t< )& 1. <s<8

(138)

(139) +

(140) % + ' <D< "" /* / # + " <d<8 + % . + % $ " /# !"# ! $ $ "$ <D< = <z< "" " $$ $ " & <s<8 + I" # ! <z< ! $ 5&KK6 !"# > <Z< "" " $$ $ " & <S<8 + . <tS< "" + " <tj< , <dZ< "" + " <dj< & /* <j< & / 8 + ? <r< " /# # & " + # * & ! ) #1 / /* ! / $ " & # 3*$ # 3+3#3* 3 @ <w< "" & $ " & $ 7 <v<8 + A 5 6 <l< "" $ ! / # /* $" % $ " & 5"$ 6 <l< '=.

(141) +

(142) + . -( $ " /30 $ <b< <d< <g< /# <p< <t< <k<8 + % + %

(143) + / /$ # ! # 8 + % . + % +

(144) -- / # /* " " $* + # /$ % # ! & " *$ # / $ . Influence of spelling on pronunciation $$* " ! "$ $ $ # " $ * * ) " $$ / # /* 1 # *$ # # +/ !&* ! & ! " /# $ # ++ $ *$ # # !# *% /# *$ # #* # $ # $ / + # # # / # & " $ + " " &/ $ *$ # "$ $8 - * ! " # $ <i:< << )$ ! G 4"# 1 <A:< ) * $1 <U< . <aU< $ * ! / $ )4 7 ! $ # &*. !! 3 " " " $ < ri:D@< <pA rA:D@<1 ' <@< $/ . $ " $ * * 2# <@< . $ /# # $ *$ # ! " /$ "* + 7 ! $ <¡< <{< <A:< = + " # $ " *$ # <z< # "!!$ ! " # $ <s< /. "# . > + " # $ " *$ # <D< ) /$$ <T<1 # ! ! " <T< " " . # ! & " / $ " " . $ * ! # *$ #. Rhythm and stress : + / " . ; !$ *$ # # " $ * * # $ $ +/ &$! #. #/8 '>.

(145) +

(146) + . - " "! $$ . # 0 $! "!! *$ # "! /#"# +$$/ # 8 " " C ! ! )"+ ! 1 " C / # $$ B $ "! ! + 5& J &6 "!& 3 " & . # " $!8 C

(147) " C

(148) " C " C ' # " $ * * # +/ 5/ +! 6 # *$ #. + /*$ # . +! + / $ " " CD" " " " " ** #! # 5 *6 " ! " # $ +! ";* $ " ##! * ! # +0"$ "* / +! . Intonation - . $$ &$ # ) + /* / #1 " #*# "# # "* . . $$ &$ # + + *$ # *# /# " " # 0 . $$ &$ + $/ "#8. . .. *. .. .. *. .. .. * .. ) #1. %

(149) & + $. . .. *. .. .. *. .. .. * .. )/* 1. ' "$ "# * /#"# / $. 7 # $ $ / ! /* = # + $$3 +0"$ + " $ > /* ) ! / 1 ! * ! # *$ $* #*#. '..

(150) +

(151) + . Orthography and punctuation Spelling # /# # &"! / + # " &/ <v< <w< & +$$ "$ $ " & ) " 1 & &$ &" #. $$* . ! & # ! 5*$ #6 E" +! ! ! ! ! / + ) " 1 # $

(152) !"# ! +;$ # # " $ * * # ! $ $

(153) "

(154) $. Punctuation - ! " "! / / # + # # # / $ )brandalarm1 + "* / $ )ytterdùr1 " +0"$ ' " . !! "!! + !3 "$ &/ ! "$ /#"# & "3 * "F" & +$ & "$ $ $ 8 C " $ = "!! &+ &F" "$ " $ "$ 8 C%

(155) "

(156) $ C' " ( > # # ! / *$ # # $ . "+ " $$ /# # !! $ " ) , % ,1. Grammar Order of constituents # " $ * * &* " /#. !#* # # # &F" 9 /#"# # $ " + # & *$ # $ & $ *$ $ 5+6 # * $$ " &F"9& * !" &F". "! $! " *$ # " $ ! 8 C % $. ',.

(157) +

(158) + . Position of adverbs # " $ * * !3 " & * $$ $ " + # 0 & # $ ! *$ # ". /# 3/ & 8 C@ $ / & "$ & $ " 0 &. " $ * * # $ ! *$ # ". /# "! $7 & # 8 C$ $ $ $ # " # /# ; $* & $ 8 1 2

(159) . $. Constructions with it and there - /* / # # ; $ + # " "3 # det /#"# $ ! * " ;"8 C% $ ' $$ # $ * * # " " /# / * + & )/# *$ # $ "!! /# . ! &1 # $ ! $8 C%, $ C%, ; $ C%, $ = " $ * * ! + # *$ # # * 0 # &F" # ! $ + 3"$+ " $ $$ + # $. "!& ! + $ $ $. Nouns: countability and number - # " &$<" &$ " + " $ * * & # ! ++" + & /#"# * &$! 8 C

(160) )+ 1 ' # " " + $ $8 C1 ( = B$$" " $ * 7 # " $ * * :! $ +" $ $ $ $ $ $ $ "" & +$ & "$$; $ '?.

(161) +

(162) + . > ! " /# *$ # # $ $ *$ . # " $ * * :. &$ ! 8 C )+ 1 C &. ) )+ &. ) 1 C $ . ! " # # / $ * $8 C9 # $ C $ , ++" + * ! !" $ 7 . " ! . $8 C 3 H C . Articles - # 0 "$ "" " $ * * &+ "3 &$ $ $ * $ *$ # ! $ "$ # " # $ $8 C+ $ C ) + $ ' &F" &F" "! $! +" !$ $ + # " $ * * # 0 "$ /# +" 3 "0" /#"# $ $8 C1 $ C) $ = $ * !& + ! $. ! " " # ! " + "$ $ /# # &F" " &. +!* ! " /#$ *# /# # & #. # $ "

(163) " /$ # "$ # " $ * * "$ $ "!!$ $+ + # / + : C C . Premodification - # * )/# #1 + # " $ * * &F" # " # $! *$ # # ! $ 8 C ' " & !+ # *$ # / # " $ * * # / +! "! / / . # 0 $! ) $. " . " 1 '@.

(164) +

(165) + . = +0" $ $ & F" " $ " # 3 " $! "# #! #8 den i de gamle regler beskrevne maÊde )G . ) ! "" $$ + # + " " *$ # > # $ + * F" /# # # " 3 $ * * " &$ $. " # *$ # /#"# $ $8 C) $. Postmodification - # " $ * * + +$$ $ "$ )* 1 " /# *$ # + $. "!& ! " $ " " )* 1 ' ! " *$ # $ # /# 3 !0 /# # " $ * * #. $ "!! ! # + # /

(166) 8 C . Adjective or adverb? - " & + ! & !$ +! F" /#"# $ +; ! 8 C+

(167) ; $ C- $ ' # ! " "" " /# # &

(168) " " " " /#"# ! " & F" " $ * * 8 C% $. Pronouns and determiners - # , " # " " $ * * 8 C % '$ + # *$ ; $8 C+ " % $ 'A.

(169) +

(170) + . = + + +$$/ & $ "$ " $ * * + ! !8 C

(171) # $ > # " $ * * # "! $$ "0" $ man /#"# " # *$ # 5* $6 + ! & /# *$ # # . " . $ % $ ; $ $$ " . ! " /# # . . ! &$* *$ # & /# "$ +! # "7 /# # . . # " $ * * # 0 "$8 1 .

(172) . Verb forms # E" + !& " $ * * B ;$ $ # #3 % " . $ # "# # "" $$8 C1 I @

(173) $ ) )# +! + ! !$ # *$ " & +! er/aÈr1 & + " 8 C%

(174) $. Do " # # ! &$! /# # " " . # + $ "" * # +! + ; * * " $$ +0"$ & "$ 8 C

(175) $ # "!! + 5&$6 < +! 8 C1 $ C+ C D $. -ing forms - # " " $ $ $! $ . "! /# *$ # &* ! $ & F" ) 1 /# " & ) D B ;$ $ # &$! /# # " $ !& + " + 7 ! $ & $ "$ ). =(.

(176) +

(177) + . B " % 1$ ' # & " + # * # / $ * * ! " # 0 " $8 C%

(178) ) * 5

(179) 61 C% C D

(180) $. Progressive aspect " $ * * # *. & +! $! . + * $ # *$ # 5 ! $6 +! 8 C $ ! ! / *. +! # $ + "" # 8 C% +

(181) $. Tense - # +" "!!$ +! $ /# # 7$ & $ /# # ; $ + + + # 3 +" /#"# 7 . "# * +! # "!! !* $! # $ 8 C $ C $ ' # " +" " & /# 0 +" $ * ! $8 C

(182) $ C1 5=J3$ = / # # + " " " /# sedan )G , 18 C%

(183) $ > # " $ * * + /# #. + # & ""! * & $ ! "$ # # +" # + # $ . #. ! $ + # + ) # +" + # + +"18 C+ $ C% $ - $ C'

(184) #

(185) $ C % $ =-.

(186) +

(187) + . # ! $ $ /# + +" + # *. +!8 C2 + $ C%

(188) % $. Voice # " $ * * # . " 7 . # + / / 8 /# # +07 -s /# # 7$ blive/bli )/#"# " $ ! 1 # + # " $ "" $ + ! 8 C% )+ % 1 C1

(189) $ # . ! $ & 3 + + # ! $. " /# ) # " 5: 61. Modal verbs $#*# !& + # *$ # ! $ # *# " ; $ # ++" # + ! $ /# " ; $ * &$! ! + # ! ! . +$$/ 8 - Kan $ +0! " $ & /## #* # " ! # # +8 C9 * $ C # $ ' Skal 7 . "! $ "!! )$ *$ # 1 # !$ /# $ "+ 8 C- ; $ = Skal " $ 7 . # + ! )$ *$ # 18 C1 $ > # + skal $ & *! )*$ # 18 C& )$ C2 $ . / # /* # +! skulle " !& + *$ # & & # ; $ # $ ! 8 C+ . )+ + 1 C+

(190) )+ 1 ='.

(191) +

(192) + . Complementation - :&$! /# " & ++ +! *$ # ; $ " &F" !!. ++$ &8 C+ $ C1 # $ ' Q& /# &$* E7 !"# ! "!! # " $ * * # *$ #8 C1 0 = # 5&F" J 06 " " $ * *. /$$ 8 C1 )+ 1 . $ $ $ 1 C% $. Prepositions - # " $ * * " & +$$/ & att/at-"$ )# ; $ + *$ # 3"$ 1 # ! $ $8 C1 $ C

(193) $ ' ! $ & +$$/ & 0 " " :. &$ ! 8 C $ C% , $ = . " # * " & # af/at $* $8 C $ > # #*#$ +; i + /# *$ # . # # # $ $8 C I . Vocabulary # "$ $ # &/ # " $ * * *$ # ! $ * + *$ # " &$ $ "". &$ " 2 $ " " " $$ 5#. !6% !& + " # $$* /#"# E" $ *. + # $ * * #$ &$ # + !$ /# # " ++ ! $ * " $ ! + # !$ + ==.

(194) +

(195) + . " " % &$/ /$$ & + $ + *$ # 5+ $ + 6 # &$! " + + $$ # $ * * . False friends # +$$/* $ "!! ! * + " "* /. #/ & " 4 " 5 ) G 16 ! . # # " / # $ $ & /#"# " $$ ! )# / # " # annoncere /* annonsere / # annonsera1 ! " " 3 / $ ! # $ # 5+ $ +6 ! * & $ ! "7 # ! ! * # *$ # "* 4 " komme/komma " /$$ ) 1 $ ) G " 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1

(196) ) G 1 ) G " 1 ) G " C D /$$ 1

(197) ) G 1 ) G

(198) 1 ) G 1. ) G 1 CD ) G " " 1 ) G 1 ) " ! # Han kom fùrst kl. 10 G 1 541 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1 ) G 1

(199) ) G 1

(200) ) G 1 ) G

(201) " 1 ) G 1 ) G # 1 ) G 1 ) G " 1

(202) ) G

(203) 1 ) G " " ; " 1 ) G " 1 ) G C D 1 =>.

(204) +

(205) + . ) G

(206) 1 ) G 1 ) G

(207) 1

(208) ) G 1 " ) G 1. Some problems involving grammatical words - )

(209) ! + # # " ; $ # ! " &$! /# # " &/ + " *

(210) ) /$$ . ! . "# %

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