Many times throughout history, conquerors adopted the culture of the people they conquered. This was certainly true of the Babylonians after they conquered the Sumerians. Some conquerors, however, kept their own cultural values. This was the case with the Hittites.
The Hittites.The Hittites were a warlike people who invaded the Tigris-Euphrates Valley from Asia Minor sometime in the 1600s B.C. The Hittites were among the first people to smelt iron. Their most important achieve- ment, however, may have been their laws and govern- ment. Under Hittite law, only major crimes received the death penalty. Hittite law called for a person to pay a fine, rather than experience retaliation, for causing damage or injury. As in some other empires of the time, the Hittite kings were regarded as chief-priests, although they allowed significant religious freedom.
When the Hittites invaded the Tigris-Euphrates Val- ley, they conquered and looted the city of Babylon. The Hittites were too far from their homeland to control Baby- lon permanently, however. They soon withdrew to the western part of the Fertile Crescent. They remained a powerful force there until about 1200 B.C., when the entire region began to be hit by invasions from the Sea Peoples.
The Assyrians. The Assyrians were a Semitic-speaking people from northern Mesopotamia. As early as the 2000s B.C. they had settled the city of Ashur on the upper Tigris River and adopted many elements of Sumerian culture. For centuries they had been dominated by others. The Assyrians briefly established an empire of their own in the 1300s B.C., but it was soon overrun by nomadic migrations. They gradually recovered, however, and began to dominate the area of southwest Asia. Between about 900 B.C. and about 650 B.C., the Assyrians expanded their power across the Fertile Crescent and into Egypt. At its height, the mighty empire included all of Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, and the Nile Valley.
The Assyrians were fierce, effective warriors. Not only did they use chariots in battle, but they also were the first to use cavalry—soldiers on horseback. They used terror to control their enemies. They frequently enslaved the people they conquered and killed captured enemy soldiers. Sometimes they deported whole populations to other regions. By these methods, the Assyrians added land to their empire and gained many slaves. About 700 B.C. the Assyrians captured Babylon, looted it, and then destroyed it completely.
Hittite and Assyrian Empires, c. 1250B.C.–650 B.C.
Interpreting Maps Assyrian rulers used their powerful, well- trained army to conquer new lands and to expand their empire. Captive peoples were forced by the Assyrians to work on various construction projects.
■ Skills Assessment: The World in Spatial TermsIn terms of size, how did the Assyrian Empire compare to the earlier empires of Akkad and Babylonia?
Epic of Gilgamesh Preserved by the Assyrians, the Epic of Gilgamesh
is the story of a mythical Sumerian king. It reflects Sumerians’ beliefs about life and death. Here Gilgamesh is pictured wrestling with a lion. In what way does this ancient relief portray Gilgamesh as a heroic, larger-than-life figure?
The Assyrians were one of the first peoples to effectively govern a large empire. The Assyrian king had absolute, or total, power. He was responsible only to the god Ashur. Priests and government officials took orders from the king and answered to him. Governors ruled conquered lands and made regular reports to the king.
After the Assyrians rose to power, they made the city of Nineveh their capital. Attempting to fortify the city as strongly as possible, they constructed a huge double wall around it. The wall was more than 70 feet high and stretched for 7.5 miles around the city. In places, it was as much as 148 feet wide and it had 15 decorated gates. Nineveh contained a great library in which Assyrian scholars kept clay tablets filled with literature and other works collected from all over the empire. This library helped to preserve learning for future generations. Among the many texts it contained was the great Epic of Gilgamesh,the story of a Sumerian king and one of the oldest works of literature known. Today’s historians have learned much about Sumerian beliefs and lifestyles by studying the Epic of Gilgamesh.
Powerful Assyria and its great capital eventually fell. In about 635 B.C. civil war broke out, weakening Assyria so that it could not resist outside invaders. Finally in 612 B.C., a group of enemies led by the Chaldeans and the Medes captured and destroyed Nineveh.
The Chaldeans.The Chaldeans took control of much of the territory that the Assyr- ians had ruled. Under the leadership ofNebuchadnezzar(neb·uh·kuhd·NEZ·uhr), the Chaldeans conquered most of the Fertile Crescent. Nebuchadnezzar governed from the rebuilt city of Babylon from 605 B.C. until his death in 562 B.C.
Under Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon once again became a large and wealthy city. Trade flourished, and within the city were impressive canals and magnificent buildings. The king’s palace included beautiful terraced gardens, known as the Hanging Gardens. According to legend, Amytis, one of Nebuchadnezzar’s wives, had lived in the mountains. Now, living on the drier plains of Babylonia, she missed the greenery of her homeland. To please her, the king planted thousands of brightly colored tropical trees and flowers on the palace grounds. The Greeks and other peoples of the ancient world regarded the Hanging Gardens of Babylon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
The Chaldeans were skilled astronomers. They kept careful records of the apparent movement of the stars and planets and could predict solar and lunar eclipses. The Chaldeans also made advances in mathematics. They calculated the length of a year with a very high degree of accuracy.
All the strength of the Chaldeans, however, lay in the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar.After he died the Chaldeans had difficulties. One of his successors quarreled with the priests, who then betrayed the city to enemies. Within 30 years of Nebuchadnezzar’s death, the Chaldean empire fell.
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READING CHECK:Evaluating In what ways did the great Assyrian library at Nineveh contribute to the ancient world’s store of knowledge?Chaldean Empire, c. 600 B.C.
Interpreting Maps The Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar conquered a large part of the Assyrians’ far-flung empire.
■ Skills Assessment: 1.Locate On what river was Babylon located? 2.Drawing ConclusionsHow would this location have helped the Chaldeans improve trade?
Persian Empire, c. 500 B.C.
Interpreting Maps At its height, the mighty Persian Empire stretched from southeastern Europe to the Hindu Kush plateau and the Indus River in southwestern Asia.
■ Skills Assessment: 1. Human Systems What road ran through the Persian Empire? 2.Drawing Inferences How might this road have helped Persian rulers control their huge empire?