Sample characteristics

The total sample consisted of 399 students. Nine (2.3%) participants had >25% missing data and were excluded from analysis, leaving 390 participants in the sample, 205(52.6%) males and 185(47.4%) females. The mean age for males was 16.07 years (SD=10.95) and 15.98 years (SD=11.43) for females. There was no significant difference in bullying behaviours between males and females. There were higher prevalence rates of bullying in the last 30 days than in the last year: 58.4% and 41.6% respectively (see Table 8.2).

There was a weak (r=.03), yet significant, association between age and bullying. This association showed that younger participants were more likely to be bullied in the last 30 days [t(206)=2.92, p=0.01] and last year [t(203)=2.64, p=0.01]. Younger age was also significantly associated with being a perpetrator of bullying in the last year [t(201)=2.23, p=0.02]. These associations between bullying and age were significant for males only (see Table 8.2).

105 Table 8.1 Descriptive sample

M SD Range

CAPE-positive 37.05 8.90 41.00

CAPE-negative 23.11 5.08 28.00

CAPE-depressive 14.20 3.80 24.00

CAPE BE 0.05 0.45 9.14

Living in urban environment 225 41.3

Table 8.2 Bullying prevalence

N % N % Chi

sq df p t(df) p t(df) p

Males Females Statistics Age(males) Age(females)

Bullied in the last 30

106 8.2.2 Subtype of SPEs in the sample: number of factors, items allotment and tests

application

Data in this study showed a 4-factor structure with eigenvalues over Kaiser’s criterion of 1, accounting for 48.4% of the explained variance. There was significant loading of items on all of the four factors (r >.30). The factors identified are shown in Table 8.3. Factor 1 consisted of 5 items and was labeled bizarre experiences (BE). Factor 2 comprised of 7 items and was labeled perceptual abnormalities and delusional ideas (PA-DI). Factor 3 consisted of 5 items and was labeled persecutory ideation (PI). Factor 4 consisted of 3 items and was labeled magical thinking (MT). In the case where items loaded onto two factors, the higher or more conceptually sound one was utilized. Allotting items to the highest loadings, items 17 (“Do you ever feel as if electrical devices such as computers can influence the way you think?”) loaded on both factor 2 (.316) and factor 4 (.487). Therefore, this item was loaded onto factor 4 as having the greater weight, in addition to theme similarity to the other items on this factor. Items 5 (“Do you ever feel as if things in magazines or on TV were written especially for you?”) loaded on both factor 1 (.352) and factor 4 (.322); item 6 (“Do you ever feel as if some people are not what they seem to be?”) loaded on factor 2 (.364) and factor 3 (-.436); item 15 (“Do you ever think that people can communicate telepathy?”) loaded on both factor 1 (.302) and factor 4 (.417); and item 41 (“Do you ever feel as if a double has taken place in a family member, friend or acquaintance?”) loaded on factor 1 (.432) and factor 3 (-.420).

There was a positive and significant correlation between factors (p<.001). A reliability analysis conducted indicated that internal consistency show good Cronbach’s alpha (r>.70) for PA-DI and PI. BE and MT were lower, (r=.63) and (r=.58) respectively. According to Kline

107 (1999), the diversity of the themes in the psychological constructs, can reflect values lower than .7, which is realistically acceptable.

Before computing the mean and standard deviation of the CAPE subscales, they were standardized by dividing each subscale by the number of items in order to make them

comparable. There was a significant difference in gender for the CAPE positive total score, PI, and MT (p<.05) with females having higher scores than males (see Table 8.4 below). Age was significantly, although weakly, negatively associated with SPEs for males and females. Younger participants had higher levels of SPEs. This association was found for CAPE positive and all subtypes in females, but only PI and MT for males. The internal consistency for CAPE positive total score was high (r=.86) (see Table 8.5).

108 Table 8.3. CAPE positive items and factor loadings

Item

28 Have your thoughts ever been so vivid that you were worried other people would hear them

24 Do you ever feel as if the thoughts in your head are taken away from you

17 Do you ever feel as if electric devices such as computers can influence the way you think

15 Do you ever think that people can communicate telepathy

0.65 0.64 0.57 0.49 0.42 PERCEPTUAL ABNORMALITIES-DELUSIONAL IDEAS

33 Do you ever hear voices when you are alone

34 Do you ever hear voices talking to each other when you are alone 42 Do you ever see objects, people or animals that other people cannot see

31 Do you ever feel as if you are under the control of some other force other than yourself 30 Do you ever hear your own thoughts being echoed back at you

41 Do you ever feel as if a double has taken place in a family member, friend or acquaintance

20 Do you believe in the power of witchcraft, voodoo, or occult

22 Do you ever feel that people look at you oddly because of your appearance 6 Do you ever feel as if some people are not what they seem to be

11 Do you ever feel that you are destined to be someone very important 13 Do you ever feel that you are a very special or unusual person

5 Do you ever feel as if things in magazines or on TV were written especially for you

0.77 0.77 0.35

109 Table 8.4. CAPE positive and subscales scores for the whole sample and by gender, and correlation with age

Gender Age

Total Sample Male Female Male Female

M(SD) M(SD) M(SD) p-value M(SD) r p-value M(SD) r p-value

CAPE positive 37.05(9.18) 34.85(8.79) 39.52(8.99) <.001 35.09(8.30) .042 .549 35.52(8.99) -.266 <.001 BE 0.05(0.45) 0.02(0.62) 0.08 (0.02) .21 9.60(2.86) .094 .176 10.97(3.18) -.226 .002 PA-DI 1.60(0.78) 1.53(0.92) 1.68 (0.58) .05 4.62(1.99) .105 .129 4.74(2.08) -.214 .003 PI 2.00(0.81) 1.84 (0.93) 2.20 (0.59) <.001 12.51(3.57) -.029 .676 14.58(3.71) -.218 .003 MT 2.27(0.88) 2.13(1.01) 2.43(0.68) <.001 8.22(2.48) -.006 .932 9.21(2.47) -.180 .013

CAPE=Community Assessment of Psychotic Experiences; BE=Bizarre Experiences PA-DI=Perceptual Abnormalities and Delusional Ideas; PI=Persecutory Ideation; MT=Magical Thinking

110 Table 8.5. Inter-correlation between factors and CAPE total.

BE PA-DI PI MT CAPE

positive

BE 1

PA-DI .358** 1

PI .409** .543 ** 1

MT .421** .342** .427** 1

CAPE positive .411** .848** .806** .611** 1

** Correlation is significant at p<0.001

CAPE=Community Assessment of Psychotic Experiences; BE=Bizarre Experiences PA-DI=Perceptual Abnormalities and Delusional Ideas; PI=Persecutory Ideation; MT=Magical Thinking