Changes to parenting

The literature review now takes a different focus. This section looks at parents’ views on children’s use of mobile / internet devices. It relates to the second part of the research, which will look at parents’ role with children’s mobile / internet devices. Literature on parenting and parent mediation strategies are reviewed.

Hoghughi and Long (2004) state that parenting is a purposeful activity aimed at ensuring the safe development of a child. Parenting can be a complex process as it constantly needs to change according to the changing needs of the child (Bornstein, 2012). The role of parenting, encompassing care and support, also needs to be adaptable, helping to prepare the child for what lies ahead. James and Prout (1997, 2015) view parenting as a social construct which in itself has changed over time. Indeed, the role of parenting has changed to be more supportive than it was generations ago. As highlighted earlier, the family has become less traditional, allowing individuals, including children, to have a voice. As Williams and Williams (2005) point out children can now be involved in

discussions and decisions about matters that relate to them. This impacts upon how parents relate to them, involving children in parenting decisions.

2.4.1 Changes to parenting

Parenting has evolved over the generations. During Victorian times for example, children were expected to be seen and not heard. They were expected to do very much as their parents and others instructed. Children were soon punished harshly if they failed. Reading tales from the renowned author Charles Dickens (1838, 2000) these harsh realities are plainly depicted. Contemporary notions of parenting embrace much kinder values. Warmth and supportiveness are

considered essential qualities of good parenting within psychology (authoritative parenting, see Baumrind, 1966, 1973; Darling & Steinberg, 1993). These qualities have been reiterated more recently (see Children's Society, 2012a, 2012b).

Listening to children is also perceived as essential quality of good parenting (Children's Society, 2013; NSPCC,2014).

The legal system now determines that children have rights, with parents responsible for attending to children’s needs (Children Act, 1989, 2004).

Negotiation within parent-child relations is essential, instead of parents imposing their wishes upon children as in the past. There is greater closeness between parents and their children. All perceived as part of the process of de-

traditionalization of the family (Williams & Williams, 2005).

Since the 1980s and 1990s particularly, there has been a growing trend towards more positive values within parenting, which is referred to as positive parenting (Sutton, 1996; Home Office, 1998). This approach has been taken up by child psychologist Tanya Byron (2005) and child development expert Jo Frost (2006), promoting these values within their television programs on parenting. Further, as discussed (section 2.3.4.2.2); Byron (2008) has specifically looked at parenting in relation to children's / young people's internet use.

Psychologists encourage positive parenting practices; helpingparents to be more positive with their children, which have some of their origins in Skinnerian (1976) principles of rewards and reinforcements. Advice is given through

behavioural programs. Being part of such initiatives myself, through the Sure Start program, has been insightful (Moyse, 1999; Lorenz, Moyse & Surguy, 2005). The Sure Start program was influenced by Project Head Start in America, for which Bronfenbrenner was one of the key founders. Smith, Cowie and Blades (2003) maintain that Bronfenbrenner wanted to help advance children’s development, particularly for those living in poorer communities, through support from society, influenced by his theory on social development (see Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Sure Start within the UK was introduced based upon similar principles.

Warmth, discipline and responsiveness as discussed, are essential positive values of good parenting. Some of these values originate in Baumrind's (1966, 1973,

1991) research on parenting styles and have resurfaced in more recent literature on parenting. For example Lexmond and Reeves (2009) in their report for Demos (Government UK Think Tank), are supportive of Baumrind's approach. They believe it offers consistency, with parents delivering rules through warmth and responsiveness. Middle childhood features significantly within their report. It has been refreshing to see middle childhood at the centre of such discussions.

The Children's Society report A good childhood (Layard & Dunn, 2009), also discuss the importance of parenting which is both loving but disciplined in nature. This report particularly points out the importance of a mother figure during childhood. Originally, the importance of a mother figure was emphasized by Bowlby (1953). Bowlby's (1953) work had a strong influence on parenting during the 1950s / 1960s. However, it was criticized because it left many mothers feeling that they could not leave their children, particularly to return to work (Rutter, 1981). Now, in many families, both parents working has become an accepted norm (Pattison & Moyse, 1995). To facilitate this process schools play a supportive role offering both after school clubs and holiday clubs, available to care for children. Some schools have become Extended Schools to facilitate this extension in children's day (Lindsay, Band, Cullen & Cullen, 2008). This offers children different social opportunities.

The evidence from A Good Childhood (Layard & Dunn, 2009) has been further extended in reports from the Children's Society - The Good Childhood (2012a) and How Happy are our Children (2012b), and more recently The Good

Childhood (2014). These reports look at the different factors in children's lives

which make them happy. Similar to the two previous reports discussed (Lexmond & Reeves, 2009; Layard & Dunn, 2009), they consider warmth, discipline and responsiveness as essential in the relationship between parents and their children. The trend up to now within psychology has been to

encourage parents to be loving and supportive with their children, allowing children to have a voice. This sits well beside sociological perspectives discussing and advocating negotiation within families (Williams & Williams, 2005).

However, more recently a different style of parenting has started to emerge. One which is quite different from the warmth and responsiveness associated with positive parenting. It has not emerged from within psychology, as positive

parenting did, but from observations of current styles of parenting adopted by parents themselves. It is referred to as helicopter parenting (Nelson, 2010). This style of parenting is disciplined; strong discipline and control dominate. Fuller (2010) describes helicopter parenting as a process of parents hovering over their children doing too much for them (fighting their battles) and not allowing them to tackle challenges for themselves. Nelson (2010), a sociologist, first used the term helicopter parenting to describe the hyper-involved parent. Clark (2014) provides examples of mothers requiring constant contact with their children. This type of parenting is seen as out of control by Nelson (2010).

Helicopter parenting seems quite similar to the authoritarian style of parenting, originally described by Baumrind (1966, 1973), as a contrast to her authoritative parenting. Authoritarian parenting is very disciplined and controlling, and does not provide children with opportunities to think for themselves. It might have consequences for children’s social development, as they might not be confident to act independently.

These are some of the different styles of parenting that exist which are

influencing parenting today. Parenting styles are important because they may impact upon children's development, as later discussions reveal. Understanding these different parenting styles may help within the research when considering how parents manage their children’s use of mobile / internet devices.

An important part of parenting is to be able to access information which

provides parents themselves with support; helping parents to undertake their role effectively. Parents are able to access information from professionals as

discussed, but others sources such as books, radio programs, television and more recently of course the internet. Television programs are a particularly popular way. Such programs as the House of Tiny Tearaways with Tanya Byron (2005),

Supernanny with Jo Frost (2006), have been popular in recent years. With the

availability of internet, parents can now access these programs at a time that suits them. Parents can also use websites for advice such as Mumsnet (2014), which is growing in popularity, where parents can discuss their concerns, opinions on parenting, as well as other matters, through internet discussion. Television and the internet have certainly helped to support parents. The television programs mentioned have been followed with interest by many parents, as discussed on Mumsnet itself (www.mumsnet.com 2009). All these sources recognize the need for parents to have support within their role, which will be considered within the research in relation to parenting children’s devices.

In summary parenting now generally comprises of less harshness, with greater warmth and negotiation emphasized. However, the development in some situations of a more controlling style of parenting, with the advent of what has been termed helicopter parenting, may not be beneficial for children's

development. Different approaches or styles of parenting may impact upon the way parents manage their children's use of mobile / internet devices, which will be explored within the research, particularly as the parenting of middle years children involves considerable input, more so than the parenting of teenagers. The following section will examine parent mediation to find out how parents manage children’s use of their devices, which may show evidence of parenting styles. Parenting styles and parent mediation will be further explored within the research.

2.4.2 Mediation of young people’s and children's use of