1716.pdf

A b

s

t

r a c

t

M

onito rin_g o

f

t he M ille n nium De v e lo_{p m}e nt Goa ls

₍

M D

G

s

)

fo r wate r a nd s a nitat

i

on

d

e

f

ine s ho u s eho ld wate r acc e s s a s a n im

p

r o v e d w ate r s o urc e w it h in on e k ilo mete r of t he

ho u s e hold. T h is def init io n is ba s ed o n lim ited e vide n c e s ug ge st ing a r elat io n sh ip bet we e n

d ista n c e to t he wate r s o u r c e a nd wate r _qu a nt it y u s ed b y ho u s eholds T he v alid it y of t h is

a s s ume d r elat io n sh ip is c rit ic a l fo r de v e lo_{p m}e nt of ef fe ct ive wate r a c c e s s _polic_{y T h i}s stud y

e x am in ed t he e vide n c e fo r r e lat

io

n s h i ps bet w e e n w ate r u se a nd c ol le ct io n bu rde n t hr o u_{g h}

t wo met hods : a s_ystemat ic r e view a nd a c r o s s

-s e ct io n al, mult i

-c o u ntr_{y f i}eld stud y T he

r e v

ie

w ident if ied t hat t he c ol le ct ive bod y of e vide nc e n eit

h

e r s u_{p p}o rted n o r d is_pr o v e

d

t he

a c c e _{p t}ed r elat io n sh ip. Data a na lysis fr om t he f ield stud y showed ho useho lds w it h at -h

o u s e

s u_p

_p

l ie s u sed more wate r t ha n ho u s e holds u sin_g of f

-p lot su_{p p l i}e s in G han a a nd V ietnam

T he o_{p p}o site ef fe ct wa s obs e r ved in So ut h A fric a , w h ich wa s l ike ly du e to u nde r

-_{r e}

po rt in_g of

wate r use b y ho u s e ho lds w it h at

-home s u_{p p l i}es. T he r esults of bot h t he systemat ic r e view

an

d

t he mult i-_{c o u n}

tr_{y f i}eld stud

_y

s u

_{g g}

est t hat fo r futu r e develo _{p m}e nt

_g

o als, me a s u ring a nd

r e_port in_g at-h

o me v e r s u s of f

-p lot wate r s u_{p p l i}e s w o uld bet te r r ef le ct ade_qu ate ho u s ehold

D

e

d i

c a

t i

o n

I wo uld li ke to de d ic ate _{m y t h}e sis to Je s us C hrist, w ho ha s g iv e n me n ew life a nd ha s

s u stain e d me t hr o u_{g h t h}e _pr o c e s s of c om p let in_{g m y M}a ste r s Pr o_gr am Ia m s o t ha nk fu_{l f}o r

t he c all in

_g

_He ha s _put o n m

_y

life a nd t he o _{p p}o rtun_{it y}

H

e ha s _g

iv e

n me to be e_qu_ip

_p

ed to

s er v e ot hers t hro u

_g

h stu

d

_{y i}n

_g

at

U

N

C

I wo uld a ls o li

ke

to de

d

icate _{m y t}e chnical re_po rt to

Da nie l

W

il lia ms , m y

f

a it h ful f ia nce w ho has e ndur ed m y do ub t, a n xiet y, a nd str e s s t hr oug h

t h is e n

d

e a v o r .

A

c

k

n o

w

le

d g

e

m

e n

t

s

T h is re s e a r c_{h p}r o

j

e ct wo uld n ot have be e n _po ssi

b

le w it ho ut t he s u_{p p}ort of man_{y p}e o_{p l}e I

wo u ld l ike to t ha n_{k m y} com m it te e

, Dr Jam ie Ba rtr am, Dr Jo e Br own , a nd Dr Pete Ko lsk

y

w ho were a bun_da n_{t ly h}e_{l p f}ula n_d of fe r e d invaluab le a ssista n c e, sup po rt and gu ida n c e

A d d it io n a_{l ly}, t he pe o p le w ho to ok t ime to r e v iew t he r e po rt a nd pr o v ide c om me nts : R ya n

Cro nk, Kriste n Dow n s, M icha e l F isher, Be n

j

a

m

in Ma n n, and Jo n ny

C

ro cke r . S pe cia l t ha nks

a re due to _gro up mem be r s M icha el F ishe r, Leslie Da nqu ah, Barba r a Ev a ns, Pa ul

H

unter,

Batsi Ma

_j

u r u , Jo

-_{An n e G}

e e r e , a nd A lycia Ov e rbo I wo uld als o l ike to t ha nk Me lla n

y

e

La cke_y, C hris

W

ie s e n , K y le Onda , a nd A

y

se Er c umen fo r pr o vid ing a s sistanc e T he s up

p

o rt

o

f

t h is

_p

r o

_j

e ct was made _po ssib le t hrou

_g

h a _gra nt fr om t he U K De_part me n_{t f}or _Internat io nal

De v e lo

_p

me nt A d d it io n al fu nd in_{g w}a s _{g i}v_{e n f}rom t he Cente r fo r G lobal Init iat iv e s, and t

he

G

r adu ate a nd Pr ofe s sio n al S tude nt Fede r at io n

F

inal l

_y

I would l ike to t ha nk a_{ll m y}

f

riends

an

d

fam i l

_y

w ho hav e enc our a

_g

ed a n

d

su

_{p p}

o rte

d

me t

h

r o u

_g

h t

h

is

_p

roc e s s

L i

st o

f A b b

r e v

i

a

t i

o n s

G P S G lobal Posit io nin

_{g S}

_ystem

K N U

S

T K wa_me N

k

m mah

_U

niver sit y o

f

Scien ce a nd Techn olo

_{g y}

J M P Jo int Mo nito rin_{g P}r o

_g

ram

L A C Lat in A meric a a nd t he Ca ri b be a n

L P C

D

l ite rs _pe r c a_{p it}a

_p

e r da

_y

M

D

G

s

M

i lle nniu m De v e

l

o

_p

ment Go als

N A No rt

h

A frica

S A

S

o ut he r n Asia

S

E A

S

o u

_t

h-_{e as}t_{er n} A_sia

S E S

S

o cio-_e

co n om ic

S

tatus

S S

A

S

ub

S

ahara n A fric a

T U T Tsh w a n e Univ e rs_{it y} of Te chn olo_{g y}

U

N

C

U

niv er s it

_y

of No rt h

C

a r olina-

C

_ha

pel

H

ill

U N I

C

E F

U

nited Nat io n s

C

h i ldr e n '

T

a

b l

e o

f C

o n

t

e n

t

s

A b

s

t

r a c

t

D

e

d i

c a

t i

o n

L i

s

t

o

f A b b

r e v

i

a

t i

o n s

L i

s

t

o

f T

a

b l

e s

L i

s

t

o

_{f F i g}

u r e s

1

I

n

t

r o

d

u c

t i

o n

2

R

e s e a r c

h O b

_j

e c t

i

v e s

4

3

_{S y}

s

t

e

m

a

t i

c

L i t

e r a

t

u r e

R

e v

i

e

w

6

3

.

1

M

e

th

o

d

s

6

3 2

R

e s u

lt

s

7

3

.

3

D i

s c u s s

i

o n

1 2

3

.

4

L im it

a

t i

o n s

1 8

4

M

u

l t i

-_{c o u n}

t

_r

y f i

e

l d

s

t

u

_{d y}

1 9

4

.

1

B

a c

k g

r o u n

d

1 9

4 2

M

e

t h

o

d

s

2 1

4 3

R

e s u

lt

s

2 6

4 4

D i

s c u s s

i

o n

4 0

4 5

L im it

a

t i

o n s

4 4

5

C

o

m

b i

n e

d D i

s c u s s

i

o n

4 6

6

C

o n c

l

u s

i

o n s

5 0

R

e

f

e r e n c e s

5 2

A p p

e n

d i

x

A

.

S y

s

t

e

m

a

t i

c

L i t

e r a

t

u r e

R

e v

i

e

w

S

e a r c

h S t

r a

t

e

g

y

5 3

A p p

e n

d i

x

B

.

L i

s

t

o

f A

c c e

p t

e

d S t

u

d i

e s

5 5

A p p

e n

d i

x

C

.

W

a

t

e r

Q

u a n

t i t y C

a

l

c u

l

a

t i

o n

5 7

A p p

e n

d i

x

D

.

A d d i t i

o n a

l T

a

b l

e s a n

d F i g

u r e s

5 8

A

n n e x

A

.

S

a

m

p l

e

S i

z e

C

a

l

c u

l

a

t i

o n

6 1

L i

s

t

o

f T

a

b l

e s

Tab le ₁. Cha r a cte rist ic s of a c c epted stud ie s a nd r epo rted r elat io n sh ip betwe e n dista n c e

a nd /o rt ime to wate r s o u r c e a nd wate r _qu a ntit_y 9

Tab le 2. Stud ie s r epo rting qu a nt ity data fo r at

-ho me a nd _of f

-p lot s u_{p p}lie s . Pe r c ap ita u s e, t ime

a nd dista n c e a r e a v e r a_ge s of re_po rted data u nle s s ot he rwis e n oted 1 1

Table 3. C ha r a cte rist ic s of study c om mu nit ie s in So ut h A fric a, Gha n a, a nd V ietn am 2 2

Table 4. Ho u s eho ld r epo rted prima ry wate r s o u r c e s by c o u ntry 2 6 Tab le 5. C ha r a cte rist ic s of ho u s ehold wate r c a r rie r s

(W

C

)

fo r ho u s ehol ds u sing of f

-plot

s o u r c e s 2 7

Table 6. Re s ults fr om qu a nt i le r egr e s sio n of wate r u s e

(

I pcd

)

a nd lo c atio n of wate r s o u r c e a s

at-h_o m_{e o r o}f f

-plot 29

Table 7. Re s ults fr om qu a nt i le r egre s sio n of wate r u s e

(

Ipcd

)

a nd lo c atio n of wate r s o u r c e

(

data fr om all t hr e e c o u ntrie s

₎

.

(

F

(

10, 49 3

)

= ₉

.9 1, p<0.0 0 01

)

3 0

Tab le 8. Re s ults fr om qu a nt ile r egr e s sio n of wate r u s e

(I p

cd

)

a nd s elf -_{r e}

po rted r o u nd-_tr

i p t ime. .. 3 3 Table 9. Re s ults fr om qu a ntile r egr e s sio n of wate r u s e

(I p

cd

)

a nd me a s u r ed r o u nd

-t_ri

p time to

s o u r c e 3 3

Tab le 1 0. Re s ults fr o m qu a nt i le r egr e s sio n of w ate r u s e

(

I

pcd

)

a nd me a s u r ed r o u nd-t_ri

p

d ista n c e to s o u r c e 3 3

Table 9. Lo c at io n s of do me st ic wate r -_{u sin}

g a ctivi t ie s _{b y h}o u s eholds u sin_g of f

-plot wate r s u_{p p l i}e s

₍

So ut h A fric a, S A n

= _{206 ; G ha n a} , GH

= _{25 5 ; V ietn am}

, V = 1 9 8

)

3 4

Table 1 0. Com pa ris o n of wate r u s e fo r ga rde ning betwe e n ho u s ehol ds w it h o n

-plot s u_{p p}l ie s a nd off

-plot w ate r s u _{p p}l ie s

₍

So uth A fric a, SA n = 20 6 ; Gha n a, GH = 2 5 5 ; V ietn am, V = 1 9 8

)

... 35 Tab le 11. Lo c at io n s of pr odu ct iv e wate r

-u sin_g a ct iv_{it i}e s b y ho u s eho lds

₍

So ut h A fric a, SA n =

2 0 6; G ha n a, GH = 2 5 5 ;Vietn am, V

= _{19 8}

₎

₃₆

Tab le 1 2. Repo rted u s e of main a nd ad d i t io n als o u r c e s fo r v a rio u s wate r-u sin

g a ct iv_{it i}e s

(

So uth A fric a, S A n

= _{20 6}

;G ha n a_{, G H} = _{2 5 5}

;V ietn am,V = 1 9 8

)

3 7

Tab le 1 3. Numbe r of ho u s ehol ds r e

po rt in_g u s e of bot tled w ate r o r s a chet wate r 3 7 Tab le 1 4. Num be r of ad d i t io n al s o u r c e s u s ed pe r ho u s ehol d in e a ch c o u ntry 38

Table 15. T y pe s of addit io n als o u r c e s r epo rted ly u s ed by ho u s eho lds r epo rt ing at le a st o n e

L i

s

t

o

_{f F i g}

u r e s

Fi_gu r e 1. Ac c epted plate a u c u r v e betwe e n r o u nd

-t_ri

p tr a v el t ime

₍

min

)

a nd wate r _qu a nt it_y

(

I pcd

)

,

(

Cair n c r o s s, 1 9 8 7

)

2

Fi_gu r e 2. Sc r e e ning pro c e s s fo r a c c epted stud ie s 7

F i_gu re 3. Co u ntrie s whe r e a c c ep ted stud ie s o n wate r qu a nt i t y a nd d istanc e

(

o r t ime

)

were

c o ndu cted 1 6

F i_gu r e 4. Med ia n w ate r u s e

(

Ipcd

)

fo r at

-h_om_{e a n}d of f

-p lot s u_{p p}l ied ho u s eholds b y c o u ntr_y.

Ba r s r e_pr e s e nt t he 9 5% c o nfide n c e inte r v als 2 8

W

ate r _qu a nt i t_y b_y s o u r c e t_{y p}e 2 9

Fi_gu r e 4. Media n wate r u s e

(

Ipcd

)

by s o u r c e ty pe

(

ba r s ind ic ate 9 5% CI

)

wi t h at

-home s o u r c e s

in b lu e a nd of f

-plot s o u r c e s In o r a n_ge. Rainw ate r c o l le ct io n is n ot shown du e to smal l

s am_{p l}e siz e a nd w ide c o nf ide n c e inte rv als 30

F

i

_gu r e 5. Sc at te rplot of w ate r qu a nt ity

(

Ipcd

)

a nd me a s u r ed r o u nd

-_tri

p tr a v el t ime to t he pri ma r_{y w} ate r s o u r c e fo r ho u s eho lds u sin_g of f

-p lot s o u r c e s in allt hr e e c o u ntrie s, w ith

e xtr eme v alu e s e x cluded 3 2

1

I

ntr o

d

u ct

i

o n

In 2 0 0 0, re

p

r e se ntat iv es fr om 1 8 9 c ou ntrie s

j

o in ed in sign ing t he M i lle n nium

De cla r at io n , in w

h i

c

h

an am b it ious slate of g lobal de v e lop me nt prio rit ie s we r e la id o ut a nd

be c a me kn ow n a s t he M il le n nium De v e lo_{p m}e nt Go als

(

M D Gs

)

Ta r_get 7c of t he M D Gs is

"

to halv e, b y 2 0 1 5, t he propo rt io n of t he populat io n w it ho ut s u stain a

b

le a c c e s s to s afe

drink in_{g w}ate r a n

d b

a sic s anitat ion

"

In March 2 0 1 2, t he

W

orld He alt h

O

rga niz at io n

(

W

H O

)

a nd t he United Nat io ns C h i ldr e n

'

s Fu nd

(

U N I C E F

)

a n n o u n c ed t hat t he _go a l fo r drink in_g

wate r had be e n met in 2 0 1 0, w it h o v e r 8 8

%

of t he wo rld '

s _po_pulat io n havin

_g

a c c e s s to a n

i m pr o v ed drink in_{g w}ater s ou rc e An im pr o v ed drink in

_g

s o u r c e include s

_p

_{i p}ed wate r into t he

home o r _ya rd, pub lic ta ps, c o v e r ed tube we lls, a nd borehole s w it h ha n

d

pum ps, pr ote cted

du_{g w}ells, pr ote cted springs, a nd r ainwate r c olle ct io n

(

W

H O a nd U N I C E

F

, 2 0 0 0

)

T he Jo int Mo nito rin_{g P}r o_gr a m

(

J M P

)

is t he of f icial bo d y ta sked w it h me a s u rin_g

pr o_gr e s s towa rds a ch ie vin_{g t h}e M D Gs T he J M P c u r r e n_{t ly d}ef in e s "ac c es s to drink in_g

wate r

"

a s

"

t he s o ur c e is le s s t ha n 1 k ilomete r awa_{y f}r om its _{p l}a c e of u s e and t hat it is

po s si b le to rel ia_{b ly} ob ta in at le a st 2 0 lite r s _pe r mem be r of a ho u s eho l

d

_pe r da_y

"

(

W

H O,

2 0 1 3

₎

.

S ince it is d if f icult to me a s u r e t he amo u nt of wate r u s e_{d b y h}o u s e holds, a c c e s s to

w ate r ha s s e r v ed a s a n ind ic ato r fo r t he _qu a nt it y of water a v ai lab le fo r ho u s eholds to u s e

T he basis fo r s e le ct in

g

d ista n c e a s a n ind icato r of wate r a c c es s c ome s fr om a _{h y p}ot he sis

about t he r elat io n s

h ip b

etw e e n d istanc e to s o u rc e a nd water _qu a n_{t it y}

-a t

h

e o r_{y f}o u nded o n a

ha nd ful of stud ie s co n

d

ucted in Sub-

S

aha r an A fric a

(

S S A

)

in t he 1 9 7 0s a nd 1 9 8 0s T hes e

stud ies

d

o n ot r e

f l

e ct r e c e nt cha n_ge s in techno lo_{g y} o r _pote nt ia l d if fe r e nce s in

a c c e s s is a n o_{p t im}al ind ic ato r

f

o r t he amo u nt of wate r a c c e s s ed b y in

d

ividu als in t ti e _po st

-2 0 1 5 c onte xt

T in e e vide n c e s u_{p p}o rt in_{g t t}i e 1 k m br e a k

_p

oin_{t d ist}a n c e a_{p p}e a r s to be fr o m

W

h ite et

a l

₍

1 9 7 2

₎

, Fe a chem et

al ,

(

1 9 7 8

)

, and Cair n c r o s s a nd C lif f

(

1 9 8 7

)

A

c c o rd ing to t he s e

stud ie s, ho u s eho lds u s e a la rge amo u nt of wate r w he n it is lo c ate d o n

-p lot, t he n wate r u s e

de c r e a s e s a s t he r o u nd-_t

rip t i me to wate r s o u r c e in c r e a s e s to f iv e m in ute s

W

he n t he r o u nd

-trip col lect io n t i me is bet we e n f iv e a nd 3 0 m in ute s, t he r e is a p late a u ef fe ct of pe r c ap ita

w ate r us a

_g

e a nd t hen a s ubsta nt ial de cl in e o c cu rs in w ate r us e fo r hous ehol ds w it h

c o lle ct io n t i me s _gr e ate r t ha n 3 0 m in ute s

W

h ite et al f ir st pub l ished f ield obs e r v at io n s

r e_ga rd in_{g t h i}s r elat io n sh i p in 1 9 7 2 a nd t he n Ca ir n c r o s s _put fo rt h a de _{p i}ct io n of t he "

a c ce_{p t}e d

p latea u cu rv e" in 1 9

₈

7

₍

Se e F igu r e 1

)

Ac c o rd in

_g

to Cair ncro s s

₍

1 9

8

7

₎

, a r o u nd -t

rip t ime of

3 0 m in ute s is a_{p p}r o ximately e_qu al to a d ista n c e of 1 k m from t he home to t he s ou r ce

60 -,

1

Q.

C o S.

3 i n

c

o o at

I

50

-40

-30

-20

1 0

0

10 2 0 30

Return tr_{ip t}ravel t ime

40 50

F i_gu r e 1. Ac c ep ted plate a u c u r v e betwe e n r o u nd -_tr

ip tr a v elt ime

₍

min

₎

a nd wate r _qu a nt ity

(

I pcd

₎

,

(

Cair n c r o s s, 19 87

)

.

W

it h t he e r a of t he M D Gs c o m in_{g t}o a n end in 2 0 1 5, t he J M P ha s be e n wo rk ing to

de v elo _{p p}o st-2 0 1 5 g l_ob_al m_{o n}it_{o r}in

g ind ic ato r s A s e r v ic e lad de r a_p

_p

r o a ch ha s

b

e e n

de v e lo_ped for wate r a nd s anitat io n in w h ich ba sic drink in

_g

wate r ha s be en de

f

in ed a s a n

i m pr o v ed sou rce w it h in a 3 0-m in ute _{r o u n}d-trip

-2 0 1 5 ind ic ato r s r elate s to drink in_{g w} ate r a nd li a nd wa sli in

_g

fa cil it ie s at home a nd in s et t in

_g

s

be_yo nd t he ho u seho ld, s u ch a s s cho ols a nd he alt h c a r e fa ci lit ie s Cu r r e nt ly, o n e of t he

pr o_po s ed ind ic ato r s fo rt h is _go al is

"

pe r c e nta_ge of t he _po _pulat io n u sin_g a n im pr o v ed drink in

_g

wate r s o ur c e o n _pr e m is e s o r w it h in a total r o u nd-_{trip c olle ct io n t i me of 3 0 m in ute s o r le s s} "

T he r e a r e mu_{lt ip l}e be n ef its to r edu cin

_g

t he c o lle ct io n t ime bu rde n a nd d ista n c e

tr a v eled to t he wate r s o u r c e, s u ch a s t i me

-s a v in_gs fo r wate r c a r rie r s a nd r edu cin_{g t h}e

p h ysical bu rde n of wate r c a r ria_ge T he s_pe cif ic be n ef it of ho u s eholds u sin_g ad d it io n al

quant it ie s o

f

water a s t he d ista nc e and t i me to t he wate r s o u rc e

d

e cr e as e ha s be e n de

b

ate

d

w he n s o u r ce s are lo c ated betw e e n f iv e a nd 3 0 m in ute s rou n

d

-tr_{i p t}r a v el t ime a s shown in

F i

_g

ur e 1 T hu s, in r ega rds to me a s u ring ho u s ehold wate r qu a nt it y, de c r e a s ed d ista n ce to

t he s o u r c e m a_y n ot r esult in in c r e a s ed be n ef its u nle s s t he s o u r c e is w it h in a r o u nd-t_r i p t ime

o

f f

iv e m in ute s

f

ro m t he ho u s ehold a c c o rd in_{g t}o t he a cc e

_p

te_{d p l}ate a u c u r v e

T he us e of t he se t wo me a s u r e s , a 3 0

-m i_{n u}t_{e r o u} nd

-tr_{i p} c ol le ct io n t ime a nd a

d i

sta n ce of 1 k m, are st i ll c o n side r ed t he t hr e s hold fo r ob ta ining t he m inim um 2 0

Ip

c

d

o

f

d

ome s_{t i}c w ate r fo r ho u s eho lds

W

it h in t he Re_po rt of a

W

H O / U N IC E F J M P Te chnic a l

C

o ns ultat ion o n t he Mea su ra_{b i lit y} of

G

loba l

W

A

S

H Ind icato r s fo r Po st-2 0 1 5 M_{o n}it_{o r}i_n

g

(

2 0

1 2

₎

, a s

p

e ci

f

ic conc e r n was ra is ed r egard ing t he evi

d

enc e

f

o r a 3 0

2

R

e s e a r c

h O b

_j

e c

t iv e s

W

h i le r e s ea r ch ha s s u_{g g}e sted a _{p l}ate au ef fe ct bet we e n a f ive a nd 3 0 m in ute s r o u nd

-tr_{i p t}r a v el t ime , t h is r e lat io n sh i p stems fr om a small n um ber of stud ie s c o ndu cted o v e r 3 0

year s a_go in o ne _ge o_gr_{ap h i}c r e_{g i}o n As t he inte r n at io n alc om mu n_{it y m}oves be_yo nd t he

M D Gs, t he re is a n e ed to as s e s s t he sign if ic anc e a nd v a lid it y of t h is r e lat io nsh i p a nd to

dete rm ine if it holds a cro ss all

_g

e o

_g

ra_{p h i}e s

T h is stud y w a s init iated in r e s_po ns e to a lim ited n u m ber of re c e nt r_igo r o u s stud ie s

e x am in _in_{g t h}e r e lat io n sh i p bet w e e n d ista n c e to wate r s o u r c e a nd its im pa ct o n t he _qu a nt it y

u sed b

_y

ho u s eholds Unta n

_g

lin

_g

t he relat ions_{h i p} and d is c er nin_{g h}ow it i m

p

a cts t he _qua nt it

y

of wate r u s ed at t he ho u s e ho ld le v elc a n bet te r info rm futu r e _po lic_{y d}e cisio n s r e_ga rd in_{g h}ow

to in v est in wate r s_ystems t hat w il lef fe ct iv ely in c r e a s e wate r u s e b y ho u seholds As we

a_{p p}r o a ch 2 0 1 5,

i

t is im po rta nt to ha ve, qu a nt itat iv e e vide n c e to s up po rt a

p

pr opriate

ind ic ato r s fo r a

_{p p}

r oximat in_{g t h}e amo u nt of wate r a c c e s s e_{d b y h}o u s eholds

S

inc e s u ch a _ga_p

r emain s in t he

l

iter atu r e r e_ga rd in_{g t h i}s is s u e, t h is stud y ai ms to cha r a cterize t he relat io nsh i p

bet we e n d istan ce a nd t he _qu a n_{t it y} of wate r u s e_{d b y h}o u_sehol ds T he s_pe cif ic ob

_j

e ct iv_es of

t h is stud y a r e to:

1

₎

Eva

lu a

te t he exist in

_g

_eviden_{c e a s a ba sis fo r t he c u}r re nt inte rnat io n al mo nito rin

_g

def init ion of ho u s ehol d a c c e s s to s uf f icie n_{t q}u a n_{t it i}es of w ate r

(

in Ipcd

₎

a c ro ss

d if fe r e nt s et t in_gs a nd c o nte xts

2

₎

Co m

_p

a r e t he amo u nt of w ate r u s ed b y ho u s ehol

d

s w it h at

-home wate r s o u rc e s a nd

ho

us e

h

o

ld

s u sin_g of f

-p lot wate r s o u r_{c e s}

3

₎

Ev alu ate t he r elat io n s_{h i p} of d ista n c e

(

a nd t ime

₎

tr a v e le _{d t}o _{t he}

_p

r_imar_{y w}ate r _{s o}u rc e

o n t he _qu a nt it y of wate r c a r rie d ba ck to t he home t hr o u_{g h b}ot h s el

f

d ir e ct obs e r v at io n

T wo met hods were u s e _{d t}o ex am in e t he r elat io n s_{h i}

_p

_bet we e n d ista n ce traveled to

t he wate r s o u r c e a nd wate r _qu a n_{t it y} u s e_{d b y h}o u s e holds T he f ir st wa s a s_yste mat ic

r e view of a rt icle s in _peer-_{r e view}

e d

j

o u r n als a nd t he se c o nd w a s a f ield stud y co nducted

in

S

o ut h A fric a ,

G

han a , a nd V ietn am T he r e s ults fr o m t he s e t wo lin e s of inquiry we r e

c om pa r ed a nd u s ed to a s s e s s t he e xist in_g n ot io n r e_ga rd in_{g t h}e r e lat io n sh ip bet we e n

d ista n c e a nd wate r _qu a n_{t it y}, as wel la s t he ge n e r a lizab il it y of t h is r elat io n sh ip a c r o s s

3

_{S y}

ste

m

a

t i

c

L i t

e r a

t

u r e

R

e v

i

e

w

3

.

1

M

e

th

o

d

s

A s ea r ch o

f

a rt icle s in _pee r

-r e v iewed

j

ou r nals wa s c o ndu cted in t hr e e a c ade m ic

databa s e s : Pu b Me

d

, E m ba s e, a nd G lobal Healt h T he s e a r c h wa s condu cted in Ja n u a ry

2 0 1 3 a nd in cluded a rt icle s _pub l ishe d bet we e n Ja n u a r_{y 1 9 7 0} a nd Ja n ua r_{y 2 0 1 3}^ No

la n_gu a

_g

e re strict ion s we r e in n_po s ed du rin_{g t h}e sea r ch, howeve r, only art icle s pub lished in

En_{g l i}sh we r e e x am in e d fo r in clu sio n S tud y lo c at io n s we r e r e stricted to low- _{a n}d m id d l_e

-in c ome c o u ntrie s t hr o u_{g h} s e a r ch te rms A p pe nd ix A c o ntain s t he full list of s e a r ch te rms

u s ed in t he t hr e e

d

ataba s e s

S

tud ie s we r e e xc

l

u

d

e d i

f

t he_{y d id} not r e_po rt data o n wate r _qu ant

i

_{t y} and t i me a nd /or

d ista n ce fr om t he ho us ehold to t he ma in water s ou rc e Pa_per s col le ct in

_g

bo_{t h q}uant it y a nd

d istanc e a nd /o r t i me but n ot re_port in

_g

t hem to

_g

et her were als o exclude

d

A ut ho rs we r e

c o nta cted in c a s e s w here bot h wate r _qu a nt it y a nd d istanc e

₍

o r t i me

₎

to water s ou rc e

d

ata

we r e co lle cte d bu_t not pub lishe

d

Data e xtr a cted fr om t he stud ie s in cluded detai ls r e_ga rd in_{g t h}e dates a nd s et t in_g

₍

s

₎

of

e a ch stud y, t he stud y de sign, stat ist ic a la n alys e s u s ed a nd data c ol le ct io n met hods

Pa rt ic ula r atte nt io n wa s _paid to t he met hods u s ed for me a s u rin_{g d i}stanc e

₍

o rt ime

₎

and t he

qu ant it y of water us e_{d p}e r da_y

A

lt ho u_{g h} some art icle s we r e u n cle a r in t heir met hods and

a n alysis, t he r e wa s n o r e strict io n ba s ed o n stud y qu al it

y

3

.

2

R

e s u

l t

s

S

e a r ch Res ul ts

A mult i-_st_a

g

e s c r e e n in_{g p}r o c e s s wa s u s ed to i de nt if y stud ie s r e le v a nt to t he res e a r c h

qu e st io n Fr om t he init ia l ke _y

w

o rd sea r ch, 5,9 6 7 a rt icle s we r e ide nt if ied fr om t he t hr e e

d

ataba s e s com b ined A f te r _pri ma r_y sc ree nin_g, 4,6 8 7 were excluded bec au s e t hey w er e

ir

r elevant to t he res e a r ch qu e st io n bas ed o n t it le a nd /o r abstr a ct A full

-te xt r e view was

c ondu cted of t he r ema inin_{g 1 3 2} a rt icle s, re sult in

g

in

1

6 stud ies me et ing t he inclusio n

crite ria F ive _pa_per s in t he full r e vie_{w w}e r e n ot a v ai la b le in En

_g

lish and we r e t he r efo re

ex c luded A

d

d it io n a_{l p}a _pe r s a nd books were ide nt if ied fro_{m p}rio r kn ow le_{d g}e a nd t hr o u_{g h}

h

a nd s e a r ch in_{g t h}e b ib l io_gr a_{p h i}e s of a c c e_{p t}ed stud ies T he _pr o c e s s _{y i}elde d a total of 2 4

a rt icle s fo r t he l ite r atu r e r e v iew

₍

_{F ig}u r e 2

₎

T he _pr evio u s_{ly m}ent io n ed stud ie s.

W

h ite et al

(

1 9 7 2, Ref 2 3

)

, Fea chem et a l.

(

1 9 7 8

, Ref 7

)

, a nd Cairncro s s and

C

l if f

(

1 9 8 7, Ref 6

)

we re

in cluded w it h in t he r e v iew T he full l ist of in cluded stu_{d i}e s is fo u nd in _{A p p}e nd ix B

5,9 6 7a rticle s ide ntif ied initials e a r ch

4,819afte r r em

o v alof du_{p l i}c ate s

S

4 6 8 7e x cluded as o utof s c o_pe

132a rticle sful lte xt r e view

^

8ad d itio n al pa_pe r s

ide nt i f ied

I E

16a c c e_pted

I

Z

-24 in cluded in r e view

s tu _{d y} cha r a cteri st ic s

T he stud ie s va rie

d

w ide_{ly i}n t heir r e s ea r ch to_{p i}c w it h 1 1 pa _pers foc u sin_g o n water

u s e , fo u r o n wate r

q

u ant it y and qual it y, t w o on

g

ene ral he alt h o utc ome s, fou r on tr a choma

o utc o me s a nd t hr e e a rt icle s o n s ch isto s o m ia sis _{C h}a r a cte rist ic s of t he a c c e _{p t}ed stud ie s a r e

shown in Tab le 1

T he r e _po rted relat io n s_{h i p b}et we e n d ista n c e a nd /o r t ime

₍

sin c e s o me stud ie s o nly

me a s u r ed o n e of t hes e v a ria b le s

₎

a nd wate r _qu a nt it y fo r ho u s e holds u sin_g of f

-p lot s u_{p p l i}e s

is shown in Tab le 1 T he r e s ults fr o m stud ie s c om pa rin_{g h}o u s e holds u sin_g at

-home s o u r c e s

to of f

-p lot su_{p p l i}e s are shown in Tab le 2

S

tud ie s o n_{l y} c o m pa rin_g at-

h

_o m_{e a n}d _of f -p lot

s u_{p p l i}e s

(

Ref 3, 2 0, 2 4

)

do n ot ha v e r e s ults listed in Ta b le 1, but a r e shown in Ta b le 1 A t

-ho me wate r s u _{p p li}e s we r e def in ed a s s o u r c e s s u ch a s house hold ta _ps w it h in t he home , ya rd

ta_ps, priv ately own ed wells, and rain wate r c ol le ct io n O f f

-p lot s ou rc es we r e def in ed a s water

s u_{p p li}e s t hat re_quired me m be r s of t he ho u s e hold to le a v e t he ir home a nd fetch wate r fr om a

s

h

a r e

d

s o urc e s u ch a s a

_p

u

b

l

i

c sta n_{d p ip}e , a c overe

d

we

l l

w it h a man u a

l

pum p, a n o

p

e n we ll

w it h a ma n u al l if t, s u r

f

a c e wate r s u ch a s riv e r s a nd la ke s, o r wate r o b ta in ed fr om n eig h bo r s

Tab le i. C ha r a cte rist ic s _of _{a c c e}

p ted stud ie s a nd r e_po rted r ela tio n sh ip betwe e n d ista n c e a n d

/

o r t ime to wate r sou r c e a nd wa te r _qu an_{t it y}.

Method of data c olle ct io n

Ref Ye a r Lo c at io n

Ru r al

-, Sample

Relati o n ship

Urba n ₍H H₎

D ista n c e Time Qu a nt i t y

Note s

1 2 0 0 9 Ke nya Ru r al N O NE 19 9 Me a s u r ed N A Obs e r v ed Fo c u s o n s chisto s o m ia sis r edu ct io n,c r o s s

-_{s e ct io n a}l_stud

y

po st inte r v e nt io n ofad ditio n alwate r s u_{pp l}ie s

2 2 0 0 3 E thio p ia Ru r al I N V E R S E 3 4 Un cle a r ₍N R₎ IV Ie a s u r ed Me a s u r ed Cr o s s-_{s e c}t i_{o n a}l_stud

y e x aminin_gwate r s up p l ypr o_je cts

3 1 9 8 2 Phili_{p p}in e s Urba n 4 0 2 N A Me a s u r ed Me a s u r ed

Com_pa r at iv e studye x am inin_gthe diffe r e n c e sin s_qu at te r

c om mu ni t ie s,o n e r e c eiving priv ate p i peds up plie s

a n othe r u sing_public s o u r c e s

4 1 9 9 1 Gam bia N A I N V E R S E 3 4 Un cle a r N A Me a s u r ed

Ca s e-_{c o n}t_{r o}lt_{r a c}h_om_{a s}t_ud yw ith_{a c r o s s}-_{s e c}t i_{o n a}lw_at_{e r}

qu a nt it y s u r v ey

5 1 9 9 0 _{N i g}e ria

Self

-Ru r al N O N E 48 Me a s u r ed Obs e r v ed

r e_po rted

Qu a si-_{e x}

pe ri me ntalstudy e v alu at in_gthe i m_pa cts ofa

bo r ehole inte r v e nt io n

6 1 9 8 7 Mo z am_biqu e Ru r al I N V E R S E N A Est i mated Un cle a r O bs e r v ed

Com_pa r at iv e studyoft wo villa_ge s,o n e w itha c om mu n al

sta nd pi_pe abo ut 30 0m fr om ho u s eholds,a n othe r village

w itha wate r s o u r c e lo c atedabo ut 4 km away

7 1 9 7 8 Le s otho Ru r al N O N E 7 3 5 Un cle a r Un cle a r O bs e r v ed

Cr o s s

-s e ct io n alstudyof wate r _qu a n_{t it y}a nd he alth

o utc ome s

8 1 9 8 5 Ke n_ya Ru r al I N V E R S E 4 7 9 Me a s u r ed

Self

-r epo rted

Self- _{r e}

po rted Cr o s s

-_{s e ct io n alstu}

dye x am inin_gc u r r e nt state ofw ate r

s up plya nd he alth

9 1 9 9 8 Br a zil Ru r al I N V E R S E 3 5

S tr ai_{g h}tlin e

method

N A O bs e r v ed Cr o s s

-_{s e ct io n alstu}

dyofwate r u s e a s pa rt ofa la rge r

s chisto s om ia sis stu_dy

1 0 201 0 S wa zila nd Ru r al I N C O N 4 5 Self-_{r e}

po rted Self

-r e_port ed

Self- _{r e} po rted

Inte r v e nt io n studya s s e s sing the i m_pa ct ofa n ew wate r

s u_{p ply w i th p}r e a n_{d p}o st data

1 1 1 9 8 9 Ba nglade sh Ru r al I N V E RS E 5 9 4 Me a s u r ed N A Obs e r v ed

Cr o s s-_{s e ct io n a}l_stud

y e x am ining i m port a ntfa cto r sin

wate r s upply de si gn

'

s tud ie s r epo rt in_gn o c o r r elat io n betwe e nd ista n c e a nd wate rqu a nt it ya r elabeleda s"N O N E"wh ile stud ie sr epo rt inga nin v e r s e r elat io n s_{h i p b}etwe e nwate r u s e a nd dista n c e₍o rt ime₎a r elabeleda s"I N V E R S E"

On e

stu_{d y h}ad in c o n clu siv e r e s ul ts r ega rdin_gt he r elat io n sh ipa nd wa slabeled"

I N C O N"

'

N A=n otc ol le ctedint he stu_{d y}

^ _{N R}

Ref Ye a r Lo c atio n

Ru r al

-Urba n

Relat io n s_{h ip}

Sample

(H H₎

IV Iethodof data c ol le ctio n

Note s D ista n c e T ime Qu a ntit y

1 2 200 6 So uthAfric a Ru r al NON E 1 0 0 Str ai ght lin e method

N A Obs e r v ed a nd

Inte r v e nt io n stud_yc om_pa rin_{g p}r e a nd po st data fo r the

s elf-_{r e}

po rted in stallat io n of public sta nd pipe s

1 3 1 958 Mo r o c c o Ru r al NON E 343 Est i mated N A Est i mated

Cr o s s-_{s e ct io n a}l_stud y_{in v e st i}

gat ingthe pr e v ale n c e of

tr a choma a nde n vir o nme ntalrisk fa cto r s fo rtr a choma

1 4 1 9 8 9 IV lalaw i Ru r al I N V E RS E 2 1 2 Un cle a r N A

Obs e r v ed a nd Pr o s_pe ct iv e c oho rtstudy,a s s e s singthe i mpa ct of

s elf

-r epo rted i mpr o v edw ate r s up plie s o n he altha nds o cialo utc ome s

1 5 201 2 So uthAfric a Ru r al I N V E R S E 1 1 4 Me a s u r ed N A

Obs e r v eda nd

s elf -r epo rted

Qu a si-_{e x}

pe ri me ntalstudya s s e s sin_{g t}he i m pa ct of

i m_pr o v edw ate r s up plys e r vic e in t wo r u r altow n s, alo ng

w i tha c o ntr o lvil lage

1 6 1 9 9 0 Sri La nl< a Ru r al N O N E 4 4 3 9 Me a s u r ed

Self

-r epo rted

Self-_{r e} po rted

Cr o s s-_{s e c}t io n al_st_udy_{e x a}m inin

g fa cto r s s u r r o u nding

wate r _qu al_{it y} a nd qu a n_{t i t y}

1 7 1 9 9 7 Ke nya Ru r al I N V E R S E 1 2 3 Un cle a r N A Obs e r v ed i mpa ct e v alu a

t io n ofa pi_ped wate r s u_{p ply i}nte r v e nt io n o n

s ch isto s om ia sis a ndwate r c o nta ctat a lo c alrive r

1 8 2 0 0 6 Ta n z a nia Ru r al I N V E R S E 4 1 6 NA Self

-Obs e r v eda nd

r e_po rted s elf-_{r e} po rted

Cr o s s-_{s e c}t io n alst_ud

y e x am inin_{g t}he r elat io n shi p bet we e n

tr a cho ma a nd wate r beha vio r pat te r n s

19 1 9 9 0 N ic a r agu a Ru r al I N V E R S E 1 9 6 2

Self

-r epo rted

N A Self

-r epo rted

Cr o s s

-s e ct io n alstudy inve st i_gat ing t he influe n c e ofva rio u s

fa cto r s o nw ate r qu a nt it y

Ke n_ya, Urba n

2 0 2 0 0 1 Ta n z a nia, a nd

U ga nda Ru r al

1 0 1 5 Me a s u r ed Me a s u r ed Me a s u r ed

Fol low upc r o s s-s e ct io n alst_udy t_o Ref2 4

, in v e st igat ing

t he cha nge in wate r u s e pat te r n sfr om 1 9 7 2 to 2 0 0 1

2 1 199 2 Zair e Ru r al I N V E R S E 1 3 5 0 N A Me a s u r ed Self-_{r e}

po rted He althi m_pa ct e v alu at io n of i mpr o v edwate r s up p ly

2 2 1 9 9 1 So uthAfric a Ru r al N O N E 6 00 Me a s u r ed N A Self

-r epo rted

He althi m_pa ct of i m_pr o v ed wate r s upp ly s cheme o n skin

dis e a s e s a nd hy g ie n e beha vio r

2 3 1 9 7 2

Ke nya,

Ta n z a nia,

U ga nda

Urba n

a nd

Ru r al

N O N E 7 23 Me a s u r ed N A Me a s u r ed

Cr o s s-_{s e ct io n a}l_stud

yofwate r u s e pat te r n s in thr e e

c o u ntrie s

2 4 2 0 1 1 Mo z ambiqu e Pe ri

-Urba n

1 3 7 7 N A

Self- C_{r o s s}

-s e ct io n alstudye x am iningw ate r v e ndo r s a ndw ate r Self-_{r e}

po rted

r epo rted u s age _pat te r n s

s

tu

d

ie s c o_{m p}a rin_{g h}o u s ehold wate r u s e bet we e n t ho s e w it h at

-home and of f

-p lot

s u_{p p li}e s we r e s e_pa r ated fr o m t he r e st of t he stud ie s to a s s e s s t he _po s sib le _{im p}a ct of at

-home s u_{p p l i}e s on _qu a n_{t it y}

(

Tab le 2

)

W

h ite et al

(

1 9 7 2

)

fo u nd a do ub lin_g o r trip l in_g of wate r

c o n s um p t io n in S S A w he n ho u s e holds cha n_ged fr om a n of f

-p lot s o u r c e to a n at

-home wate r

s u_{p p l y T h}e ot he r fo u r stud ie s a ls o r e _po rted a si m ila r do ub lin_g o r tr_{i p li}n_g of pe r c a _{p it}a u s a_ge

bet we e n _pub licly s u _{p p li}ed ho u s e holds a nd ho u s ehol ds w it h at

-home s o u r c e s . On ly t wo of

t he f ive stud ie s , howe v e r, u s ed stat ist ic al met hods to e v alu ate t he d if fe r e nce s bet we e n t he

g

r o u_ps_;

b

ot h fo u nd s_ignif ic a nt d if fe ren ces

Table 2. Stud ie s r epo rt ing qu a nt ity data fo r at

-h

ome a nd of f

-plot s u_{p p}l ie s. Pe r c apita u s e

,ti me

a nd dista n c e a r e a v e r a_ge s of r e_po rted data u nle s s othe rw is e n oted.

Ref A t-h_o m_e O f f

-p lot D ista n c e T i me No te s

10 2 5 1 2 9 1 8 1 0 0 m 4 4 9 hr Ro u nd-t_rip t im_e in cluded q_{ueu e} t im_{e a}t t h_e

sta nd p ipe

2 5 3 9 0 N A N A '

priv ately

'

own ed s o u rc e ra n_ged fr om wel ls

to _{p ip}eds u_{p p li}e s, d id not report if

2 0 5 7 8

5 8 5

6 8 3

4 5 4

2 0 5 4 5 9 m 2 3 m in Com b in eda v e r a_ge

18 3 _{U g}a nda s ubs et a v e r a_ge

2 24 Ta n z a nia s ubs et a v e r a_ge

2 3 2 Ke n_ya s ubs et a v e r a_ge

2 3 12 8

3 0-2 54 '

1 1

4-2 1

-4 2 8 m 15 1m in Com b in ed a v e r a_ge, c o u ntry spe cific data

wa s n ot r e _po rted

2 4 54 7 2 7 5

(sta nd p ipe₎

2 8 3"

(n e ig h bo u r₎

9 6 m in

6 6 m in

Co m pa ris o n bet we e n n eig h bo r s u_{p p li}ed

a nd at home s u_{p p li}ed wa s n otsignif ic a nt

Com pa ris o n betwe e n sta nd pipe a nd at

-ho u s e

'

-_{me a n}

I pcd is stat ist ic a_{ll y d if f}ere nt, p

<0 0 1 Ma n nWh i tn e_{y t}e st '

- _a

ppr o xi mate a v e r age d ista n c e g iv e n in a rt icle ^- ra n_ge ofsite me a n s (3 4 site s in total, 1 5 at

-_h

ome a nd 1 9 of f

-p lot) ■*

- m_{e a n}

3

.

3

D is c u s s

i

o n

S

m

al l n u

m

be r of ex is t in_{g p}a_pe r s o n wa te r u s e

Du rin_{g t h}e full-_{r e v} iew p_{o r}t io n _of t h_{e s c r e e n}in

g pr o c e s s, n ume r o us stud ie s r e po rted

c ol le ct in

_g

data o n water _qua nt it

y

a nd d ista n c e to wate r s ou rc e

₍

o r c ol le ct io n _{t im}e

₎

Man_y of

t he s e d id n ot r e_po rt t he data w it h in t he a rt icle its elf, a nd we r e t he r efo r e e x c luded A few

ot he r r e viewe d a rt icle s c ol le cte

d

deta iled info rmat io n o n o nly o n e of t he varia_{b l}e s T he

c olle ct io n of data _{t h}r o u_{g h m}e a s u r eme nt, d ir e ct obs e r v at io n, o r ho u s eho ld qu e st io n n air e s is

of te n e x_pensive a nd t ime intensive T he un

_p

ub l ished data r e

_g

ard in_{g q}ua n_{t it y} a nd d istanc e

wo u ld be v e r_y va lu a b le _{g i}v e n t he r e we r e o n_{ly 2 4} stud ie s i de nt if ied t hr o u

_{g h}

_{t h}e lite r atu r e

s e a r ch, a n

d

a meta

-_{a n a} ly_sis _of _{su c}h _{r e s u}lt_s w_{o u}ld l ik_e ly b_e h ig h ly i_n

f

_orm_at iv e

S tu_{d y d}e s_{i g}n s,

m

et ho ds, and stat is t ic al a n al ys is

A w ide va r

ie

t

y

of re s e arch ques_{t i}o n s, stud

y

de si

g

n s, a nd met hods we r e repr e s e nted

w it h in t he a c c e_{p t}ed pa_pe r s , w h ich made c om pa ris o n s of r epo rte d data d

if fic u

lt Re s e a r ch

pa _pe r s r e_ga rd in_{g h}e alt h o utc ome s s u ch a s s ch isto s om ia sis, tr a choma , a nd d iar rhe al

d is e a s e r e_porte

d d

ata on

b

ot h v a ria

b

le s of intere st

b

ut we r e o

f

te n

d

iffic u

l

_{t t}o

id

e nt

if

_y

b

_y

a bstr a ct alo ne.

T h

e re c o uld t he r efo r e be ot he r pub l ished stud ies t hat also me asu re quant it y

a nd d ista n c e but we r e n ot ide nt if ied eit he r _{b y k}e_{y w}o rd s e a r ch o r t hr o u_{g h t h}e abstr a ct.

Met hods

fo

r c olle ct in_{g w} ate r _qu a nt it y a nd d ista n c e data r a n_ged fr om u sin_g s c ale s to

me a s u re t he wei

_g

h t o

f

wate r c o ntain e r s a nd

G

P

S

devic e s to me a s u r e d ista n ces to

e st ima_{t io n s a n}d s e lf

-r e _po rts _{b y} r e s_po nde nts On_{ly t w}o stud ie s r e_po rted d ir e c_{t ly m}e a s u rin_g

bot h qu a nt it y an

d

d ista n c e N in e stud ie s d ir e ct ly me asu red d ista n ce a nd

f

iv e stud ie s

me a s u r e _{d q}uant

it

_{y d i}

rec_{t ly}

S

e lf-_{r e}

po rted d ista n c e s were used in two stu

d ie s a

nd s elf

-r e _po rted w ate r _qu a nt it ie s wer e us ed in s e v e n stud ies Resear c h r e _{ly i}n_g o n data ob taine

d b

_y

self- _{r e}

po r_te

d

in

f

o rma

t io n

f

rom re s

_p

o n

d

e nts c o uld be u n r elia

b

le

d

u e to

in a c c

ur ate e st imate s

g

iv e n b y r e s_po nde nts a nd is s u e s of r e c a ll b ia s T he is s u e of s elf-_{r e}

po rte d data is fu rt he r

d is c u s s ed in Se ct io n 5

T he stat ist ic al met hods us ed in t he a c c e _{p t}ed stud ie s we r e h ig h ly heter o_ge n e o u s,

w it h met hods r a n_{g i}n_{g f}r om lin e a r r e_gr e s sio n, loga rit h m ic r egr e s sio n, a nd a n alysis of

v a ria nc e

₍

A N O V A

₎

A l lof t he s e met hods a s s ume a lin e a r r e lat io n sh ip betw e e n t he

de_pe nde nt a nd t he inde _pe nde nt v a riab le s, w h ich m ay n ot a c c u r atel y r ef le ct t he tr u e

r elat io n sh i p T he s e v a riat io n s in met hods a ris e in _pa rt fr om d if fe r e n c e s bet we e n t he

r e s e a rc_{h q}u e st io n s of t he a c c e_{p t}ed stud ie s, a nd c om p l ic ate c o m parison s bet we en f ind ings

Fu rt he rmo r e, s o me stud ie s failed to r e po rt t he stat ist ic al met hods a nd r e s ults u s ed to

dete rm in e w het he r a signif ic a nt r elat io n sh i p e x isted bet we e n d ista n c e a nd wate r _qu a nt it y

T wo _pa

_p

ers

₍

Ref 6 and 2 0

₎

a_{p p}e a r ed to ba s e c o n clu sio n s abo ut wate r _qu a nt it y and d ista n ce

o n t he c o_{m p}aris on of ave ra_ge wate r co n s um p t io n a nd avera_ge d istanc e s for t he t wo

_g

rou_ps

w it ho ut a stat ist ic al te st

Rela t ion sh ip b et

w

ee n wate r us e and d is tanc e

An a s s e s sment of t he ac c e_{p t}ed p late a u c u r v e ba s ed o n e vide n c e in lite ratu re w a s

c om p lic ated b y t he d if fe r e n c e s in stud y desi

_g

n an_{d t h}e lim ited data a v a ila b le fr om t he

pub lished r e_po rts Re_ga rd in_{g t h}e init ial de clin e in w ate r u s e bet w e e n z e r o a nd f iv e m in ute

r o u nd-trip t_{r a v e}l t im_e

, t he f iv e stud ie s c om pa ring at

-h_om_{e a n}d of f

-p lot s o u r c e s r ef le ct a

h ig he r water u s e w he n w ate r s u_{p p l i}e s a r e lo c a_te_d at-h

o u s e c om pa r e d to wate r s o u r c es

be in_g of f

-p lot How e v e r, t h is do e s n ot tr a n slate pr e cis e ly into de mo n str at ing t he de c r e as e in

wate r u s e betw e e n z e r o a nd f iv e m in ute s of tr a v el t ime Ea ch of t he f iv e stud ie s

(

Ref 3, 9,

2 0, 2 3, 2 4

)

show a do ub ling o r trip ling in pe r c ap ita wate r qu a nt it y fo r ho u s eholds w it h at

-home water s u

_{p p}

l ie s

₍

Ta

b

le 2

₎

Fo r ho u s e holds fetch in_{g w} ate r fr om of f

-p lot s o u r c e s , t he pub lished e vide n c e does

not of fer a c o n s iste nt an

d

cle a r r e lat io n sh ip bet we en

d

ista n c e a n

d

_qu a nt it y T welve o

f

t he 2 0

stud ie s w he re ho u s e holds u s ed of f

in c r e a s in_{g d i}sta n c e

₍

o r t ime

₎

to t li e wate r s o u r c e T he ot he r e ig h t stud ie s r e_po rted n o

r e lat ionsh ip bet we e n wate r u s e a nd /o r d ista n c e to t he w ater s ou r ce

Pa_pe r s w he re wate r c a r rie r s tr a v e lled le s s t ha n 1 5 0 m

(

a n a_p

_p

r o ximate d ista n c e

c o r r e s _po nd in

_g

to f ive m in ute s r o u nd-t_rip t im_e

)

sho uld ha v e s e e n a n e_gat iv e r elat io n sh i p

a c c ord in_{g t}o a c c e_{p t}e_{d p l}ate a u c u r v e Re s ults fr om Ref 1 1 s u_{p p}orts t he c u r v e a s a lmo st a ll

ho u s e holds we r e w it h in 1 0 0 m of t he wate r s o u r c e a nd t he_{y f}o u nd a n e_gat iv e r e lat io n sh ip

bet w e e n d ista n c e a nd qu a nt it y T he data fr om Ref 1 9 als o de mo n s trate a n in c r e a s e in wate r

u sa_ge at clo s e d ista n c e s, a p late a u bet w e e n 1 8

-1

8 0

m an

d

t hen a

f

u rt her _de cline be_yo nd

5 6 0 m. Ref 2 1 o

b

s e rv ed a sha r

p

de c r e a s e in wate r qu a nt it y w hen ho us e ho lds we r e lo c ated

at d ista n c e s _gr e ate r t ha n f iv e m in ute s to t he wate r s o u r c e .

T he a c c e_{p t}ed p late a u c u r v e pr e d icts _pe r c a_{p it}a wa_te r u s e to fall furt he r o n c e t he

d istan ce exc e eds 1 k m On e stud y

₍

Ref 2 2

)

obs e r v ed water _quant it y to be c o n sta nt u _p u nt il 1

k m and t hen dro_{p w}

it h lo n

_ge r d ista n c e s In c o ntr a st, two stud ie s,

(

Re

f

1 4 a nd 1 9

)

, r e po rted

qu a nt it y to de cre a s e be_yo nd d ista n c e s of 5 0 0 m a nd 5 6 0 m _Most o

f

the ac c e_{p t}ed pa _pe r s

stud ied ho u s eholds w it h c ol le ct io n d ista n c e s le s s t ha n 1 k m , t he r efore it is d if f ic ult to

c om me nt o n t he les se r wate r u se be_yo nd t he _pro_po s ed t hr e shold d

i

stan c e

W

ate r c o lle c_{t i}o n t ime s a nd d ista n c e to t he wate r s o u r c e ha v e be e n u s ed s o mew hat

inte r cha n_ge ab ly, howev e r, r e c e nt stud ie s

(

Ref 2, Ref 3 a nd Ref 2 0

)

ha v e shown t hat fa cto r s,

s u c h a s reliab il

i

_{t y}, c a n cha nge t he relat io n sh ip

b

et wee n t i me and d istan c e Refer e n c e 2

n oted a si

_g

nif ic a nt ass o ciat io n

be

t we e n ho u sehold c o m p lain_ts of wate r s er vic e fu nct io n a_{l it y}

a nd wate r c ol le ct io n t ime s In Refe r e n c e 3, a ll ho u s e ho lds u sing of f

-p lot s u_{p p l i}e s we r e w it h in

1 0 0 m of a _pub l ic sta n_{d p ip}e, howe v e r, t he r o u nd -_t

ri

_p

c olle ct io n t ime wa s t hre e to fo u r ho u r s

du e to r e s _po ndents ha vin_{g t}o wa it in l ine at t he stan_{d p i}

_p

es

R

e

f

e r en ce

2 0

r e

_p

ort ed t hat even

t ho u_{g h t h}e d istan c e to wate r sour c e s ha

d

de c r e as e

d

ov e r a 6 0

-yea r

_p

eriod, t he c olle ct io n

t ime

h

ad incre a s ed

f

o r

h

o u s eholds T he r es ults from t he s e stud ie s w o u

ld

s u

_{g g}

e st t hat

d ista n c e ma_y n ot be a n a _{p p}r o _priate in_{d i}c ato r of a c c e s s but r at ii e r t ime wo uld be a mo r e

im po rta nt me a s u r e du e to is s u e s of r el ia_{b i lit y} a nd wate r a v ai la_{b i lit y} at t he s o u rc e

T he met hod fo r me a s u rin

_g

wate r _qu a nt it y a nd t he lo c at io n of wate r

-u sin_g a ct ivit ie s

c a n inf lu e nce t he o bs e r v ed wate r _qu a n_{t it y} a nd d ista n c e re lat io n sh i p F if te e n stud ie s

c o nsidered only wate r ca r ried ba ck to t he ho u s e in t heir c alculat ion of water _qu a n_{t it y T w}o

stud ie s

₍

Re

f

1 6 a nd Ref 1 8

₎

r e_po rted al l wate r-_{u sin}

g a ct ivit ie s

₍

s u c h a s bat h in_g a nd la u ndr_y

₎

to o c c u r at ho me, w h ile 7 stud ie s obs e r v ed s o me w ate r u s e at t he s o u r c e, a nd t he

r ema inin_g stud ie s d id n ot me nt io n t he lo c_{at i}o n of w ate r

-usin_{g a ct i}vit ie s D if fe r_{e n}t wate r u s e

pat te r ns could a c c o u nt fo r s ome of t he v a riat io n in r e s ults re_gard in_{g t h}e r elat io n s_{h ip}

bet we e n w ate r _qu a nt it y a nd d ista n c e Ref 2 3 r e _po rted hou s e holds w a sh in_{g t h}eir clot he s at

ho me w he n t he

_y

l ive

d

eit her ve r_y close o r ve r_y

f

a r

f

r om t

h

e s our c e Ho u s ehol

d

s lo c ated at

m id d le d istan c e s br o u_{g h t t h}eir la undr_{y t}o t he s o u r c e r at he r t ha n c a r r_{y w} ate r home T he

cha n

_g

e in loc at io n of wate r

-u sin_g a ct ivit ie s c o uld be due to cultu r al pr a ct ic e s rat her t ha n

d ista n c e

W

h i le t he r e a s o n is u n clea r fo r _{w h y h}o u s eholds sh if t t he lo c at io n of w he r e t he s e

ta s ks a r e _pe rfo rmed, t hey c o u ld be a r e a s o n for t he d if fere n c e s betwe e n stud y r e s ults

T he u s e _of mult ip le s o u r c e s and s e a_{s o}n al ef fe cts c o uld also a c c o u nt

f

o r t he v a riat io n

in stu_{d y} r es ults T wo stud ie s

₍

Ref 1 1 a nd 1 7

₎

r e c o rded wate r c olle ct io n fr om on _ly o n e

s o u r c e , t he r eb y om it t ing po s sib le wate r u s ed b y ho u s eholds fr om ot he r s o u r c e s Se v e n

stud ie s c ollected data in bot h wet a nd dr_y s e a s_on s w h i le ei g h t pa _per s r e _po rted col le ct in

_g

data in o nl y o n e s e a s o n

₍

alt ho u

_g

h s ome stu_{d i}e s a ske_{d q}u e st io n s r e_ga rd in_g c o lle ct io n

beha vio r in bo_{t h w}et a nd dr_y s e a so n s e v e n w he n t he f ield c olle ct io n o c c u r r e d du rin_g o n e

s e a s o n

₎

₍

T ab le D I in _{A p p}e nd ix D

₎

Re

_p

o rted s e a so nalef fe cts we r e m ixed amo n

_g

st t he

pa_pe r s Re

f

e r e n ce 1 9 r e_po rted l itt le to n o d if fe re n c_{e s i}n wate r u s e t hr o u_{g h}o ut t

he

_y

e ar w h ile

Ge o_gr a_{p h i}c d is t ri bu t ion o f st ud ies

T he 2 4 ide nt if ied stu

d

ie s c ontain data fr om 1 7 d if fe r ent c o u ntries w it tiin f iv e M D

G

Re_{g i}o n s T he ma

_j

o rit

_y

(

1 8 of 2 4

)

stud ie s wer e c o n

d

u cted in S S A ;of t he r e mainde r, t wo we r e

c o ndu cte d in So ut he r n Asia

(

S A

)

, t wo we r e fr om Lat in A me ric a a nd t he Ca ri b be a n

(

L A C

)

,

o n e fr o m No rt h A frica

₍

N A

₎

, a nd o n e fr om So ut h

-_{ea s}t_{e r n} A_si_a

(

S E A

₎

F ig_{u r e} 3 _sh_ow_s t h_e

ge o_gr a_{p h i}c d istribut io n of stud ie s a c c e_{p t}ed in t he r e v iew

Co U N T I t l E S

I 5STU DIE S ■ 3S TUDIE S

S 2STUDIES

O 1STU DI ES

JMP Re c io h s

^ ^

N U M BEROFST U D IES

N A o

SA

S EA

F i_gu r e 3. Co u ntrie s whe r e a c c epted studie s o n wate r qu a nt i ty a nd dista n c e

(

o r time

)

w e r e

c o ndu cted.

T he _geo

_g

r a _p

h

ic d istri but ion of a c c e_{p t}ed stud ie s reve a

l

ed a str o n

_{g b}

ia s o

f

t he

lite r atu r e towa rds S S A T here a r e few exis_{t i}n_g stud ie s e x a m inin_{g w}ate r _qu a nt it y a nd

d istance, and t hre e

-f_{o u r}t h_{s o}f t h

e av ailab le data a r e fr om one r e_{g i}o n T h is ex_pos e s a _ga_{p i}n

t he lite r atu r e r e _ga rd in_{g w}ate r c olle ct io n _pr a ct ic e s in a r e a s of t he dev elo _p

in

_{g w}o rld o utside

S S A .

T

he c u r r e nt r eview r etu r ned n o wate r beha v

io r s

tud ie s w it h in t he M i lle n ni_um

Develop me nt Go al re

_g

io ns of

W

este r n

A

sia,

O

c e a nia,

C

au c asu s a nd

C

e ntral Asia, Ea ste r n

Asia . A lt hou

g

h Lat in A me r

ic a a n

d t he

C

ari

b b

e an

,

N

ort h A fric a,

S

out he rn

A

sia a nd

S

o ut h

e a ste r n Asia w e r e r e_pr e s e nted w it h in t he l ite r atu r e r e view, t he r e we r e o nly o n e o r t wo

stud ie s from e a ch r e_{g i}o n T he ide nt if ie_{d g}e o_gr a _{p h i}c b ia s c o uld be du e in _pa rt to t he in clu sio n

of onl

_y

_pa_pe r s

_p

u b lished in En

_g

l ish A d d it io n a ln o n-_E

n_{g li}sh stud ies c o ndu cted in ot he r

r e_{g i}o ns c o uld e xist

T he ma

_j

orit y of a c c e_{p t}ed stu

d

ie s we r e c o n

d

u cte

d

in r u r al c om mu n

i

t

i

e s As d is c u s s ed

pr e v io u sly, t ime spe nt qu e uing at t he wate r s o u r c e is a n ot he r fa cto r t hat could af fe ct wate r

qu a n_{t it y} u s e_{d b y h}o u s ehol ds

W

h ile lo n_ge r d ista n c e s o c c u r mo r e fr e_qu e n_{t ly i}n r u r al a r e a s ,

is s u e s of qu e uin_g c a n ha_{p p}e n in r u r al, pe ri

-u rba n, a nd u rba n s et t ings O nly o ne stud y

e x am in ed s_qu at te r s et t le me nts in a n u rba n s et t in_g a nd a n ot he r e x am in ed w ate r-_{v e n}d i_n

g

pr a ct ic e s in six _pe ri- _{u r}b_{a n co}m m_un

i

t i_{e s} T w_{o s}t_ud i_es

(

R

_e

f

2 3 _{a n}d 2 0

)

_{c o n}t_a i_ned _st_ud y _sit_{e s}

in bot h u rba n a n_d r u ral com mu nit ie s a nd made c om paris o ns in wate r us e Refe re n ce 4 d id

n ot cla s s_{if y t h}e lo c at io n of t heir stu_{d y} site d ir e c_{t ly} a s 'urba n

' ,

'

pe ri-_{u rba n}'

or 'r u r a l'

.

W

h i le t he

d

ef init io n

f

o r r u ral and u rban c an var_y,

W

h ite et a l ha s reported d if

f

er e n c e s in wate r

3

.

4

L i

m

i t

a

t i

o n s

T he la ck of s

_p

ecif ic in clu sio n _crite r_ia allowe d fo r mo r e su b

_j

e ct ivit y b y t he scr een e r in

deci d in_{g w h}at stud ie s to include in _{t h}e r e v iew T

h

e us e of a s ec onda r

_y

s cree ne r wo uld ha v e

de c r e a s ed pos sib le sub

_j

e ct ivit y in t he s c r e e nin_{g p}r o c e s s.

On_{l y p}a _pe r s _pub l ished in En_{g l i}sh were r e viewed for in clusio n

, w h ich c ould ha ve

r e s ulted in a _pub l ic at io n b ia s a nd c o u ld als o e x_{p l}a in _pa rt of t he _ge o_gr a _{p h i}c al

b

ia s s e e n in t he

re s u

l

ts

S

tud ie s o n wate r _qu a n_{t it y} and u se _pat te r n s c o ul

d

e xist in ot he r la n

_g

ua_ge s a nd

c onta in _{i m p}o rtant r esults fo r a r e a s o utsi de of S

S

A A d d it io nal data cou ld e xist in

_g

r a

_y

lite r atur_e

, howe v e r, t h is stud y fo c u s ed o n pe e r

-reviewe d

_j

o u r n als a nd bo oks T he r e view of

t he s e stud ie s was ba s ed o n t he _pub lished r esults a nd c o n clusio n s _pr e s e nte_{d b y t h}e a ut ho r_s;

t he r efo r e t he r aw data wa s n ot a va ilab le, w h ich co uld hav e a llowed a de epe r, mo r e c rit ic a l

a n a_lysis of d ista n c e , t ime a nd qu a nt it y data bet we e n t he stud ie s.

4

M

u

l t i

-_{c o u n}

t

_r

y f i

e

l d

s

t

u

d y

4

.

1 B

a c

k g

r o u n

d

T he f

ie

ld stud

_y

was u nde rtake n a s _pa rt of a la r_ge r r e s e a r c_{h p}r o

_j

ect fu nde_{d b y t h}e

U K De_pa rt me nt fo r Inte r n at io n a l De v elo _{p m}e nt

(

D F I D

)

T he o v e r al lob

j

e ct iv e of t he _pr o

j

e ct

wa s to dete rm in e t he s o cial, e c o n om ic, a nd he alt h be n ef its of at

-h_om_e w_at_{e r s u}

p p l ie s T he

pr o

j

e ct was a co lla bo r at ion bet we e n t he Univer sit

_y

of Lee ds

₍

U L

₎

, t he Univ e r sit y of East

An_{g li}a

(

U E A

)

, a nd t he Univ e r sit y of No rt h Ca r o lin a

(

U N

C

)

. A m ult i

-_{c o u n}t_r

y stud

_y

de s_ign wa s

cho s_e n to ex am in e t he v a riat io ns in wate r us e _pat ter ns acro ss d if fe r e nt c o u ntrie s

S

o ut h

A fric a, G ha n a, a nd V ietn am we r e ide nt if ied a s site s ba s ed o n t heir d if fe r e nt topogr ap h ie s

(

V ietn am w it h a m o r e mo u ntain o u_{s t}e r r a in

₎

, a c c e s si b il it y of ba ck gr o u nd data , a nd e xist ing

r e s e ar c_{h p}a rt ner s_{h ip}s U E A le d in So ut h A fric a ,

U N C

le

d

t he wo rk in G han a, and U L le d t he

f ield wo rk in V ietn am Unifo rm f ield met hods we r e de v elo_pe d b y t he r e s e a r ch te am a nd

im p le me nted in al lc o u ntries to e nab le c o_{m p}a ris on a c r o_{s s a}ll t hr e e-f i_e ld

site s T he m ix_ed

met hod a_{p p}r o a ch us ed in t he data col le ct ion co n sisted of a t wo

-part c r o s s

-s e ct

io n a

l

ho useho ld s ur v e_y, str u ctu red obser v at io ns, a nd com mu ni t y le v e lobs e r v at io n s.

In-_{c ountr}

y part n e rin

_g

in st itut io n s we r e i de nt if ied based o n _pr e viou s c o m mu nic_{at i}o n

o r c olla bor at ion T he Tsh wane Uni_{v e}r s it y of Te chnolo_{g y}

₍

T U T

₎

assisted t he f ield wo rk in Sout h

A fric a In G ha n a , t he K wame N kr umah Univ e r s it y of Scien c e a nd Te chn olog y

(

K N U S T

)

s u_{p p}o rt e

d

t he data colle ct io n, an

d

in V ietn am t he

S

cho olof Pub lic He alt h in Ha noi aided t he

r e s earch te a m.

A pr_e

-data col lect io n me et in

_g

o c c u r r ed in July at U E A, w he r e t he fullr e s ear ch te am

r eviewed all

f

iel

d

in str umen_{ts a}nd we r e tr ain e

d

in

d

ata c olle ct ion met hods

(

M i d

-u

_{p p}

er a rm

lo c al la n_gu a_ge a nd t he n ba ck tr a n s late_{d b y} a s e_pa r ate _tr a n slato r in o r_de r to v e rif y a c c u r a c_y

Prio r to ad m inisterin_{g t h}e s u r v e_y, a p ilot c o n s ist ing of te n ho u s eho lds in e a ch c o u ntry was

c o nducted to a s s e s s t he r e lia b il it y a nd v a _{lid it y} o_{f t h}e _data c ol le ct io n in str u_me nts. A f te r t he

p i lot, m in o r cha nge s to t he

q

u e st io n n air e we r e made , howe v e r, ef fo rt was take n to

maintain c on siste nc_{y i}n t he in str ume n_ts a c r o s s t he t hr e e c o u ntrie s

In-_{c o u n}t_r

y pa rtn e r s a s sisted t he r e s e a r c h te a m in ide nt if y in_{g p}ote n_{t i}al e n ume r ato r s,

w ho w ere f lu e nt in t he

l

o c a l la n_gu a_ge A f te r _pr e lim inar_{y i}nte r views, en umerato r s we re

s e le cted a nd tr ained in data c ol le ct ion met hods includ in_g ob tainin_{g i}nformed c on s e nt,

ad m iniste n n_{g t h}e ho u s ehol d s u r v e_y, c olle ct ing a nt hro po metric data , a nd u sing t he data

c o lle ct io n e

_q

u_{ip m}e nt

₍

G

P S de vic e s a nd sto_{p w} atch

₎