Aims of the study

There are three primary aims in the study:-

1. Longitudinally examine the role of family functioning and peer functioning in the association between stress and subclinical psychotic experiences including the effects of age and changes in family functioning and peer functioning.

2. Identify the subtype of SPEs in this population and whether particular subtypes of SPEs are associated with bullying.

3. Explore the differences in mental health status and its association with peer functioning and grades in adolescents from Britain and Trinidad.

56 5.2 Hypotheses

5.2.1 Hypotheses for Study 1

i. There will be a strong and positive relationship between stress and subclinical psychotic experiences.

ii. The interaction of family and peer functioning will moderate the relationship between stress and subclinical psychotic experiences.

iii. Family and peer functioning at T1 will predict SPEs at T2.

iv. Gender and age will affect the relationship between stress and SPEs

5.2.2 Hypotheses for Study 2

i. There will be subtypes of SPEs identified in this population such as bizarre experiences, perceptual abnormalities, persecutory ideation and magical thinking.

ii. Bullying will be significantly associated with SPEs.

iii. Being bullied, bully perpetration and bully-victim will be differently associated with particular subtypes of SPEs.

5.2.3 Hypotheses for Study 3

i. There will be similar prevalence rates of depression and anxiety in Trinidad and British population.

ii. Having high levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms will be associated reduced grades and poor peer functioning in both Trinidadian and British adolescent

iii. Having high levels anxiety symptoms, in the absence of significant depressive symptoms will not be associated with reduced grades and poor peer functioning in both British and Trinidadian adolescents.

57 CHAPTER 6

Methodology

6.0 Settings

Secondary schools are learning institutions, situated throughout Trinidad and Tobago, for the purpose of teaching academics and encouraging sporting accomplishments among students.

In Trinidad, secondary schools accommodate students from the age of 11 years to 18-19 years depending on the academic progress of the student at the time of the Secondary Education Assessment Examination (SEA). Students are assessed at primary school level for the SEA and according to their academic readiness, will either be retained at their present level or placed in a higher level. This process informs the age at which the student will remain at the Secondary school level. In some cases students will be seen in the lower level class yet older than those in higher classes and even their classmates. Therefore, the data will show that in some classes there is a wide variation of the ages of students.

6.1 Design

These studies were designed as one participant longitudinal, one

within-participant cross-sectional and one within mixed cross-sectional and longitudinal, quantitative studies. The longitudinal studies (Study 1 and Study 2) consist of two data waves: Baseline (2012-2013) and Phase 2 (2013-2014). The cross-sectional study consists of one data wave:

Baseline (2012-2013).

For the longitudinal study, 427 students participated (199 females and 228 males) at baseline. The Phase 2 sample consisted of 93% of the original sample (n=399) participants (drop

58 out of 8 females and 18 males). Study 1 was conducted on phase 1 and 2 data examined cross-sectionally and longitudinally, Study 2 was conducted with phase 2 data collection and examined cross-sectionally, while study 3 was done with phase 1 data together with a Birmingham sample and examined cross-sectionally. Additionally, study 3 was examined longitudinally for on phase 2 data collection for Trinidad only.

To ensure representativeness of the sample, for all studies, a multi-stage cluster sample was employed. The County districts represented the clusters, totaling seven: Caroni,

Nariva/Mayaro, St. Andrew/St. David, St. George East, St. George West, St. Patrick and

Victoria. In each of these counties, blocks of schools were selected. These blocks were randomly sampled to select the seven schools needed. The sample size for each school was calculated on a proportional basis to the overall population of the schools in the different counties. This value was then used as the number of participants for the school in that county. Then, a random sampling was done with forms two, three and four in order to select the students ranging in ages 13-16 years. Schools for young people with special needs and single sex schools were excluded.

The percentage for the year group varied between schools depending on the proportion of a particular school towards that county population. The classroom sampling was a simple one in which each classroom sample was also calculated as a proportion of the total number allotted to that school. All participants in that classroom were then given an equal opportunity to be selected by picking one of the numbers that makes up the total amount for that classroom in order to ensure representativeness.

6.2 Sample

For the longitudinal study at baseline, 427 students participated (199 females and 229 males). The Phase 2 sample consisted of 93% of the original sample (n=399) participants (drop

59 out of 8 females and 18 males). This entire sample was obtained from 126 secondary schools with a total population of 102,252 students (Ministry of Education National Report Trinidad &

Tobago, 2004). One school was selected from each of the six geographic counties (St. Patrick, Victoria, St. George, St Andrew/St David, Caroni, Nariva/Mayaro). Due to a large population, the St George County was divided into East and West where two schools were selected.

Therefore, a total of seven secondary schools were approached to participate in the study and all consented (all government schools). These students are enrolled in Forms Two, Three and Four and were between the ages of 13-16 years. There were some classes that do have exchange students visiting from Spanish speaking countries for the purpose of learning English.

Adolescents who do not speak English or possess intellectual disability were excluded.

Participant assent and parental consent were obtained.