Two developments transformed Indian society between 1500 B.C. and A.D. 500. One of
these was the establishment of the caste system,a complex form of social organiza- tion that began to take shape after the Indo-Aryan migration. Four distinct varnas,or social classes, appeared in Indian society. At the top of the social scale were the rulers and warriors. The second varna was the Brahmins, the priests and scholars. Over the centuries the Brahmins became the first varna because of their important role in society. The third class included merchants, traders, and farmers. Peasants who worked in fields owned by others, or who did menial labor, made up the fourth varna. People in a fifth group were called Pariahs, or “untouchables.” Pariahs were viewed as being outside of varnas, although still a part of the caste system. They were allowed to perform only jobs that were considered unclean, such as skinning animals or preparing the dead for funerals. According to the Indian law of the time,
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Not only does one not take water from them [the untouch- ables], they may not even take water from the same well. . . . Not only does one not marry them, they may not even enter the temple or the house or stroll on the main village streets. Even their cattle may often not drink from the same pool as [others.]”
Taya Zinkin, Caste Today Over time the four varnas divided into smaller subgroups, called jati. Eventually there were some 3,000 different jati. Strict rules developed. A person was born into the jati of his or her parents and could marry only within that subgroup. People’s jatis deter- mined what jobs they could hold and who they could eat with. This complex caste sys- tem remained a part of Indian society for centuries. The constitution of today’s India has abolished the caste system, but its influence remains strong in parts of Indian society.
READING CHECK: Analyzing Information How did the caste system affect Indian society?
Hinduism
The other major development in ancient Indian society was the growth of Hinduism, which became deeply interwoven with the caste system. Hinduism gradually spread to become India’s major religion. It developed through the Brahmin priests’ explanations of the Vedas. According to the Upanishads, a divine essence called Brahman fills every- thing in the world. People have an individual essence, called Self or Atman. Hinduism teaches that Brahman and Atman are one and the same. This reflects the belief that all things in the universe are of the same essence as God. This belief in the unity of God and creation is called monism(not to be confused with monotheism,the belief in one god). Hindu beliefs. Hinduism teaches that the world we see is an illusion. If people accept this illusion, called maya,they cannot be saved. People can gain salvation only if they learn to recognize and reject maya, but this is not easy to do. According to Hinduism it can take many lifetimes to fully recognize maya. As a result, souls must be reborn over and over again. The experience they gain as they pass through life helps them to identify maya. This belief in the rebirth of souls is called reincarnation.Hindus believe that the soul does not die, but rather can be reborn in the body of another human being or even an animal.
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Identifying Bias How do the instructions regarding the treat- ment of untouchables reflect the view of others towards them?
This Indian woman’s caste can be deter- mined by her traditional clothing and facial decoration.
62 CHAPTER 3
Two important principles of Hinduism are dharma and karma. Dharma means doing one’s moral duty in this life so that the soul can advance in the next life. Karma is the good or bad force created by a person’s actions. According to Hinduism, people who fulfill their dharma gain good karma and are born into a higher social group in the next life. People who do not live moral lives will be born as members of lower groups or as animals. In time, souls who grow spiritually can reach nirvana,a perfect peace. At that point the cycle of reincarnation is complete and the individual’s soul unites with Brahman.
The Hindu god Brahma can be represented as a number of gods. Brahma the Cre- ator, Vishnu the Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer can be forms of Brahma. Other gods are represented in the spirits of trees, animals, or people, but each is a part of Brahman. For this reason, Hindus must respect all forms of life. To many outsiders, Hinduism appears polytheistic—based on a belief in many gods. Hindus point out, however, that their gods simply represent different aspects of creation. Thus Hinduism is actually a monistic faith.
Hindu religious practices. Hindus often practice yoga, a set of mental and physical exercises designed to bring the body and soul together. In one form of yoga, a person might sit for hours in the same position. Over time, this frees the mind of thoughts about the body.
Hindu festivals combine religious ceremonies, rituals, music, dancing, eating, and drinking. Celebrations might last for days. These festivals represent the seasonal course of nature. Originally it was believed that such festivals helped to promote the return of the seasons. Many ancient festivals are celebrated throughout India today.
Some Hindus see certain animals as particularly sacred. Cows are special because they traditionally provided power for plows and carts. They also produce milk and butter for food. For these reasons cows are protected by law.
READING CHECK: Drawing Conclusions Why is Hinduism considered to be a monistic faith?
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The Hindu god This sculpture represents Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva as a three-headed creature.
How does this image reflect the Hindu belief in the oneness of the universe?
There are many festivals and celebrations in the Hindu calen- dar. This image shows Hindu women celebrating the Chaat Puja festival in early November.
Buddhism
Buddhism, another of the world’s great religions, also arose in India. Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama.He became known as the Buddha, or “the Enlightened One.” Born in about 563 B.C. in northern India, Siddhartha Gautama was the son of a
wealthy prince of the region. During his youth he received every advantage of luxury, education, and comfort. His royal lifestyle shielded him from the harsh realities of everyday life. He knew nothing, for example, of disease, poverty, fear, or other aspects of life among ordinary people.
At the age of 29, Siddhartha Gautama ventured out of his palace and was shocked to learn of the challenges and tragedies common to everyday life. He vowed to discover the reasons for human suffering. In what is now called the Great Renunciation, he left his family and his lifestyle in search of truth and meaning. He tried many methods to discover wisdom, practicing yoga and meditation and fasting so strictly that he nearly died. None of these approaches, however, gave Siddhartha Gautama the answers that he sought.
One day, after six years of searching, Siddhartha Gautama sat meditating under a tree. Suddenly, he felt that he understood the truth that forms the basis of life. In that moment, according to his followers, Siddhartha Gautama became the Buddha. He spent the remainder of his life teaching his followers to pursue the way to enlightenment, the Way of Life.
Hinduism and Buddhism, c. A.D. 600
Interpreting Maps Buddhism and Hinduism spread along major trade routes.
■Skills Assessment: Places and Regions How far had Buddhism and Hinduism spread by about A.D. 600?
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Siddhartha Gautama
After reading more about Siddhartha Gautama on the Holt Researcher, write a series of interview questions that you would ask the Buddha if you could meet him.
The Buddha’s teachings. The Buddha accepted some Hindu ideas, including rein- carnation. He believed that the progress of the soul depends on the life a person leads—good is rewarded and evil punished. However, he taught that salvation comes from knowing the “Four Noble Truths” and following the “Eightfold Path.”
The Buddha taught ethics—a code of morals and conduct—more than cere- monies. He believed that desire causes suffering. As a result, he stressed the importance of selflessness. The Buddha did not accept the Hindu gods, but rather taught that priests should live peaceful and moral lives of poverty. He did not attack the Hindu caste system openly, but denied its importance. According to Buddhism, any person, regardless of caste, could reach nirvana. This gave Buddhism a broad appeal. Powerful Brahmins opposed these teachings.