Chapter 4: Analysis process
4.2 The analysis process
One of the few shared skills across qualitative research is identifying themes, which are thus able to provide meaning on data gathered (Holloway & Todres, 2003; Braun & Clarke, 2006, 2013). Approaches within qualitative research can be quite different (Lyons & Coyle, 2007), but they do share this skill in common. Learning to analyze data was going to be challenging for me, having previously not undertaken qualitative research. The process was slightly daunting initially, but undertaken methodically as this chapter discusses.
4.2.1 Data analysis
An inductive approach was used to analyze data, as I wanted participants’ realities, particularly children’s realities to determine the focus. I spent a long time looking at data. As ideas were created they were later linked with relevant theoretical perspectives, as the thesis was written. The literature review, although it eludes to what issues might be of interest within the research, it was written in line with ideas developed from participants themselves highlighting the inductive nature of the research. The following outlines data analysis in more detail.
All the focus group interviews and individual interviews that were put forward for analysis were tape recorded with participants' permission. The parent focus group that was not tape recorded, due to permission not being given, could not be used for analysis. Participants' requests need to be respected, disappointing though it was not to be able to use data from this focus group. As many
qualitative researchers maintain all data should be tape recorded and transcribed (Nyamathi & Shuler 1990; Sim 1998; Coté Arsenault et al., 1999). Barbour (2008) suggests that only selected extracts need to be tape recorded and transcribed. However, an accurate record needed to be created from all the different interviews undertaken, which only tape recording and transcribing can do. At this early stage in the research it might have been difficult for me to
determine exactly what data to include and exclude from each transcript, so tape recording all interviews was thus necessary.
Participants' transcripts were analyzed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006, 2013). Thematic analysis, as mentioned, is a process of identifying patterns within data and analysing them (Borrell, 2008). The transcripts were read and re- read several times and analysis was undertaken. Themes were ultimately
developed after much thought and reflection. The traditional approach of hand coding each transcript was used. Computer programs are now available to help with the process of coding, storing and moving data. However, as Low (2010) points out, a program will not do the conceptual work required. In gaining insights into other approaches I examined the qualitative computer program NVivo (2014). Some practical sessions were undertaken with another researcher. However, on reflection, using Schön’s (1983, 2011) approach, although I found it interesting to learn how to operate the program, I felt that it was more important to learn the basic foundational skills of analysis by
undertaking the process myself, certainly during this early phase of learning to become a qualitative researcher. I needed to establish the important
foundational skills of qualitative research before embarking on alternative ways of undertaking analysis.
Each transcript was analyzed four times; twice generally and twice semantically. Transcripts were coded based on their own merits, and in comparison with other transcripts within and across data sets. It was an arduous and lengthy task, particularly due to the number of transcripts that needed to be analyzed and compared. This comparison of transcripts, known as the constant comparative process (Byrant & Charmaz, 2010), helps with the identification of similar patterns across data. Memos were also written and recorded in a note book for each data set. Charmaz (2009), Byrant & Charmaz (2010) recommend memo taking, as it helps the researcher to understand the meaning of codes. This was helpful, particularly as several weeks might elapse before returning to a data set to reflect further on its meaning. Following a process of further reading on how to
develop themes within data (Pollio & Ursiak, 2006; Smith et al., 2011) and thinking about my data, I went on to develop themes. Theme development took a number of twists and turns, which will be discussed.
The final themes developed were written into the thesis and carefully refined during writing. Barbour (2008) highlights that refining frequently occurs as the researcher's knowledge develops through the iterative process associated with qualitative research. Of course the themes needed to be considered further at this stage in relation to theory, particularly young people’s theory, in line with the epistemological approach adopted.
4.2.2 Theme development
Braun and Clarke (2006, 2013) describe six stages to the process of thematic analysis. In this section how their process was applied to data will be explained. The first two stages require the researcher to become familiar with data and then begin coding. The process of familiarization for me began with transcribing all tape recorded focus groups and individual interviews. A long period of coding then followed; understanding how different parts of data related to my research questions.
Each transcript, as mentioned, was coded four times. Semantic coding was used to look for meanings within participants' discussions. As Braun and Clarke (2013) outline, semantic coding goes beyond the specific content of
participants' discussions looking for meanings. Co-coding was also undertaken with two experienced qualitative researchers. I found this helpful, particularly with moving from descriptive to semantic coding, and learning how to ask questions of data. Reports for each data set based on coding were shared with these researchers. Mapping of codes was also undertaken at various stages of the coding process, as a way of helping me to understand what was both interesting and important within each data set.
Stages three and four, described by Braun and Clarke (2006, 2013), include searching for themes and then reviewing those themes. Codes were
summarised into key themes. The process of developing themes underwent several changes; refining and redefining. Initially, I had thought that concerns
and opportunities, associated with children using their devices, were the main
themes. These themes seemed strongest within parents' data. They were also somewhat similar to what Livingstone and Haddon (2009) had found through their quantitative research on children’s / young people’s internet use. However, studying children's data in more depth, safety emerged as a very significant theme for them. Following inclusion of analysis from young people's / young adults' data and looking across all data sets, notions of freedom were apparent, underlying both children's thoughts on safety and parents’ concerns. Children's emerging sense of freedom, both in terms of communication and behaviour, linked the different data sets together. This emerging sense of freedom was why children wanted to feel safe, but it also gave parents reasons for concern. Included within children's emerging sense of freedom parents were providing different levels of support, with the mobile phone playing a key role in helping their children to stay safe. Parents' support for children's emerging freedom could be linked with Bronfenbrenner's (1979) different social settings; parents facilitating support within each of those settings.
For young people / young adults they were at a different stage of freedom, but linking their analysis with parents’ and children's analyzes provided a wider social perspective on what was happening; it enabled me to see beyond the day to day situations of children and their parents, and thus consider where ultimately children were going with their communication and behaviour. Children's mobile / internet devices were developmentally helping them to progress, enhancing their social development. Reading about young people's / young adults' use of these devices further enhanced my views on this perspective.
However, it could be argued that it was inappropriate to consider children's and parents' views, alongside young people's / young adults’ views, as
epistemologically critical realism allows (Maxwell, 2012). By comparing groups of participants who are generationally different will provide different perspectives. It is more usual within research to compare participations of a similar generation, who might find themselves in slightly different circumstances. For me however by studying young people / young adults, looking beyond the here and now and seeing where children might be with their communications and behaviours in several years time, helped me to understand the developmental significance of their current social behaviours. It provided an understanding about what was happening with children. By looking at the different realities of these
participants, different perspectives on similar issues could be seen, providing generational perspectives. This allowed children's social development to be considered in future terms; beyond the here and now. Young people's / young adults’ perspectives, both views and later literature, provided a valuable
resource (Maxwell, 2012) in this process.
Children’s theme development is highlighted through the following diagrams. As discussed, the themes were revised several times, but with the overall purpose of creating a more meaningful explanation of data than initially proposed. Once I felt more confident that the particular themes associated with emerging
freedom (see chapters 5, 6 and 7) were able to explain data more appropriately
than earlier suggestions, all the transcripts were re-read and re-coded where necessary, as Braun and Clarke (2006, 2013) recommend. This was to ensure that codes and themes were an accurate representation of participants' data.
4.2.2.1 Children’s themes
As Braun and Clarke (2006, 2013) recommend mind maps can be a useful tool within theme development. Mind maps were developed during the analysis. Figure 4.1 shows a mind map that was developed for children's data during the initial stages of theme development.
Figures 4.2 and 4.3 show later revised versions, including connections between children's themes, parents' themes, and young people's themes; different colours illustrating these connections.
Influences